Sofia International Model United Nations

Conference-7th edition

26th of July - 2nd of August 2014

Study Guide

Topic A: The Legalization of Drugs in Latin America

Topic B: The economical exploitation of the North Pole

Welcoming Words

Dear Delegates,

It is our distinct pleasure to welcome you to the United Nations Economic and Social

Council of the 7th Sofia International Model United Nations. We are looking forward

to having every single one of you participating in our committee in a truly global

atmosphere. We know that every person applying for a delegates position at the

ECOSOC is filled with enthusiasm and motivation necessary for making a difference,

not only as a delegate but as a future leader. Our committee is a driving force of the

discussions on economic and social issues and is one of the main committees of the

United Nations. This year, the subjects that will be discussed during the MUN

conference in our Committee are The Legalization of Drugs in Latin America

and The economical exploitation of the North Pole.

We have prepared a comprehensive Study Guide that will serve as an introduction to

our Agenda Items. These topics are very well-timed and it is your job as delegates to

find creative solutions. But we would like to remind you that this Study Guide is not

definitive and exhaustive .We strongly recommend that you should go beyond this

Guide in order to understand the details and the background issues behind the

subjects. Your debates will be productive and the resolutions that you are going to

make during the conference will be strong, only if you are well-researched in all

relevant issues, some of which may have not been analyzed thoroughly in this Guide.

Last but not least, we hope that you enjoy your time in our Committee and for those

of you that will attend the conference from other countries, we would like to welcome

you in a few months time in Bulgaria and in the wonderful city of Sofia. See you

soon!!

Warm Regards,

Your Chairs,

Minoas Vitalis and Dani Marcheva.

Topic A

Introduction

The only difference between people and animals is that people do drugs.

Alfred Burger

The first topic to be discussed is the legalization of drugs in Latin America, which

includes different points that require analysis. First and foremost: What is a drug?

Which are the countries that are pivotal in the struggle of legalization of drugs in the

region? , Is the legalization of drugs the only solution? amongst other important

questions.

When we hear the word drugs, there are two distinctly dissimilar definitions that

come to our mind; the first one refers to certain pharmaceutical drugs, such as life-

saving medicine that can have beneficial effects on humans. The second aspects

relates to the bad side of drugs, as addictive substances that can harm peoples health,

possibly leading to death. For this reason, many governments worldwide have banned

many drugs which are harmful to a persons health; unfortunately despite the illegality

of these drugs, the number of deaths that have accrued so far has dramatically risen.

Illegal drug abuse kills about 200,000 people every year, without even mentioning the

hundreds of thousands of deaths that are associated with drug violence. Besides the

deaths attributed to drug use and trafficking, the socioeconomic effects of drug

trafficking are also a significant cause of concern.

Taking into account the proliferation of drug trade and the failure of tactics used in the

past, governments in Latin America have come under pressure by citizens who are

calling for reform in drug laws and ask policy makers to think and act differently

.While solutions are not easy to find, many believe in legalization, some in prohibition

and others believe in evidence based policies. Many countries like Argentina,

Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador, and Uruguay have decriminalized various forms

of consumption and possession of drugs. We have to take into account that the current

legalization rhetoric is a major deviation from the mainstream policy.

Now, lets briefly look at Uruguay which, on the 10th of December 2013, became the first

country in the world to legalize the sale, cultivation, and distribution of cannabis, and the final

stage in the legalization process was enacted by President Jos Mujica on 23 December

2013.Mr. Mujicas initiative was the one that started a movement in Argentina and Chile. Mr.

Mujica by putting his government in charge of the marijuana industry, which is estimated to

be worth $US30million- $US40 million ($33 million - $45 million) aimed to curtail illegal

trafficking and the violence that comes with it. But not everyone in Uruguay agreed with the

initiative he had taken, many opposition parties were against the idea and a poll released last

year said so are 63 per cent of Uruguayans. They fear that the legalization of cannabis would

turn Uruguay into a pot tourism hub and encourage the use of stronger drugs. Taking these

facts into account and those that will follow, we can see that strong support exists in both

sides of the debate that has started around the world.

Considering that our topic is The Legalization of Drugs in Latin America, we

will only examine the policies of the countries in the area but the contribution of

the delegates of countries not in the region is also expected during the debates in

order to clearly form and express the opinion of our Council. It is in our hands

either to embrace legalization as a suitable solution or choose a different course.

Historical Timeframe

1839 The First Opium War, fought between Great Britain and China, begins.

1909 The Opium Commission, the first international conference on drugs, meets in Shanghai.

1912 The first international treaty is passed on drug control in The Hague.

1925 The Geneva Opium Conventions are established and add cannabis to the discussion.

1931 The Geneva Narcotics Manufacturing and Distribution Limitation Convention limits the production of illicit drugs and addresses their trade.

1936 The Geneva Trafficking Convention calls for legal punishments for drug traffickers.

1946 The United Nations is formed and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs is

established.

1961 The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is founded.

1971 The Convention on Psychotropic Substances addresses new synthetic drugs.

1988 The Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic

Substances addresses the issue of nations without proper legal systems in

place to tackle drug trafficking.

1991 The United Nations International Drug Control Program (UNDCP) is established.

2002 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) forms in 2002,

replacing UNDCP.

2012 The President of Guatemala calls for debate on drug legalization, provoking new discussions about drug policy around the world.

If you want a more thorough analysis regarding the above mentioned terms, you can look

further down at the Bibliography and Useful Links section or make a quick search in the

internet.

Current situation

As the host of a drug legalization summit organized in the start of 2012, held in Antigua,

Guatemala, Guatemalan President Otto Prez Molina suggested that production, consumption,

and sales of narcotics had to be regulated and legalized. First of all, we should explain that

legalization transforms what was once an illegal black market into a legal industry. On the

other hand, decriminalization only legalizes particular aspects of an industry such as

consumption. In the following lines, I will try to explain why legalization appeals to Latin

American countries.

First, the countries that are plagued by violence believe that legalization can act as an

effective deterrent to drug-related crime. Major drug profits act as a lucrative incentive for

violence and enable drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) leading them to fight for drug

transit routes. According to many experts, the current trade of drugs is very similar to an

oligopoly- a form of a market dominated by only a few firms. Prices tend to be high because

the drug trade is forced to avoid governmental authorities .Logically; an increase in legal

narcotics would reduce current prices, as legitimate producers and traffickers would be able to

enter the market. For many people, drug legalization is an effective way to affect the current

market by diminishing the amount of money that can act as an incentive for DTOs to engage

in violent tactics, if that is their mission.

Second, a reduction of Drug trafficking organization profits would also diminish the amount

of smuggled goods as well as other resources available to corrupt police forces. Mexico, taken

as an example, has one of the highest rates of police corruption in all of Latin America. The

national governments in the region are unable to compete financially with the drug cartels

operating inside their borders. Although legalization as a solution would not address the

corrupt police officer culture, at least DTOs would be unable to sustain their current levels

of financial persuasion. Third, legalization would certainly address the issue of overcrowded

prisons across Latin America.

It is important for us to understand the motives behind the actions of Latin American

countries in order to reach a solution after coming into a common understanding.

Moreover, something that proves all the above and demonstrates that there is a strong

correlation between drug use and criminal activity, as an example, consider the chart

below, which displays the results of a survey of illicit drug users:

Shoplifting Breaking and Entering

No illicit use 29% 6%

Marijuana 35% 8%

Marijuana and other drugs 56% 18%

Drugs other than marijuana 62% 24%

(in Goode, 1999)

Conclusion

After Guatemalan President Otto Perez Molinas call for debate on drug legalization

in February, 2012, not all countries were supportive of the idea. For example, Panama

and Honduras outright rejected the idea, while El Salvador seemed uncomfortable

with it. On the contrary, some states showed full support, including Costa Rica, which

noted:

How much have we paid here in Central America in deaths, kidnappings,

extortion? Central America has to ask whether it is time that we raise this issue

at the Security Council of United Nations.

Possible solutions could include free market legalization, Legalization with product

restrictions, Market regulation, Prescription-only availability, Decriminalization, De

facto decriminalization, De-penalization and Criminalization.

Your Position Paper should be written in such a way that it places emphasis on your

countrys policies and the living conditions under which those policies function now.

At the end, there should be a paragraph in which you will be suggesting measures to

be taken, so as to eliminate the problem. To help you construct your position paper

and include all the most important information, I have divided the topic into questions

that will be discussed during the debates. Also I will be giving you a few useful links

to flick through and pick out information from. Pay attention to any statistics and

special actions you may find and keep in mind that it will be important for you to

support your arguments with facts.

Discussion Questions

1. How does national sovereignty play a role in making decisions about

international drug policies?

2. What kind of drug policy is in place in your country, and how effective has it

been in the past?

3. Does your nation support military means to combat drug trafficking?

4. How has your nation been affected by the production, trade, and usage of

illicit drugs?

5. Is Legalization the suitable solution?

6. And if yes, which drugs can be legalized? Hard or soft drugs?

Getting Help

A lot of additional information about the UN, the General Assembly and our subject

are available online at the websites listed further down at the Study Guide or by

performing a simple and quick Internet search. If you are stuck or you are in need of

any advice about an idea or source, feel free to ask me any questions. Feel free to

email me, your Chair, for any questions or concerns you may have or if you just want

to say hi and exchange a few words before the conference. Later on, a Facebook

group will be created by us for our Committee in order for you to communicate with

other delegates and with us more quickly and directly. Last but not least, remember

that when you are done with the position papers for the first topic, send them to the

following email to be corrected (minosvitalis56@gmail.com) (Mine). Your papers

will be returned to you as soon as possible, with comments and suggestions for

improvement. Good Luck with your preparation!!

Your Chair,

Minoas Vitalis.

Bibliography and Useful Links

1. http://www.un.org/

2. http://www.un.org/en/ga/

3. http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/

4. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/

5. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug-trafficking/index.html

6. http://www.coha.org/drug-legalization-in-latin-america-could-it-be-the-

answer/

7. http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-

analysis/WDR2012/WDR_2012_web_small.pdf

8. http://www.tucsonsentinel.com/nationworld/report/030312_guat_legalize_drugs/drug-

legalization-gains-support-central-america.

9. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/07/war-drugs-latin-american-

leaders

10. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/laura-carlsen/latin-america-war-on-

drugs_b_4068005.html

11. http://www.drugpolicy.org/

12. http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/2012/mar/25/central_american_presidents

_hold

13. http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/180/drgcrime.html

14. http://www.laht.com/article.asp?CategoryId=12394&ArticleId=341018

15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_drug_legalization

16. http://abovetheinfluence.com/

http://www.un.org/http://abovetheinfluence.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_drug_legalizationhttp://www.laht.com/article.asp?CategoryId=12394&ArticleId=341018http://www.umsl.edu/~keelr/180/drgcrime.htmlhttp://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/2012/mar/25/central_american_presidents_holdhttp://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/2012/mar/25/central_american_presidents_holdhttp://www.drugpolicy.org/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/laura-carlsen/latin-america-war-on-drugs_b_4068005.htmlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/laura-carlsen/latin-america-war-on-drugs_b_4068005.htmlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/07/war-drugs-latin-american-leadershttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/07/war-drugs-latin-american-leadershttp://www.tucsonsentinel.com/nationworld/report/030312_guat_legalize_drugs/drug-legalization-gains-support-central-americahttp://www.tucsonsentinel.com/nationworld/report/030312_guat_legalize_drugs/drug-legalization-gains-support-central-americahttp://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR2012/WDR_2012_web_small.pdfhttp://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/WDR2012/WDR_2012_web_small.pdfhttp://www.coha.org/drug-legalization-in-latin-america-could-it-be-the-answer/http://www.coha.org/drug-legalization-in-latin-america-could-it-be-the-answer/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug-trafficking/index.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/http://www.un.org/en/ga/

17. http://www.newrepublic.com/article/116076/uruguays-pot-legalization-bad-

americas-war-drugs

18. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-

idUSBRE9BA01520131211

19. http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/978

20. http://www.globalpost.com/series/legalize-it

21. http://world.time.com/2012/10/09/how-latin-america-may-lead-the-world-in-

decriminalizing-drug-use/

22. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/world/americas/uruguay-considers-

legalizing-marijuana-to-stop-traffickers.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

23. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-

idUSBRE9BA01520131211

24. http://www.news.com.au/world/uruguay-wants-to-legalise-marijuana-as-

experiment-says-president-jose-mujica/story-fndir2ev-1226693125631

25. http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21582579-another-blow-against-

prohibition-experiment

Topic B

http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21582579-another-blow-against-prohibition-experimenthttp://www.economist.com/news/americas/21582579-another-blow-against-prohibition-experimenthttp://www.news.com.au/world/uruguay-wants-to-legalise-marijuana-as-experiment-says-president-jose-mujica/story-fndir2ev-1226693125631http://www.news.com.au/world/uruguay-wants-to-legalise-marijuana-as-experiment-says-president-jose-mujica/story-fndir2ev-1226693125631http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-idUSBRE9BA01520131211http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-idUSBRE9BA01520131211http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/world/americas/uruguay-considers-legalizing-marijuana-to-stop-traffickers.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/world/americas/uruguay-considers-legalizing-marijuana-to-stop-traffickers.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0http://world.time.com/2012/10/09/how-latin-america-may-lead-the-world-in-decriminalizing-drug-use/http://world.time.com/2012/10/09/how-latin-america-may-lead-the-world-in-decriminalizing-drug-use/http://www.globalpost.com/series/legalize-ithttp://www.americasquarterly.org/node/978http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-idUSBRE9BA01520131211http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/us-uruguay-marijuana-vote-idUSBRE9BA01520131211http://www.newrepublic.com/article/116076/uruguays-pot-legalization-bad-americas-war-drugshttp://www.newrepublic.com/article/116076/uruguays-pot-legalization-bad-americas-war-drugs

TOPIC B: The economic exploitation of the North Pole

Introduction

The Arctic cools down the Earth by reflecting sunrays, and thus stabilizing the climate and

ensuring the right temperature for growing crops and human survival. 75% of the ice at the

North Pole has melted in the last thirty years, and scientists have predicted that the Artic will

be ice-free by 2030 if the same melting rate continues. The complete meltdown of the Artic

will lead to the extinction of all animal species, inhabiting the North Pole, and will pose a

serious danger for human life on Earth.

The Arctic is projected to hold the world's largest remaining unexploited gas and oil reserves.

If these resources are exploited, they will have global implications for the climate and the

Arctic environment.

Key Facts

1. The United States Geological Survey estimates that 90 billion barrels of technically

recoverable oil lies offshore in the Arctic

2. Oil industry activity in an area off Greenland coast is increasing rapidly as companies such

as Cairn Energy, Chevron and Exxon Mobil obtain drilling licenses

3. The drilling season is short, and is ended by the arrival of the Arctic winter and a

thickening of sea ice which makes drilling of primary or relief wells impossible.

4. The drilling season is short, and is ended by the arrival of the Arctic winter and a

thickening of sea ice which makes drilling of primary or relief wells impossible.

5. A blowout in a scenario where a relief well cannot be completed in the same drilling

season could lead to oil gushing unchecked for two years, with spilt oil becoming trapped

under sheets of thick ice.

6. The environmental consequences of a spill in the Arctic environment would be far more

serious than in warmer seas such as the Gulf of Mexico. Serious impacts of the Exxon

Valdez spill in Alaska are still being felt over 20 years later.

7. The U.S Minerals Management Service estimated a one in-five chance of a major spill

occurring over the lifetime of activity in just one block of leases in the Arctic Ocean near

Alaska

The Role of the Arctic

The Arctic is called "the world's refrigerator," because sea ice regulates the global climate. It

reflects sunlight, while the ocean absorbs light. As sea ice melts, more of the Arctic Ocean is

exposed, meaning more sunlight is absorbed. This brings about more warming, which in turn

causes more sea ice to melt and continues the process. This is an example of a feedback

loop, a situation where warming causes yet more warming to occur.

As a consequence of the melting ice, new areas are being made accessible for

industrial exploitation. The global oil and fishing industry has already moved in,

shipping routes and tourist cruises change their traditional patterns, and mining

companies see opportunities both on land and off shore.

Territorial Claims

No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it.

The surrounding Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean Canada, Denmark (via

Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States are limited to a 200 nautical

miles (370 km; 230 mi) economic zone around their coasts.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten

years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due

to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pole

(ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that

certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.

In 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes for the first time in history descended to the Arctic

seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag. The mission was a scientific

expedition, but the flag-placing during Arktika 2007, raised concerns of a race for control of

the Arctic's vast petroleum resources.

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and

the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on May 28, 2008 at the Arctic Ocean

Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any "new comprehensive

international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of

any possible overlapping claims."

As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North

Pole. The Russian Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov

Ridge but confined to its sector of the Arctic.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

(Full text-

http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm)

In 1967, Malta's Ambassador to the United Nations, Arvid Pardo, asked the nations of the

world to look around them and open their eyes to a looming conflict that could devastate the

oceans, the lifeline of man's very survival. In a speech to the United Nations General

Assembly, he spoke of the super-Power rivalry that was spreading to the oceans, of the

pollution that was poisoning the seas, of the conflicting legal claims and their implications for

a stable order and of the rich potential that lay on the seabed.

Pardo ended with a call for "an effective international regime over the seabed and the ocean

floor beyond a clearly defined national jurisdiction". "It is the only alternative by which we can

hope to avoid the escalating tension that will be inevitable if the present situation is allowed

to continue", he said.

http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/pardo_ga1967.pdfhttp://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/pardo_ga1967.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilulissat_Declarationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean_Conferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilulissathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arktika_2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe

Pardo's urging came at a time when many recognized the need for updating the freedom-of-

the-seas doctrine to take into account the technological changes that had altered man's

relationship to the oceans. It set in motion a process that spanned 15 years and saw the

creation of the United Nations Seabed Committee, the signing of a treaty banning nuclear

weapons on the seabed, the adoption of the declaration by the General Assembly that all

resources of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction are the common heritage of

mankind and the convening of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment. What

started as an exercise to regulate the seabed turned into a global diplomatic effort to regulate

and write rules for all ocean areas, all uses of the seas and all of its resources. These were

some of the factors that led to the convening of the Third United Nations Conference on the

Law of the Sea, to write a comprehensive treaty for the oceans.

The Conference was convened in New York in 1973. It ended nine years later with the

adoption in 1982 of a constitution for the seas - the United Nations Convention on the Law of

the Sea. During those nine years, shuttling back and forth between New York and Geneva,

representatives of more than 160 sovereign States sat down and discussed the issues,

bargained and traded national rights and obligations in the course of the marathon

negotiations that produced the Convention.

UN member states that have signed, but not ratified:

7. Cambodia , Colombia, El Salvador, Iran, North Korea, Libya, United Arab Emirates

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvadorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia

8. landlocked: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burundi, Central African Republic, Ethiopia,

Liechtenstein, Rwanda

UN member states that have not signed:

1. Eritrea , Israel, Peru, Syria, Turkey, United States, Venezuela

2. landlocked: Andorra, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, San Marino, South Sudan,

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan

The UN Observer states of the Vatican City and the State of Palestine have not signed the

convention.

Territories that are part of ratified countries, but where the convention is not in force:

Aruba (Kingdom of the Netherlands)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO)- (more information-

http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx)

It is the United Nations specialized agency with responsibility for the safety and security of

shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by ships.

As a specialized agency of the United Nations, IMO is the global standard-setting authority

for the safety, security and environmental performance of international shipping. Its main role

is to create a regulatory framework for the shipping industry that is fair and effective,

universally adopted and universally implemented.

In other words, its role is to create a level playing-field so that ship operators cannot address

their financial issues by simply cutting corners and compromising on safety, security and

environmental performance. This approach also encourages innovation and efficiency.

Shipping is a truly international industry, and it can only operate effectively if the regulations

and standards are themselves agreed, adopted and implemented on an international basis.

And IMO is the forum at which this process takes place.

IMO measures cover all aspects of international shipping including ship design,

construction, equipment, manning, operation and disposal to ensure that this vital sector for

remains safe, environmentally sound, energy efficient and secure.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Palestinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_observershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marinohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burundihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan

Shipping is an essential component of any programme for future sustainable economic

growth. Through IMO, the Organizations Member States, civil society and the shipping

industry are already working together to ensure a continued and strengthened contribution

towards a green economy and growth in a sustainable manner. The promotion of sustainable

shipping and sustainable maritime development is one of the major priorities of IMO in the

coming years.

International Requirements for Ships Operating in Polar Waters- 2009:

http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/PapersAndArticlesByIMOStaff/Documents/International

%20requirements%20for%20ships%20operating%20in%20polar%20waters%20-%20H.

%20Deggim.pdf

IMO is developing a draft mandatory International Code of safety for ships operating in polar

waters (Polar Code), to cover the full range of design, construction, equipment, operational,

training, search and rescue and environmental protection matters relevant to ships operating

in the inhospitable waters surrounding the two poles.

The Arctic Council (more information: http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/)

The Ottawa Declaration of 1996 formally established the Arctic Council as a high level

intergovernmental forum to provide a means for promoting cooperation, coordination and

interaction among the Arctic States, with the involvement of the Arctic Indigenous

communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular issues of

sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic.

Arctic Council Member States are Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe

Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States of

America.

In addition to the Member States, the Arctic Council has the category of Permanent

Participants.

There are six Working Groups of the Arctic Council:

9. Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP)

http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/arctic-contaminants-action-program-acaphttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/permanent-participantshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/permanent-participantshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/member-stateshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarations?download=13:ottawa-declarationhttp://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/PapersAndArticlesByIMOStaff/Documents/International%20requirements%20for%20ships%20operating%20in%20polar%20waters%20-%20H.%20Deggim.pdfhttp://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/PapersAndArticlesByIMOStaff/Documents/International%20requirements%20for%20ships%20operating%20in%20polar%20waters%20-%20H.%20Deggim.pdfhttp://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/PapersAndArticlesByIMOStaff/Documents/International%20requirements%20for%20ships%20operating%20in%20polar%20waters%20-%20H.%20Deggim.pdf

10.Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP)

All AMAP Documents: http://www.amap.no/documents/18/documents/2

11.Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF)

12.Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR)

13.Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME)

14.Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG)

2013- Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response

in the Arctic: http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-

main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-

cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-

version

Nukk Agreement- February 2014

Canada, the US, Russia, Denmark and Norway recognized the need for interim

precautionary measures to prevent any future commercial fisheries without the prior

establishment of appropriate regulatory mechanisms. Since the waters under discussion

don't actually come under the jurisdiction of any of the five countries involved, they

acknowledged the need to bring the rest of the world on board. Their statement promises to

start talks on getting other countries to commit to staying out of the central Arctic Ocean

before the end of the year.

All Arctic Council Declarations: http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-

archive/category/5-declarations

Oil Drilling

As the ice continuous to melt, oil companies are relocating to the Arctic in order to try to

exploit the onshore and offshore oil reserves. According to the United States Geological

http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarationshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarationshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/sustainable-development-working-group-sdwghttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/protection-of-the-arctic-marine-environment-pamehttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/emergency-prevention-preparedness-and-response-epprhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/conservation-of-arctic-flora-and-fauna-caffhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/arctic-monitoring-and-assessment-programme-amap

Survey, and 13% Drilling licenses and exploration activities have increased rapidly over

recent years. It is estimated that approximately 84% of the undiscovered oil and gas in the

Arctic occurs offshore; with about 90 billion barrels of technically recoverable oil.

Working on the rough assumption that a barrel of crude oil produces 300kg of CO2 after

refining and combustion, offshore reserves could be responsible for 27bn tons of CO2. This

amount is comparable with the worlds total annual emissions.

A significant amount of these resources are located offshore in the Arctic's shelf areas.

However, oil drilling in this area is exceptionally hazardous and imperils the arctic

environment, and especially the marine ecosystems.

Dangers

Complete Clean up of Oil Spills is not Achievable

At this point no proven effective mechanism for preventing and cleaning up oil spills in sea

ice water exists. It is very difficult to detect oil below ice and amongst broken ice sheets, and

experts suggest there is no way to contain an oil spill if it is trapped underneath a large body

of ice. The impact of the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill into the Gulf of Alaska continues to plague

marine and coastal environments over two decades since the tanker ran aground.

Slow Response Rate to Oil Accidents

Both poles are far more vulnerable than the rest of the Earth to oil spills due to low

temperatures, lack of light and a small amount of search and rescue stations. Therefore, any

oil spill is going to have a long lasting effect on the entire ecosystem. It may take weeks or

months to respond to an oil accident even during ice-free times because of the extreme

weather conditions of the Arctic and the long distance to the stationed response resources

and capacities.

Slow Rate of Recovery

Oil spilt into near freezing water takes many times longer to dissipate than in warmer oceans.

The Arctic ecosystem is perhaps the most vulnerable to oil spills on earth. Cold weather, thick

ice cover, and slow turnover of plants and animals mean that toxic oil lingers, exposing

multiple generations of organisms to contamination. Lack of sunlight will also inhibit the

breakdown of spilled oil.

As a result, it can take decades for Arctic regions to fully recover from habitat disruption,

tundra disturbance and oil spills.

Negative Impact on the Local Inhabitants and the Wildlife

Even in the absence of a major spill, regular ongoing industry practices, such as exploration,

seismic testing, and production of offshore oil have the potential to disrupt seasonal

migrations of whales, spawning run of salmon, and crucial reproductive periods of migrating

birds. Moreover, collisions of icebergs with oil platforms are a real danger. The oil industry

uses fire ships to melt icebergs, coming too close to the platform. Thus, oil companies disrupt

natural habitats in the Arctic.

Offshore oil exploration and drilling may disturb the wildlife that is of immense importance to

the livelihoods of the local peoples in the Arctic. Many indigenous peoples are negatively

affected as reduced ice causes the species on which they depend for food to become less

available and to decline in numbers. Furthermore, increasing sea level has brought about

coastal erosion. Higher waves and storm surges easily reach the shores. Consequently,

many coastal communities are already being forced to move and migrate.

Polar bears depend entirely on sea ice for their lifecycle - from hunting seals to raising their

cubs. Researchers report a rising number of polar bears drowning due to swimming longer

distances between ice blocks. Others are spending much more time on shore fasting,

awaiting for the sea ice to freeze at the end of summer. Researchers have also reported that

for the first time, polar bears are cannibalizing each other due to food stress, a direct effect of

the loss of sea ice.

Many other species such as seals, whales and walrus also depend on the sea ice. Ice-

dependent seals are particularly vulnerable to the current and expected reductions of Arctic

sea ice because they give birth to and nurse their pups on the ice and use it as a resting

platform. It is highly unlikely that these species could adapt to life on land without summer

sea ice. Arctic fisheries, supplying food and economic value beyond the Arctic, are also at

danger.

Noise Pollution

Many marine mammals such as the whales employ sounds to navigate, find mates and food

in the ocean waters. Seismic noises, like the air gun used by oil and gas companies to

search for oil offshore, may be deafening for these species. Excessive ocean noise from

such explorations and drilling could result in injury, confusion, and even death to marine

species.

Case Studies:

1) The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

The Exxon Valdez oil spill happened in 1989 when a 987-foot-long oil tanker ran aground on

a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska.

About 10.8 million gallons of crude oil were spilled, polluting around 1,300 miles of coastline.

The remote location of the spill and a delayed and inadequate response from Exxon and

Trans-Alaska Pipeline operator Alyeska further exacerbated the situation.

As many as 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 900 bald eagles and 250,000 seabirds died

in the days following the disaster. 1,000 harlequin ducks were killed by the oil spill, in addition

to many chronic injuries that occurred as a result of the long-term effects of the spill. The spill

caused over $300 million of economic harm to more than 32 thousand people whose

livelihoods depended on commercial fishing. Tourism spending decreased by eight percent in

south central Alaska and by 35 percent in southwest Alaska in the year after the spill. Many

fish populations were harmed during the spill. For example, sand lance populations went

down in 1989 and 1990, herring returns were significantly fewer in 1992 and 1994 and adult

fish had high rates of viral infections. Pink salmon embryos continued to be harmed and

killed by oil that remained on stones and gravel of stream banks through at least 1993. As a

result, the southwestern part of Prince William Sound lost 1.9 million or 28 percent of its

potential stock of wild pink salmon. By 1992, this part of the sound still had 6 percent less of

the wild pink salmon stock than was estimated to have existed if the spill had not occurred.

http://oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/sea-otterhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/09/booming/lessons-from-the-exxon-valdez-oil-spill.html?_r=0http://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov/oil/

The implications of the oil spill are still visible on beaches in the Gulf of Alaska even after 25

years from the accident.

John Gaps III/AP

Thick crude oil washed that up on the cobble beach of Evans Island sticks to the boots and

pants of a local fish

But that is precisely the lesson that must be remembered from the Exxon Valdez: that some

parts of the world are too precious to be risked for a few million barrels of oil. "This place was

a Shangri-la of the Arctic, a very special place," says Williams. "And today it's lost."- Walsh

2) British Petroleums Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico

In April 2010, the Deepwater Horizon explosion in the Gulf of Mexico killed 11 people and

resulted in 4.9m barrels of oil being discharged, threatening marine life and hundreds of

miles of coastline.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140301-exxon-valdez-oil-spill-alaska-beaches-ocean-science/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140301-exxon-valdez-oil-spill-alaska-beaches-ocean-science/

At its largest extent, the spill covered thousands of square miles during the three months the

well 1.5km (5,000ft) below the surface released crude oil into the Gulf. Of the estimated 4.9m

barrels discharged, 800,000 barrels were recovered, the equivalent of 265,000 barrels was

burned off the sea surface and 1.8m gallons of dispersants were used.

Oil began washing ashore in June 2010 and went on to affect hundreds of miles of coastline

along the Gulf states from Florida to Louisiana. Favourable weather condition kept the oil

offshore in the initial few weeks of the spill. This gave the authorities time to put defensive

measures in place, such as more than 4,000km (2,500 miles) of protective booms, to limit the

volume of oil reaching land.

Thousands of birds from more than 120 species were affected, with more than half dying as

a result of being oiled. Among the most affected species was the brown pelican, possibly

because of its habitat to dive into water to catch fish. Conservationists say it could have been

much worse if agricultural land was not flooded to create alternative wetlands for migratory

species.

A sharp increase in the number of bottlenose dolphin deaths following the incident has

concerned scientists. Some researchers suggest the mortality rate could be up to 50 times

higher than reported figures. In the first birthing season since the spill, data shows a spike in

the number of dead young dolphins being washed ashore. The exact cause is unknown.

The Arctic, with its vast untapped wealth in oil and minerals, has become the focus for a

number of nations that are keen to stake their claim to the natural riches.

However, Dr Senner urged caution: "There is simply much less that is known about the Arctic

region where oil development is proposed.

"If you look in the Gulf of Mexico, there is a relatively good baseline of environmental

information compared with the Arctic.

"Also, there is a lot more capacity to respond to an oil spill in the Gulf; there is no capacity in

the Arctic - there is not even a harbor on the Arctic slope of Alaska, which could be a staging

base to respond to a spill."

Possible Solutions

Better governance of the effects of the economic exploitation through:

1. Establishment of marine reserves

2. Creation of fisheries regulator similar to the one in the North Atlantic region

3. Agreeing on international binding guidelines for Arctic shipping

4. Creation of obligatory IMO Polar Code

5. Achieving transparency over the jurisdictional map of the Arctic (better cooperation

among coastal states in order to obtain equitable shares of national jurisdiction and

sovereignty)

6. Coordination and cooperation between different stakeholders, organizations and

states in preserving the marine environment

7. Placing moratorium on industrial exploitation including oil and gas drilling in the

areas that used to be covered by ice until an international strategy for risk assessment

and crisis containment is set up

8. Awareness campaigns about the negative effects on the local inhabitants, wildlife

and the global climate implications caused by excessive economic exploitation

Questions to Consider

1. How can the Arctic environment be preserved without strictly limiting the economic

activity of the Arctic region?

2. What mechanisms should be enacted in order to ensure the safety of oil and gas

extraction? Should the oil and gas extraction practice continue at the Arctic?

3. What fishing standards ought to be agreed on? Should there be a permanent ban

on commercial fishing in order to protect the marine environment? What other

mechanisms can be set up in place of the ban in order to preserve the marine species?

4. Who should determine the extent of the economic activities conducted at the

Arctic? How should the jurisdiction map of the Arctic be drawn? Who should take

responsibility for economic activity conducted there?

Bibliography and Links

The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Actic Ice-Covered Waters- From Voluntary to

Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection?-

http://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf

Arctic Council Document Archive- http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-

archive/category/5-declarations

Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in

the Arctic: http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-

main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-

cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-

formatted-version

All AMAP Documents- http://www.amap.no/documents/18/documents/2

IMO Knowledge Centre- http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/Pages/Default.aspx

http://www.imo.org/KnowledgeCentre/Pages/Default.aspxhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/425-main-documents-from-kiruna-ministerial-meeting?download=1942:agreement-on-cooperation-on-marine-oil-pollution-preparedness-and-response-in-the-arctic-final-formatted-versionhttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarationshttp://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5-declarationshttp://www.fni.no/doc&pdf/FNI-R0207.pdf

http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-agrees-to-work-to-prevent-fishing-in-high-

arctic-1.2554332

http://www.savethearctic.org

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/climate-change/arctic-impacts/

http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1887165,00.html

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/24/exxon-valdez-oil-spill-photos_n_5020845.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13123036

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/24/exxon-valdez-oil-spill-photos_n_5020845.htmlhttp://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1887165,00.htmlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/climate-change/arctic-impacts/http://www.savethearctic.org/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-agrees-to-work-to-prevent-fishing-in-high-arctic-1.2554332http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-agrees-to-work-to-prevent-fishing-in-high-arctic-1.2554332