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Mobile-CCT
Requirements for a Mobile Information System to support an Educational CCT Program
in Northern Nigeria
Eric Gerelle
1 January 2009
Page ii
Table of ContentsTable of Contents....................................................................................................................................... ii
Revision History........................................................................................................................................... ii
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Intended Audience.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Project Scope.................................................................................................................................. 1
1.4 CCT Pilot Project............................................................................................................................ 1
1.5 Project Timetable............................................................................................................................ 2
1.6 References...................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Mobile-CCT Requirements.................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Targeting & Enrolment.................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Mobile Payment.............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Monitoring & Evaluation.................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Operating Environment and Constraints.........................................................................................7
2.5 Assumptions and Dependencies.....................................................................................................8
2.6 Pilot Locations................................................................................................................................. 9
3. Mobile-CCT Use Cases.....................................................................................................................10
3.1 Household Targeting..................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Applicant Enrolment......................................................................................................................11
3.3 Cash Payments............................................................................................................................. 12
3.4 Compliance Reporting..................................................................................................................13
3.5 Case Management........................................................................................................................13
3.6 Monitoring & Evaluation................................................................................................................14
4. Mobile-CCT Model............................................................................................................................. 15
4.1 Selection Model............................................................................................................................ 15
4.2 Impact Model................................................................................................................................ 17
Revision History
Name Date Reason For Changes Version
Mobile-CCT Requirements 7 December 2008 First Draft 1
Mobile-CCT Requirements 1 January 2009 Kano Meeting Inputs 2
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
This document describes the requirements for Mobile-CCT, a mobile phone platform to support conditional
cash transfer programmes in Kano State and eventually across Nigeria. Mobile-CCT is a component that
integrates with the CCT management Information System as well as the Education information systems of
the State of Kano and the Federal Government of Nigeria.
1.2 Intended Audience
The document is intended for officials of the Education Ministries of Kano Sate, World Bank, DFID, UNICEF
and potential suppliers and users of mobile solutions to support the Kano State CCT Program including
developers, project managers and operating staff.
1.3 Project Scope
Kano State and the World Bank have agreed to conduct a scoping mission in mid December 2008, to design
a pilot Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) ‘demand side intervention’, indicatively it is proposed to target girls’
enrolment in school. This requirements document is in support of this initiative and is intended to provide a
report on the possible uses of mobile phone to support the Kano State CCT project (Mobile-CCT) and
initiatives such as ESSPIN and the suite of SLP programmes supporting Kano State.
1.4 CCT Pilot Project
The CCT program in Northern Nigeria will be implemented for a 3 years, with impact/results to be tracked in
each of the 3 years. The programme would need to track the students until the all of the cohort complete
JS3. A cash performance bonus will be awarded for completing the pilot. This award will be deposited into a
savings account in the name of the girl to be presented at the end of 3 years of participation in the pilot.
Subject to confirmation of budgets from target funding sources, the pilot is proposed to cover a maximum of
10,000 households in Kano State and 10,000 households in Bauchi State.
The conclusions of this requirements analysis are that the use of mobile technology to support CCT is a
realistic opportunity in Nigeria. The recommendation for the pilot is to start by deploying monitoring and
evaluation applications which are easy to build and have a direct educational impact in the schools. This
should be followed by the deployment of mobile payment applications in cooperation with Nigerian banks.
The final development should be to build household survey tools as part of impact analysis.
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
1.5 Project Timetable
The timetable for the first year of the pilot project is as follows: the pilot programme is as follows:
January-March 2009. Detailed design including preparation of the main design proposal, impact evaluation
design, design of the operations manual, development of the MIS including requirements, institutional
arrangements, and training design.
April-June 2009. Implementation including communications, MIS testing, and confirmation of institutional
arrangements. Targeting and identification of beneficiaries, baseline field work, enrollment of beneficiaries.
These will be preceded by the communications phase.
July-August 2009. Continuing communications, community preparation, and training of CCT stakeholders.
Recalibration of the MIS, adjustments of operations manuals, preparation of final guidelines.
September-December 2009. First cash grants to be awarded at the beginning of the school year in
September 2009. Roll-out will be preceded by communications strategy to ensure buy-in of the main
stakeholders.
December 2009. First impact evaluation report and process evaluation reports
1.6 References
The following papers provide useful background to understanding this report as well as previous CCT
programs and their implementation:
World Bank World Bank report on Selected World Development Indicators
Jones (1997) On the Evolution of the World Income Distribution
Cambodia CCT Girls Education Manual (2005)
Filmer-Schady (2006). Cambodia Getting Girls into School.
Filmer-Schady (2008). Cambodia CCT Sibling Effects
Fiszbein (2007). Helping reduce poverty in the short- and long-term: The experience of Conditional
Cash Transfers
Fiszbein and Schady (2008) PPT--- CCT Policy Review. HD Forum
Unicef Information sheet on Girl’s education in Nigeria
Garcia (2007, 2008) Going to Scale, International Experience in Designing and Implementing
Conditional Cash Grants
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2. Mobile-CCT RequirementsThis section describes the context and origin of the idea to use mobile phones to support conditional cash
transfers in education. Mobile-CCT is a component of a larger CCT MIS to support education in Kano State.
The bottom line question for Mobile-CCT is how can it support the MIS by facilitating the collection and
dissemination of data when and where conventional information technology are not be readily available. The
CCT business processes to be supported by Mobile-CCT are represented in the following diagram.
The Mobile-CCT system divides naturally into three different applications. The requirements for these
applications are summarized below.
Targeting & Enrolment Promoting the CCT Program
Identifying target communities
Collecting household data to see if the eligibility criteria are met
Collecting related socio-economic data
Entering child enrolment data
Mobile Payments Checking if conditions for transfer have been satisfied
Distributing cash payments in various locations and possibly on demand
Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring child attendance, child performance,
Monitoring teacher and school performance
Case Management and Compliance
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.1 Targeting & Enrolment
The Mobile-CCT should support CCT targeting and enrolment processes. Mobile devices can be used in the
planning phase and for community and household surveys. The following data is required to be collected and
stored in the MIS during the planning phase of the project
Poverty Map to select Local Government Areas (LGAs)
School-level data on enrolment and drop-out rates
School mapping to determine school locations.
Household education expenditure data from USAID (to determine the size of the transfer
Mobile-CCT needs to be able to make this planning information available may be updated from the field
using mobile devices. The following data will be collected for each school in the pilot program.
Name of school
Address of school---what location and LGA
EMIS code of the school
Distance of school from the LGA center in kilometers
GPS location of the school--longitude, latitude
Name of school principal-headmaster and mobile phone number,
Enrollment by grade, by gender (primary 1 to 6 for primary schools, JS 1 to JS3 for JS schools, SS1
to SS3 for SS schools),
Number of teachers
Number of non-teaching staff
Number of classrooms
Name of SBMC chairman and cell phone
Mobile phone network coverage (yes/no, what mobile phone carrier, number of teachers who own
mobile phones).
The following information will have to be collected by the Mobile-CCT system to support targeting and enrolment:
The hard condition for receiving benefits is attendance at School
80% school attendance
Information on soft conditions will need to be collected as well:
Pass mark (50%) as reflected in report cards and end of year exams
Girl with birth certificate within 6 months of enrolment
Younger siblings with under 5-cards showing utilization of services (immunization, growth monitoring,
promotion)
Mother attending ante and post natal classes
Mother and father/guardian attending awareness creation sessions including community dialogues
4
Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.2 Mobile Payment
Mobile phones should enable cash disbursement to targeted individuals, groups or communities within the
project. Pay-outs could also be implemented using ATMs via a cash card provided by a bank if required. A
mobile solution would complement the ATM channel by allowing authorized Payment Service Provider (PSP)
to distribute the cash as well as a bank. This would extend the range of the CCT program to locations where
ATMs are not available or when they are out of order.
The following is an overview of the requirements for mobile payment based on messaging:
Electronic vouchers (VINs) to be sent to a mobile phone once pre-set criteria have been met
The payments to be authorized by a committee (field rep) in each LGA using a mobile phone
When the VIN is presented the PSP transfers the cash after using tailored ID verification procedures
This scheme is network operator and handset agnostic and requires no special kit or software
deployment required
It is highly scalable and can be rolled out to further programs and countries quickly and easily
The solution can be extended to support inbound remittances
Two levels two levels of cash benefit will be implemented. The first level is equivalent to $100 per year per
child and the second equivalent to $50 per child per year. The testing of two levels will help inform policy
decisions in the process of scaling up the CCT programme. This level of benefit is roughly 16% of Nigeria’s
GDP/capita in 2007, and about 30 to 40% of the per capita expenditures (income) in Kano and Bauchi. This
corresponds to about $1 per day for 200 school days in a school year, or roughly 115 Naira per school day.
5
Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.3 Monitoring & Evaluation
The monitoring and evaluation part of Mobile-CCT needs to provide continuous information that will help
decision makers answer the following questions:
1) Does the CCT program improve attendance rates among girls?
2) Does the CCT program improve retention/completion rates among girls in primary and junior
secondary school?
3) Does the CCT program improve transition rates of girls from primary to junior secondary school?
4) Does the impact of the CCT program differ by quality of current education supply? (In both states a
number of local government areas (LGAs) currently receive school inputs from donor agencies (WB,
DFID, UNICEF).
5) What targeting strategy is most cost-effective in increasing girls’ enrolment/ retention? (Community
vs. individual targeting)
6) What minimum cash benefit amount can induce/ stimulate enrolment and retention ($1 per school
day or $0.50 per school day)?
In addition the monitoring and evaluation part of the Mobile-CCT needs to be able to collect information on
the effect of the CCT on individuals, families and society.
Individual/family change Progressive increase in knowledge and understanding
Changes in perceived risk, emotion, beliefs, subjective norms
Changes in attitudes and intentions
Improved practices
Improved self image, social influence
Social change Change in social norms
Increasing engagement, empowerment
Information sharing equity
Equity in participation
Sense of self-determination and ownership
Increase in social cohesion
UNICEF has demonstrated that children can participate successfully in monitoring processes. There is an
opportunity to use mobile technology as an aid to education Why not teach the children to collect attendance
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
data in schools and record the results on mobile phones? This would provide a great teaching aid as well as
a way of ensuring process data quality.
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.4 Operating Environment and Constraints
One of the major opportunities for mobile technology is collecting data from the field and giving feedback to
the field. The operating environment is one in which access to conventional information technology is limited.
The CCT program can benefit fro mobile technology if the following are satisfied:
Processes to pass information generated by the MIS back to teachers, parents and children thus
improving the local governance and chances of success
Simple quantitative models to represent attendance and performance and the impact of the CCT on
these
Intuitive mobile interfaces to deliver information back to the field
Mobile Banking consists of performing balance checks, account transactions, payments and others
transaction services via mobile devices. Mobile-CCT in Nigeria needs to take into consideration the state of
mobile banking in the country. There is an opportunity to partner with a bank or phone operator to jointly
develop and test mobile payment services in remote communities.
Interswitch offers mobile payments through 8 regular banks and 5 microfinance banks (MFB)
Mobile services are available from Zenith Bank, UBA, GTBank, Diamond and Intercontinental Banks
Low MFB penetration in north but major banks are required to have branches in all LGAs
Mobile phone operator about to launch mobile accounts with scratch card deposits
The key challenges in developing mobile banking applications include coverage, interoperability and
application distribution
The following design and implementation constraints need to be considered and will limit the options
available to the developers of Mobile-CCT.
Nigeria is a cash economy
Very large unbanked communities with no access to basic payment services
Mobile phones a major success in Nigeria 80% country coverage
95% of airtime in Nigeria is pre-paid
Relatively high density of mobile phones but older models
Most handsets would be able to support cash transfer
Selection, targeting, monitoring and evaluation would require Java-enabled handsets
Banks are located in all Local Government Authorities and are used by the schools
Mobile-CCT needs to be integrated with the banking system
Card solutions require access to bank ATMs and associated distribution mechanisms
Postal service is unreliable and power generation and distribution frustrates every aspect of daily life
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.5 Assumptions and Dependencies
The first assumption for Mobile-CCT is that there is adequate coverage in the areas where the programme
will be operating. The following carriers, systems that or will be are operating in Nigeria1
Celtel Nigeria Ltd (Celtel Nigeria Ltd (Zain)) GSM 900/1800 Live3G 2100 Planned
Emerging Markets Telecommunication Services Ltd (EMTS) GSM 900/1800 Planned
Globacom Ltd. (Glo Mobile) GSM 900/1800 Live
MTN Nigeria Communications Limited GSM 900/1800 Live
Nigerian Mobile Telecommunications Limited (M-TEL) (Mtel) GSM 900/1800 Live
The following map for MTN gives an idea of the level of the cell phone coverage across Nigeria and around
Kano:
1 http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/cou_ng.shtml
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
2.6 Pilot Locations
Selection of pilot sites will be based on the readiness of LGAs. There are 46 LGAs in of Kano State.
9 LGAs have been identified so far in SESP for Kano State. In addition 8 plus 10 other LGAs have been
identified by ESSPIN and a number of GEP LGAs in Bauchi State. The locations of the nine LGAs in Kano
are shown in the following map:
The populations, longitudes and latitudes of these LGAs are summarized in thee following table:
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
3. Mobile-CCT Use CasesThe use cases describe the processes that will involve the use of Mobile-CCT.
3.1 Household Targeting
Summary Description: Geographic and household targeting.
Application of eligibility criteria: yes/no and ranking.
Field verification: community validation
End product: list of eligible and prioritized applicants.
Targeting through communities and schools using poverty mapping
All girls in grades 4 to 6 within the target schools will be eligible for CCT. Individual girls will be targeted in poor communities with high-drop-out rate---using proxy means tests (PMT), supported by community validation to correct for inclusion or exclusion errors.
Include other vulnerability criteria such as girls in female-headed households, orphans and vulnerable children, and preference for those with disability.
Priority of Mobiles: Medium
Use Frequency: Annual community and household survey
Direct Actors: Community Committees
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
Main Scenario:
3.2 Applicant Enrolment
Summary Description: The enrolling of applicants into the CCT program involves the following steps:
Invitation to eligible/selected applicants.
Verification of documents.
Training / information about rules of the program.
Signing of the agreement.
End product: List of beneficiaries.
Priority of Mobiles: High
Use Frequency: Annual enrolment
Direct Actors: School officials
Heads of household
Applicants
Main Scenario:
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
13
Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
3.3 Cash Payments
Summary Description: Making cash payments to households
Calculation of the payment with given deductions in case of no compliance.
Transfer of money to PSP and list of beneficiaries with amounts to be paid.
Payments made
Report on payments
End product: List of beneficiaries paid and not paid.
The following legislation will need to be checked to see if there are any restrictions on the use of mobile technology for effecting mobile payments
Wireless Telegraphy Act 1990
Electronic Media Deregulation Act 1992
National IT Policy, Nigeria 2001
Nigeria Communications Act 2003
Computer Security & Protection Bill
Priority of Mobiles: High
Use Frequency: Three times per school year—one payment for each of three school terms.
During piloting, other payment frequencies will be tested—for example monthly.
To be decided during the detailed design phase.
Direct Actors: Payment Service Providers (PSP)
Schools
Community Organizations
Banks, Insurance Companies, Telecoms Companies
Big local vendor/trader
Custodians of SBMC bank accounts
Main Scenario: To be specified during detailed design
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
3.4 Compliance Reporting
Summary Description: Reporting on compliance with eligibility conditions
Compliance: attendance, checkups, training according to schedule.
Collection of information to verify conditions.
Transportation of information.
Data entry in the MIS.
End product: Reports on compliance - list of beneficiaries who did/did not comply with conditions.
Priority of Mobiles: High
Use Frequency: Ongoing
Direct Actors: Beneficiary organized groups
Main Scenario: To be specified during detailed design
3.5 Case Management
Summary Description: Managing exceptions and changes
Appeals: (eligibility, compliance, payment): Reception, resolution of the case, data entry in the MIS to update information.
Household Changes (new born child, death of a beneficiary, death of mother/family representative): Reception, verification of documents that justify the change, data entry in the MIS to update information
Risk Cases: (non compliance): Identification of the case via MIS, visit to the household, identification of actions to be taken, information entered in the MIS
End product:
List of resolved cases (appeals).
Risk cases attended
Priority of Mobiles: Medium
Use Frequency: Ongoing
Direct Actors: Community Committees
Beneficiary organized groups for appeals and HH changes
Main Scenario: To be specified during detailed design
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
3.6 Monitoring & Evaluation
Summary Description: Monitoring project indicators and evaluation of service delivery
Monitoring whether the project cycle implemented as planned
Monitoring indicators including time performance for activities, execution of activities as planned
Stakeholders’ consultations using interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, participation, understanding of the procedures
Process evaluation of service delivery
Output indicators including number of transfers, beneficiaries
Stakeholders’ consultations using interviews, questionnaires, focus group, quality of service delivery, demand and supply
Cost effectiveness and execution efficiency of the program
Indicators including administrative cost/transfer, number of households/unit administrative cost
Impact evaluation of the project actions/benefits affecting the HH welfare
Outcome indicators (nutrition levels, dropout levels, school performance, HH consumption levels, etc)
End product: Retrofitting reports
Priority of Mobiles: Medium
Use Frequency: Ongoing
Direct Actors: Executing unit and/or external operational auditors
Focus groups
Executing unit with the help of external consultants
External firm for evaluation
Community Committees and Beneficiary Organized Groups for program performance and provision of services
Main Scenario: To be specified during detailed design
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
4. Mobile-CCT ModelThe Mobile-CCT model is a formal representation of the variables used by the Mobile-CCT system. The
reason for including the model here is that mobile devices will need to collect information to drive the model
and distribute information generated by the model. The variables have been identified through examples
previous programs that have been operating in several countries, some for almost 10 years. The Mobile-CCT
model has two components: a Selection Model which supports the Targeting and Enrolment processes and
an Impact Model to support the Monitoring and Evaluation processes.
4.1 Selection Model
The Selection Model drives the Targeting and Enrolment processes. The objective of the Selection Model is
to identify communities to implement the program as well as define the criteria for selecting individual
candidates. One of the components of the selection is a proxy means test that can be used to infer average
consumption levels of households. This is done using a regression analysis to relate the log annual per
capita income to a set of variables describing household demographic and asset characteristics. This proxy
means testing method has been described by Garcia in ‘Going to Scale, International Experience in
Designing and Implementing Conditional Cash Grants’2
In the particular case of Northern Nigeria, the focus of the program is to encourage greater school
attendance by girls in grades 4-63. The graph represents data on age-specific enrolment rates for females
and males aged 5-25 in Kano State drawn from Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education Statistics4
2 http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/projects/20050627_3.pdf3 CCT Aide Memoire ,Joint World Bank-DFID-ESSPIN-Unicef Partners Mission, December 20084 CCT Kano Orientation, December 2008
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
The data seems to follow the profile of a Gamma distribution5, which has a scale parameter θ and a shape
parameter k. If k is an integer then the distribution represents the sum of k independent exponentially
distributed random variables, each of which has a mean of θ. Based on this one can interpret the shape
parameter s for the female and male enrolments as reasons for dropping out of school. From the fit of the
Gamma distribution (male k=4, female k=6) to the data one can conclude that there are four main reasons for
boys to drop out of school and two additional reasons for girls to drop out of school. The project needs to
identify these reasons for dropout and include them in both the selection process and the monitoring and
evaluation process.
The following are some of reasons cited by UNICEF for girls in Northern Nigeria not attending or dropping
out of school6,7
Engagement
o Lack of awareness of importance of girl child education
o Lack of community involvement
o Lack of role models for girls
Education
o Insufficient women teachers
o Lack of adequately trained teaching staff
o Curriculum not reflecting gender sensitivity
Environment
o Lack of girl-friendly school environment that enhances the participation of girls
o clean environment, water pumps, separate latrines for boys and girls
Economic
o Inability to pay for school uniform
o Parents requesting child to drop out and work so that they can support them
o Cost of instruction materials, books and school bags
From this list it can be seen that supply side issues are as important as the purely economic ones on the
demand side that the CCT programs address. It would be worth investigating the coupling of CCT programs
to progress being made on the community engagement, curriculum and staff and girl friendly schools.
Mobile phones could be used to support the identification of communities that are addressing supply side
considerations, through community evaluations to complement the household surveys used for selecting
candidates for the CCT program
5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_distribution6 http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/nigeria_39351.html7 http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/WCARO_Nigeria_Factsheets_GirlsEducation.pdf
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
4.2 Impact Model
The objective of the Impact Model is to use harvested data to estimate the impact of a CCT program in a
country. The Impact Model on based on five key indicators:
1) X = Loge(I), where I is a measure of the per capita income of the target community
2) S = Enrolment Rate
3) T = Ratio of the cash transfer to the measure of the per capita income I
4) D = Impact of the cash transfer on the enrolment rate
5) U = S+T, a utility function for the CCT
.
The above graph is based on data taken from the presentation by Fiszbein8: Helping reduce poverty in the
short- and long-term: The experience of Conditional Cash Transfers. It shows the relation between S and D
for a number of CCT programs. Some countries some appear more than once in the cases that the impact of
CCT was recorded for different grades.
The enrolment rate S and the transfer ratios T can be represented using differential equations in X. These
equations are used to represent how changes in per capita income generate changes in the enrolment rate
and S and the transfer ratio T. Inspection of the published CCT impact data allowed some simple equations
to be used in these representations.
8 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDIA/Resources/Fiszbein.ppt
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
The enrolment function S can be generated by the equation dS/dX = kS(1-S). The solutions to this equation
are of the form S(X) = 1/(1+Exp(-k(X-X50%))), where k is the logistic growth rate and X50% is the value of
Loge(I50%) corresponding to S=50%.
The S curves can be used to parameterize the enrolment rates for the different CCT implementations. The S
curves in the following graph are labeled according to the value of the income I50% for each curve’s midpoint.
The value of logistic growth rate k=4 was calculated using the before and after data and taking an average
value for all the CCT implementations. The graphs seem to indicate that the different countries evolve along
different S curves.
Research by Jones9 on the evolution of the world income indicates that over period of a few of decades the
variable X increases linearly with time. Thus we can use X as a proxy for time in the same model to predict
the future level of school attendance.
It should also be noted that similar models can be generated to monitor and represent other indicators such
as usage of health services (in particular immunization and nutrition).
9 http://ideas.repec.org/p/wop/stanec/97009.html
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
The model for the transfer ratio T is even simpler. The generating equation is dT/dX= -mT, where m is a
constant. The solution to this equation is of the form T(X) =aExp(-mX), where a is the maximum value of T.
This equation also says that the transfer ratio T decreases with the income to the power –m. In the fit below
m=0.53.
An overall utility of the CCT program can be guaged by combining the short term economic value of the cash
transfer together with the long term value of school attendance. A convenient way to represent this is through
the sum U =S+T. The form of the utility function U is shown in the following graph. Notice that the graph is
dominated by the value of the transfer for the lower incomes and by the school, attendance for the higher
incomes. This could lead to a shift in demand shift from short term benefits to long term benefits as income
increases.
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Mobile-CCT for Northern Nigeria
The Impact Model’s differential form can be rewritten in terms of the transfer ratio T and D the impact on the
enrolment. The result is the following equation, which can be expressed purely in terms of the per capita
income:
D = kTS(1-S)
The growth rate k need not be a constant and its value can be used as to measure and compare the
efficiency of each CCT program. The formula is simple enough that it can be programmed into a mobile
device and its parameters can be updated easily. The application of the model is represented in the graph
below.
Important NoteThe above graphs are based on data coming from a wide variety of possibly incompatible sources; therefore
improvements can be expected if the model were to be based more consistent or on locally harvested data
rather than the country level estimates used here.
In particular the income data used to represent income were based on the 2001 World Bank report on
Selected World Development Indicators10. This had lead to differences between the values of T used in this
report and some of the values of reported by Fiszbein. A rigorous comparison between the reported impacts
of CCT programs needs to be conducted to ensure that all numbers in the model are comparable.
10 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPOVERTY/Resources/WDR/English-Full-Text-Report/ch12a.pdf
22