Sof Skills Note

ESSENTIAL SOFT SKILLS FOR ENGINEERS

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Part I: MANAGEMENT

1.1 The Evolution of ManagementThe origin of management : man started living in groups. Strong men organized the masses into groups: intelligence, physical and mental capabilities.Well-recognized principles of management Ancient Greece, the organization of the Roman Catholic Church and the organization of military forces. Industrial Revolution: structure of industry became extremely complex. Formal theory of management - modern management

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Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an organized group activity. The productive resources material, labour, capital etc. are entrusted to the organizing skill, administrative ability and enterprising initiative of the management. Management provides leadership to a business enterprise.Under competitive economy and ever-changing environment the quality and performance of managers determine both the survival as well as success of any business enterprise.

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1.3 Management: Definitions

There are many definitions of management . Management as a Process:Management as Coordination:Management as a Function:Management is getting things done through other people:

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1.3 Cont

A comprehensive definition of Management:Management is guiding human and physical resources into a dynamic organization units that attain their objectives to the satisfaction of those served and with the high degree of moral and sense of attainment on the part of those rendering the services.

Management is the process of getting things done through the efforts of other people in order to achieve the predetermined objectives of organization.

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1.4 Managers: 1.4.1 Definition A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. Manager is a person who under take the tasks and function of managing at any level, in any kind of enterprise.A manager is someone who coordinates and oversees the work of other people so that organizational goals can be accomplished. *

1.4.2 Managerial Job/Roles in an OrganizationManagers fulfill a variety of roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors that is associated with a particular office or position. It is an expected set of activities or behaviors stemming from a job/postion.According to the early study conducted by Professor H. Mintzberg there are three main categories of roles which a manager usually does in any organization. Under each category there are also sub managerial roles*

ContInterpersonal roles are roles that involve people and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature. The three interpersonal roles include being a figurehead, leader, and liaison.The figurehead performs symbolic legal or social duties.The Leader builds relationships with employees and communicates with, motivates, and coaches them.The liaison establishes and maintains a network of contacts outside the work unit to obtain information.

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Cont 2. Informational roles involve receiving, collecting, and disseminating information.The three informational roles include a monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson.The monitor seeks internal and external information about issues that can affect the organization.The disseminator transmits information internally that is obtained from either internal or external sources.The spokesperson transmits information about the organization to outsiders. *

Cont3. Decisional roles involves making significant decisions that affect the organization. The four decisional roles include entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator.The entrepreneur acts as an initiator, designer, and encourager of change and innovation.The disturbance handler takes corrective action when the organization faces important, unexpected difficulties.The resource allocator distributes resources of all types, including time, funding, equipment, and human resources.The negotiator represents the organization in major negotiations affecting the managers areas of responsibilityAppropriate Technology*

Continued: THE SEVENTEEN MANAGERIAL ROLESOther researchers further extended the study made by Prof. H Mintzberg and found out other roles played by managers. According to them there are seventeen roles played by managers. Furthermore, the roles delineated by these researchers are associated with the major managerial functions to which they most closely pertain Appropriate Technology*

Managers: Definition *

1.4.3 Levels of ManagementThe level of management takes the shape of a pyramid. As the pyramidal shape in figure illustrates progressively fewer employees at each higher managerial level are required. The largest number of people is at the bottom organizational level.Appropriate Technology*

1.4.3 Levels of ManagementAppropriate Technology*

ContFirst-line managers (or first-line supervisors) are thosehaving the least authority and are at the lowest level in the hierarchy of the organization. manage the work of non-managerial individualsTitles often include the term, supervisor.Factors changing the jobs of first-line managersemphasis upon worker participation and teamwork the use of computers to regulate many activitiesThe jobs of first-line managers are likely to change toward a greater emphasis on dealing with internal human relations.Appropriate Technology*

ContMiddle-level managers are those managers beneath the top-levels of the hierarchydirectly supervise other managers below them. These managers manage the work of first-line managersTypical titles include manager, director of, chief, department head and division head.Middle managers are mainly responsible for implementing overall organizational plans so that organizational goals are achieved as expected.They monitor and manage the performance of the subunits and individual managers who report to them.

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ContTop managers are those managersat the very top levels of the hierarchy who have the most authoritywho are ultimately responsible for the entire organization. Other titles include chief executive officer (CEO), president, executive vice president, executive director, senior vice president, and sometimes, vice president.They oversee overall planning for the organization, work with middle managers in implementing and planning, and maintain overall control over the progress of the organization.


1.4.4 Resources used by ManagersManagers use four types of resources to accomplish their purposes. Human resources are the people needed to get the job doneFinancial resources are the money the manager and the organization use to reach organizational goalsPhysical resources are a firms tangible goods and real estate, including raw materials, office space, production facilities, office equipment, and vehicles. Information resources are the data that the manager and the organization use to get the job done. Appropriate Technology*

1.4.5 Mistakes managers makeInsensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating, bullying style.Cold, aloof, arrogant.Betrayal of trust.Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, playing politics.Specific performance problems with the business.Over managing: unable to delegate or build a team.Unable to staff effectively.Unable to think strategically.Unable to adapt to boss with different style.Over dependent on advocate or mentor.Appropriate Technology*

1.5 Necessity of management(1) Management is an essential activity of all organizational level: (Low, middle, and upper level)(2) Management applies to:Small and large Organizations.Profit and non-profit Organization.Manufacturing Organization.Service rendering Organization.The importance of studying management in todays dynamic global environment can be explained by looking at the universality of management, the reality of work, and the rewards and challenges of being a manager.


ContThe Universality of Management: Management is needed in all types and sizes of organizations, at all organizational levels, and in all organizational work areas throughout the world. The Reality of Work: All employees of an organization either manage or are managed. Rewards and Challenges of Being a Manager Challenges Difficulty in effectively blending the knowledge, skills, ambitions, and experiences of a diverse group of employees. Success is dependent on others work performanceAppropriate Technology*

ContRewards opportunity to create good work receive recognition and status in the organizationKnowing that their efforts, skills, and abilities are needed by the organization gives many managers great satisfaction. Appropriate Technology*

1.6 Functions of Management Management has five functionsPlanning Organizing StaffingDirecting / Leading Controlling


1.6.1 Planning Planning is often called the primary management function because it establishes the basis for all other functions. Planning involves two important elements: goals and plans. Managers begin the planning process by developing strategic plans and then continue by breaking down these plans into annual, monthly, weekly, and daily plans. Effective plans emerge by involving employees in the process right from the start as their experience, skills and expertise is indispensable for the formulation of realistic plan. Appropriate Technology*

1.6.1.2 DefinitionsThere are many definitions of planning. some of them are reviewed as under.According to Fayol: "The plan of action is, at one and the same time, the result envisaged, the line of action to be followed, the stages to go through, and the methods to use. It is a kind of future picture wherein proximate events are outlined with some distinctness."Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done. It involves the selection of objectives, policies, procedures and programmes from among alternatives. Appropriate Technology*

ContAccording to Louis A Allen: "Management planning involves the development of forecasts, objectives, policies, programmes, procedures, schedules and budgets".

According to Theo Haimann:"Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done. When a manager plans, he projects a course of action, for the future, attempting to achieve a consistent, co-ordinated structure of operations aimed at the desired results". Appropriate Technology*

ContAccording to Koontz ODonnell:"Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious determination of courses of action, the basing of decisions on purpose, acts and considered estimates".Planning involves defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.


1.6.1.3 The Nature and Purpose of PlanningThe essential nature of planning can be defined by dividing it into four major aspects.The contribution of planning to purpose and objectives The primacy of planningThe pervasiveness of planningThe efficiency of plans Appropriate Technology*

1.6.1.4 Types of Plans Plans can be described by their breadth, time frame, specificity, and frequency of use.On the basis of BreadthStrategic plans (long-term plans) are plans that apply to the entire organization, and establish the organizations overall goals.Operational plans (short-term plans) are plans that specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved. On the basis of Time frame Short-term plans are plans that cover one year or less.Long-term plans are plans with a time frame beyond three years.


ContOn the basis of Specificity Specific plans are plans that are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation. Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines. On the basis of Frequency Single-use plan is a one-time plan specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation.Standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed repeatedly.


1.6.1.5 Planning and Performance Organizations that use formal planning do not always outperform those that do not plan.Most studies show positive relationships between planning and performance. Effective planning and implementation play a greater part in high performance than does the amount of planning done. Studies have shown that when formal planning has not led to higher performance, the external environment is often the reason. Appropriate Technology*

1.6.1.6 Characteristics of planning Planning focuses on achieving the objectivesPlanning is the primary function of ManagementPlanning is continuousPlanning is FuturisticPlanning is mental exercise

1.6.1.7 Importance of planning 1.6.1.8 Limitations of planning


1.6.1.9 Developing General Planning Skills An organizations strategic vision defines what the organization is, wants to be and where it wants go. An effective strategy guides the decisions that affect the direction of the organization. In order to develop successful plans, it is necessary for managers both to understand their organizations strategic vision and to incorporate it into their plans and day-to-day operations. Appropriate Technology*

ContConsider the following steps: Become comfortable articulating your organizations vision and strategic direction. Link your operational plans with the organizations vision and strategic direction. Plan for ongoing review and updates. Appropriate Technology*

ContThe following are typical phases in planning. Determination of Vision, and Mission Analysis of Internal and External Environment Establish Goals Establish Strategies to reach goals Establish Objectives along the way to achieving goals Associate Responsibilities and time Lines With Each Objective Write and Communicate a Plan Document Appropriate Technology*

ContStep 1 : Determination of Mission, Values and VisionA mission statement defines the core purpose of the organizationwhy it exists. Values are the timeless principles that guide an organization. They represent the deeply held beliefs within the organization and are demonstrated through the day-to-day behaviors of all employees. A vision statement provides a word picture of what the organization intends ultimately to becomewhich may be 5, 10, or 15 years in the future.


ContStep 2: Analysis of Internal and External Environment External Analysis: Through external analysis influential factors that affect the organization performance from external environment such as competition, pending legislation, and labor supply are identified. After analyzing the external environment, managers must assess what they have learned in terms of opportunities and threatsOpportunities are positive trends in external environmental factors; Threats are negative trends in environmental factorsAppropriate Technology*

ContInternal Analysis: Internal analysis leads to a clear assessment of the organizations resources and capabilities. Strengths is any activities the organization does well or any unique resources that it has. Weaknesses are activities the organization does not do well or resources it needs but does not possess.. Core competencies is the organizations major value-creating skills and capabilitiesSWOT analysis is an analysis of the organizations strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats


ContStep 3: Establish Goals Goals are desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations. A goal is the end towards which effort or ambition is directed. As a word it has its origins in the point marking the end of a race or posts between which a ball is to be driven. Appropriate Technology*

ContStep 4: Establish Strategies to reach goals Strategies are the means or the game-plan by which organization/enterprise mission is put into practice, and objectives achieved. It is a comprehensive master plan stating how corporation will achieve its mission and its objectives. It maximizes competitive advantage and minimizes competitive disadvantage.. The typical business firm usually considers three types of strategy: corporate, business and functional.


ContStep 5: Establish Objectives along the way to achieving goals Objective is a very specific statement of what is to be done to accomplish the mission/goal. It is an end towards which effort is directed. The objectives to be set for an organization should be specific, measurable, achievable (Agreed) Relevant (to the mission) or realistic and time bound. (SMART)A statement of an objective makes clear:What is to be accomplished?How much is to be accomplished?By when it is to be accomplished?By whom it is to be accomplished (operational objectives)


ContStep 6: Associate responsibilities and time Lines with each Objective Step 7: Write and Communicate a Plan Document


ContThe following are typical phases in planning.


1.1.1.2 Developing Action Plans It is not uncommon for best strategic plans to fall by the wayside because managers fail to develop action plans for accomplishing strategic goals as they get lost in the day-to-day details and loose sight of the big picture.Consider the following steps to develop strategic action plans: Ensure you teams goal matches the broader goals of the organization. Rank these goals in priority order. Usually the top two or three goals are those that will have the greatest impact on the organizations strategic goals.


Cont3. Define your goals and the roles of your staff in achieving them. Determine the sources, amount and quality of support you may need for the achievement of the defined goals. 4. Determine key result areas, identify the steps required to achieve these results and identify risks and plan for contingencies. 5. Develop objective measures of success. Objectives shall be Specific, Measurable, Acceptable, Realistic and Time bound (SMART). 6. Put all these into a format that is clear, accessible, and easy to update. Appropriate Technology*

1.1.1.3 Engaging in Proactive Planning There will always be unforeseeable circumstances that remain out of ones control, which in many cases, can successfully be integrated into plans. The following suggestions may help: 1. Over a short period, keep a list of discrepancies between actual performance and objectives and establish cause and effect relationships. 2. At the end of this period, examine your list and examine which of the problems could have been prevented, examine rate of prevalence of some problems and correct the pattern. Appropriate Technology*

1.6.2 Organizing No one individual alone can accomplish organizational goals. Cooperation between employees is required. There should have defined and assigned roles.decision making authority with responsibility should be accorded.An efficient system should be created that combines human, financial and physical resources in a synchronized mannerOrganizing is important for creating such a system. Organizing : It is the process by which managers establish working relationships among employees to achieve goals.


1.6.2.2 Definitions of organizationThe term 'Organization' connotes different things to different people.It can be assumed as a group of persons working together or as a structure of relationships or as a process of management. ACCORDING TO LOUIS A ALLEN"Organization is the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.


Cont IN THE WORDS OF THEO HAIMANNOrganizing is the process of defining and grouping the activities of the enterprise and establishing the authority relationships among them. In performing the organizing function, the manager defines, departmentalizes and assigns activities so that they can be most effectively executed.


1.6.2.3 The Nature of Organizing and Organization Structure It is the responsibility of the manager to design a structure that support and allow employees to accomplish their own work.Organizing is the process of creating an organizations structure.Organizing involves:setting up the organizational structuredetermining the job to be donedefining lines of authority and responsibilityestablishing relationships within the organization


ContOrganization structure is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals.Organization structure consists primarily of four elements:Job designDepartmentalizationVertical coordinationHorizontal coordinationSound organization structure contributes greatly to the continuity and success of the enterprise. Appropriate Technology*

ContOrganizational design is the process of developing or changing an organizations structure. It involves decisions about six key elements: work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, formalization.


ContThe organization chart is a line diagram that depicts the broad outlines of an organizations structure.It is a graphical representation that shows the formal organizational structure of a company.It shows the division of labor, the chain of command, bureaucracy, and organizational design.The division of labor is the manner in which jobs are broken into components or activities, and then assigned to members or groups.It is done by delegating specific smaller tasks to many staff membersAppropriate Technology*

ContThe chain of command is illustrated in the organizational structure by the authority responsibility relationships or links between managers and those they supervise.From the chain of command employees will know to whom they report and are accountable. It is also important to note that an employee should not report to several people at the same time.This may create a loop within which the employee receives contradictory directions from different people Appropriate Technology*

ContResponsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform and carry out duties and achieve goals related to a position.Authority is the right inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it, right to make decisions and carry out actions to achieve organizational goals.While part of a managers work may be delegated, the manager remains accountable for results.Accountability is the requirement of being able to answer for significant deviations from duties or expected results.The fact that managers remain accountable for delegated work may cause them to resist delegation.


ContDelegation is assignment of part of managers work to others along with responsibility and authority.In addition to issues of accountability, managers may resist delegation for a number of reasons.Managers may fear if subordinates fail.Managers may think they lack time to train subordinates.Managers may want to hold on to their power.Managers may enjoy doing the tasks subordinates could do.Managers may feel threatened by subordinates.Managers may not know how to delegate.


1.6.2.4 Job Design/Specialization and Departmentalization Job design is the specification of task activities associated with each particular job.Task activities need to be grouped in reasonably logical ways for each job.The way the jobs are configured influences employee motivation.


ContJob simplification is the process of configuring or designing jobs so that job holders have only a small number of narrow, repetitive, activities to perform.The process of reducing the tasks each worker performs.Training new workers becomes relatively easy Major production efficiencies may be gainedif carried too far, job satisfaction may be destroyed by narrow, repetitive, boring jobsAppropriate Technology*

ContWork specialization is the degree to which the work necessary to achieve organizational goals is broken down into various jobs. In Work specialization the tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs. Another term for this is division of labor.It is viewed as a source of unending productivity improvementsThe disadvantage of work specialization included boredom, fatigue, stress,Appropriate Technology*

ContDepartmentalization is the clustering of individuals into units and units into departments and larger units in order to facilitate achieving organizational goals.1. An organization design is an overall pattern of departmentalization2. There are four major patterns of departmentalization.The functional structure The divisional structure The hybrid structure The matrix structure


ContThe functional structure: positions are grouped according to their main functional (or specialized) area. groups jobs into units based upon similarity of expertise, skills, and work activities, e.g., marketing, accounting.The divisional structure positions are grouped according to similarity of products, services, or marketsalso called self-contained structures because each division contains the major functional resources it needs to pursue its own goals with little or no reliance on other divisions.


ContThe hybrid structure adopts parts of both functional and divisional structures at the same level of management.combines aspects of both the functional and divisional forms, with some jobs grouped into departments by functions and other grouped by products or marketsadopted by large organizations The matrix structure is a type of departmentalization that superimposes a horizontal set of divisional reporting relationships onto a hierarchical functional structure.


ContVertical coordination is the linking of activities at the top of the organization with those at the middle and lower levels in order to achieve organizational goals.Formalization is the degree to which written policies, rules, procedures, job descriptions, and other documents specify what actions are (or are not) to be taken under a given set of circumstances.Span of management or span of control is the number of subordinates who report directly to a specific manager.Spans of management determine the number of hierarchical levels in an organization.


ContA tall structure is one that has narrow spans of management and many hierarchical levels in an organization.A flat structure is one that has broader spans of management and few hierarchical levels and wide spans of control.Centralization is the extent to which power and authority are retained at the top organizational levels.Decentralization is the extent to which power and authority are delegated to lower levels.Appropriate Technology*

ContAn organization is centralized if decisions made at lower levels are governed by a restrictive set of policies, procedures, and rules, and if situations not explicitly covered are referred to higher levels for resolution.An organization is decentralized to the extent that decisions made at lower levels are made within a general set of policies, procedures, and rules, with decisions not covered left to the discretion of lower-level managersThe configuration of line and staff positions can affect the vertical integration in organizations.


ContA line position is a position that has authority and responsibility for achieving the major goals of the organization.A staff position is a position whose primary purpose is providing specialized expertise and assistance to line positions.Line authority differs from staff authority.Line authority is authority that follows the chain of command established by the formal hierarchy.Staff departments have functional authority, authority over others in the organization in matters related directly to the staff departments functions.


1.6.2.5 Developing an effective structure There is no one correct way to structure an organization. A manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps1. Identification of activities 2. Departmentally organizing the activities 3. Classifying the authority 4. Co-ordination between authority and responsibility In a project setting, project organization will follow the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). A WBS is defined as a deliverable oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team.Appropriate Technology*

1.6.3 Staffing: 1.6.3.1 DefinitionStaffing is define as Filling and keeping filed, positions in the organization structure. This process of staffing is done by ten steps/phases.1. Identifying the work force requirements.2. Inventorying the people available.3. Recruiting4. Selecting candidates.5. Planning candidates.6. Promoting candidate.7. Appraising candidates.8. Planning careers of candidates.9. Training candidate.10. Developing and compensating candidates and current jobholders.


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ContThe organizing functions of management entail combining a synchronized system of human resources, financial and physical resources such that the firm is able to attain its objectives. Knowledge as an aspect of organizing functions of management is concerned with intense acquiring, as well as, gathering immense information and later on disseminating the information in the right way. Appropriate Technology*

Developing an effective structure There is no one correct way to structure an organization. The structure one chooses will certainly affect productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, employee morale and budget among others. An organizational structure must be designed to support the organizations vision and mission and that enhances the stated objectives of the work unit. Organizing functions must emanate from the stated objectives of the organization and/or work unit.Appropriate Technology*

ContA manager performs organizing function with the help of following steps:Identification of activities Departmentally organizing the activities Classifying the authority Co-ordination between authority and responsibility Appropriate Technology*

Cont1. Identification of activities -All the activities which have to be performed in a concern have to be identified first.. All these activities have to be grouped and classified into units. .Appropriate Technology*

Cont2. Departmentally organizing the activities - In this step, the manager tries to combine and group similar and related activities into units or departments. This organization of dividing the whole concern into independent units and departments is called departmentation. Appropriate Technology*

Cont3. Classifying the authority Once the departments are made, the manager likes to classify the powers and its extent to the managers. This activity of giving a rank in order to the managerial positions is called hierarchy. The clarification of authority helps in bringing efficiency in the running of a concern. This helps in avoiding wastage of time, money, effort, in avoidance of duplication or overlapping of efforts and this helps in bringing smoothness in a concerns working. Appropriate Technology*

Cont4. Co-ordination between authority and responsibility - Relationships are established among various groups to enable smooth interaction toward the achievement of the organizational goal. Each individual is made aware of his authority and he/she knows whom they have to take orders from and to whom they are accountable and to whom they have to report. Appropriate Technology*

ContIn a project setting, project organization will follow the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). A WBS is defined asa deliverable oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team. The work breakdown structure visually defines the scope into manageable chunks that a project team can understand, as each level of the work breakdown structure provides further definition and detail. A work breakdown structure starts with the project as the top level deliverable and is further decomposed into sub-deliverables.deliverables.


ContThe project team creates the project work breakdown structure by identifying the major functional deliverables and subdividing those deliverables into smaller systems and sub-deliverables. These sub-deliverables are further decomposed until a single person can be assigned. At this level, the specific work packagesrequired to produce the sub- deliverable are identified and grouped together. Appropriate Technology*

ContThe work package represents the list of tasks or to-dos to produce the specific unit of work. If youve seen detailed project schedules, then youll recognize the tasks under the work package as the stuff people need to complete by a specific time and within a specific level of effort. These work packages are usually grouped and assigned to a specific department to produce the work Appropriate Technology*

1.1.3 Directing / Leading Directing or Direction function is said to be the heart of management of process and therefore, is the central point around which accomplishment of goals take place. It is also called as on actuating function of management because it is through direction that the operation of an enterprise actually starts. Appropriate Technology*

ContBeing the central character of enterprise, it provides many benefits to a concern which are as follows:- It Initiates Actions It integrates Efforts Means of Motivation It Provides Stability Coping up with the changes Efficient Utilization of Resources


Cont1. It Initiates Actions - Directions is the function which is the starting point of the work performance of subordinates. It is from this function that the action takes place, subordinates understand their jobs and do according to the instructions laid. 2. It integrates Efforts - Through direction, the superiors are able to guide, inspire and instruct the subordinates to work. This can be done through persuasive leadership and effective communication. Integration of efforts brings effectiveness and stability in a concern. Appropriate Technology*

Cont3. Means of Motivation - Direction function helps in achievement of goals. A manager makes use of the element of motivation here to improve the performances of subordinates. This can be done by providing incentives or compensation, whether monetary or non monetary. Appropriate Technology*

Cont..4. It Provides Stability - Stability and balance in concern becomes very important for long term sun survival in the market. This can be brought upon by the managers with the help of four tools or elements of direction function - judiciousblend of persuasive leadership, effective communication, strict supervision and efficient motivation. Appropriate Technology*

ContCoping up with the changes - It is directing function which is of use to meet with changes in environment, both internal as external. Effective communication helps in coping up with the changes. Appropriate Technology*

Economic requirement6. Efficient Utilization of Resources - The resources can be utilized properly only when less of wastages, duplication of efforts, overlapping of performances, etc. dont take place. This helps in maximum possible utilization of resources of men, machine, materials and money which helps in reducing costs and increasing profits. Appropriate Technology*

1.1.4 Controlling Controlling is the measuring and correcting of activities of subordinates, to ensure that events conform to plans. It measures performance against goals and plans, shows where negative deviations exist, and, by putting in motion actions to correct deviations, helps ensure accomplishment of plans.Appropriate Technology*

ContFollowing are the characteristics of controlling function of management: - 1. Controlling is an end function (feedback) - A function which comes once the performances are made in conformities with plans. 2. Controlling isa pervasive function- which means it is performed by managers at all levels and in all type of concerns. 3. Controlling is forward looking (feed forward) - because effective control is not possible without past being controlled. Controlling always looks to future so that follow-up can be made whenever required.Appropriate Technology*

Cont4. Controlling isa dynamic process (concurrent) - since controlling requires taking review methods, changes have to be made wherever possible. 5. Controlling isrelated with planning - Planning and Controlling are two inseparable functions of management. Without planning, controlling is a meaninglessexercise and without controlling, planning is useless. Planning presupposes controlling and controlling succeedsplanning.


1.1.4.2 Steps in controlling1. Establish performance standards. Performance standards give employees an idea of what is expected of them and tells them how you assess their performance. 2. Monitor and measure performance. Draw up a new business plan and assess current performance against expectations. Appropriate Technology*

Cont3. Compare your measured performance against established standards. 4. Determine the reason for the deviation. 5. Take corrective action. This is often a difficult aspect of the controlling function of management. When problems arise, handle the situations fast and efficiently. Ignoring a challenging situation only makes things worse. .Appropriate Technology*

1.7. General Principles of ManagementA management principle is a statement of general truth about organization. the fourteen principles enumerated by Henry Fayol forms the basis for modern management.1. Division of Work Division of work means dividing the work on the principle that different workers are best fitted for different jobs depending on their personal aptitude, knowledge and skill. It leads to specialization and is applicable to all kinds of work, weather technical or managerial. Appropriate Technology*

Cont2. Authority and responsibility Henri Fayol finds authority and responsibility to be related with the latter arising from the formerAuthority means the right of a superior to give order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance. The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences.This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and responsibility. They are co-existent and go together, and are two sides of the same coin. Appropriate Technology*

Cont3. Discipline Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority & observance of rules and regulations of the enterprise. This principle applies that subordinate should respect their superiors and obey their order. essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates but also on the part of management


Cont4. Unity of CommandThis principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict. Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes. Appropriate Technology*

Cont5. Unity of Directioneach group of activities with same objective must have one head and one plan. all those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. all related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts and coordination of strength.Without unity of direction, unity of action and unity of command is not possible.Appropriate Technology*

6. Subordination of individuals interest to general interestAn organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking should prevail in all circumstances. Management/employees must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first. The interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that Employees should be honest & sincere. Proper & regular supervision of work. Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement. Appropriate Technology*

Cont7. RemunerationRemuneration and method of payment should be fair and have maximum possible satisfaction to employees and employer.Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity.Wages should be determined on the basis of cost of living, work assigned, financial position of the business, wage rate prevailing etc.


Cont..Centralization concentration of decision making authority at the top management. top management retains most of the decision making authorityDecentralizationSharing of authority with lower levels sharing of decision making authority to all the levels of the organizationEverything which goes to increase the importance of the subordinates role is The organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.


9. Scalar ChainThe principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain.But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut short and this short cut is known as Gang Plank.In this concept a subordinate may contact a superior or his superior in case of an emergency, defying the hierarchy of control. However the immediate superiors must be informed about the matter.


10. OrderThis principle is concerned with proper & systematic arrangement of things and people. Classify into material and social order. material order : arrangement of things Social order: placement of people Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.Social order demands a precise knowledge of the human requirements and resources of the organization.A constant balance between these should exist. In terms of managerial ordera place for everything and everything in its place, e.g. the organization chart and statement of areas of responsibility.


11. EquityEquity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice.Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees. The head of the business should strive to instill a sense of equity throughout all levels of the scalar chainMangers should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc. But equity does not mean total absence of harshness. Fayol was of opinion that, at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity.


12. Stability of tenureEmployees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another Employees should be appointed after keeping in view principles of recruitment & selection but once they are appointed their services should be served. The period of service should not be too short. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.Instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect of bad running. Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase the quality as well as quantity of work.


13. Initiativeeagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so.employees should be give an opportunity to its to suggest ideas, experiences & new method of work. helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding. add strength and new ideas to an organization.employees are likely to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization. people then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal /enthusiathm and energy.


14. Esprit decropsThis is the principle that in the union there is strength. This principle emphasis on work, and unity of ommunication in order to accomplish objectives.It refers to team spirit i.e. harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members. It also refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally.


1.2. Managerial Skills Not everyone can be a manager.Certain skills, or abilities to translate knowledge into action to make/help other employees work effectively and achieve the desired goalHowever, the degree (amount) of these skills required varies (changes) from levels of management and from an organization to the organization. These skills fall under the following categories:1. Conceptual skill 2. Technical skill3. Human relations skill4. Decision making skill5. Problem solving skill6. Political skillWhatever the level of management, a manager needs a combination of all six skills.


1.8.1. Technical skillTechnical skill involves an understanding of and proficiency in a specific activity that involves methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. help the managers to use different machines and tools. also helps them to use various procedures and techniques. Technical skills include the ability to prepare a budget, lay out a production schedule, program a computer, or demonstrate a piece of electronic equipment. A well-developed technical skill can facilitate the rise into management.


1.8.2. Human relations skill or Interpersonal skillIt refers to managers ability to work effectively as a team member and to build cooperative effort in the unit. It is an ability to work with people Interpersonal skills are more important than technical skills in getting to the top. Communication skills are an important component of interpersonal skills. It helps the managers to understand, communicate and work with others. It also helps the managers to lead, motivate and develop team spirit. Human relations skills are required by all managers at all levels of management.


1.8.3. Conceptual skill It is the ability to see the organization as a total entity. includes analytical, creative and initiative skills.involves recognizing how the various units of the organization depend on one another and how changes in any one part affect all the others. includes visualizing the relationship of the individual business to the industry; the community; and the political, social, and economic forces of the nation as a whole.It helps to identify the causes of the problems and to solve the problems helps the manager to fix goals for the whole organization and to plan for every situation. Appropriate Technology*

1.8.4. Problem Solving skills Managers are frequently called on to investigate a problem and then to decide on and implement a remedy. A manager should know how to identify a problem and to find a best solution for solving any specific problem. This requires intelligence, experience and up-to-date knowledge of the latest developments. Diagnostic skill often requires other skills, because managers need to use technical, human, conceptual, or political skills to solve the problems they diagnose. Much of the potential excitement in a mangers job centers on getting to the root of problems and recommending solutions.


1.8.5. Decision-making skills Decision-making skills are required at all levels of management.It is required more at the top-level of management. The success or failure of a manager depends upon the correctness of his decisions.


1.8.6. Political skillPolitical skill is the ability to acquire the power necessary to reach objectives. Managers should be able to get their share of power and prevent others from taking power away from them. It includes establishing the right connections and impressing the right people.Political skill should be regarded as a supplement to job competence and the other basic skills. Managers who overemphasize political skill at the expense of doing work of substance focus too much on pleasing company insiders and advancing their own careers. Too much time invested in office politics takes time away from dealing with customer problems and improving productivity.


Skills of management at different levels.The types of managerial skills vary at different levels:Top management: Conceptual, decision making, problem solving, political skills.Middle management: Human relations skills, technical, and decision making skills.Low level management/Supervisors : Technical skills.


1.3 Problem Solving Skills What is a problem? A problem is an opportunity for improvement. A problem is the difference between the actual state and desired state. A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfect and the belief in the possibility of a better future A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization that will exist in the system, and that is considered undesirable by members of the organization.


ContMany times ineffective or poor problem solving techniques have been employed owing to some factors that constricted perspectives of the problem solvers. Some of these are: Bounded RationalitySatisficingGroupthinkConformation BiasInsufficiency of Hypotheses Fixation


Cont 1. Bounded Rationality: Propounded by Herbert Simon, the concept of bounded rationalityassumesthat individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. Appropriate Technology*

Cont 2. Satisficing: implies identifying and implementing a solution that is good enoughresults in solving problems which do not lead to optimal solutions. Most often, people look for solutions that had worked for them before. There may be better ways to reach the outcome, but they simply ignore them. Searching for alternative and superior solutions might entail an extra cost. Appropriate Technology*

Cont 3. Groupthink: Groupthink is a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. It describes situations in which group pressures for conformity discourage the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink is a bug that strikes groups and can dramatically hinder their performance. Appropriate Technology*

Cont4. Conformation Bias: Conformation bias is the tendency on the part of the people to search for only for that information that supports their perceived notions. Initial perceptions and ideas of people about a problem often shape the search process for information. It is important to maintain objectivity in evaluating ideas so that they are not biased toward their initial perceptions.


Cont 5. Insufficiency of Hypotheses Often, while solving problems, a solver seizes upon the first explanation that comes to mind and stops thinking about the problem. This difficulty is related to confirmation bias, but reflects insufficient thought applied to a problem. Many times, the immediate answer is sufficient. Other times, however, only a careful analysis of a situation beyond the immediate response is necessary to ensure a correct solution. To avoid poor problem-solving resulting from insufficiency of hypothesis, people should develop alternative ideas, rather than seizing upon the first idea as the solution. Appropriate Technology*

Cont 6. Fixation Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Again, initial perceptions and structuring of a problem often determine the approaches people use to solve that problem. Structuring a problem incorrectly is a prime contributor to the inability to solve a problem correctly. To overcome fixation, people should see the problem with fresh eyes - allow time for reflection and incubation. Appropriate Technology*

1.4 The Problem Solving ProcessThere is a variety of problem-solving processes. But each process consists of a series of stepsidentifying the problem, searching for possible solutions, selecting the most optimal solution and implementing a possible solution. It is useful to view problem solving as a cycle because, sometimes, a problem needs several attempts to solve it or the problem changes. The diagram below shows a seven-step problem solving processAppropriate Technology*

ContAppropriate Technology*The diagram below shows a seven-step problem solving process. 1. Identifying the Problem2. Exploring the Problem3. Set Goals4. Look at alternatives5. Select the best solution6. Implementation7. Evaluation

Cont1. Identifying the Problem: Refers to seizing up the situation to identify the problem. Sometimes managers might be uncertain about what the problem is; they might just feel general anxiety ormight be confused about what is getting in the way of their objectives. If that is the case, they can ask themselves or their friends or a professional expert. Appropriate Technology*

Cont2. Exploring the Problem: Refers to analysis of the problem in order to see what the root cause is. Often people get caught up in symptoms or effects of a problem or issue and never get down to the real cause.They get mad at someones attitude, anger, or actions, which are not the cause of the problem. The key here is to focus on analyzing the problem for the real cause without being affected by emotional issues. Appropriate Technology*

Cont3. Set Goals: Refers to writing a goal statement that focuses on what is the successful end of the process. Making and writing down a goal statement: helps to clarify the direction to take in solving the problem; and gives something definite to focus on


Cont4. Look at alternatives: Refers to the step to develop possible solutions. This is a creative as well as practical step where every possible solution is identified. One should identify the various alternative solutions available to him through such techniques as -Analysis of past solutions -Reading -Researching -Thinking -Asking Questions -Discussing -Viewing the problem with fresh eyes -Brainstorming Sleeping on it Appropriate Technology*

Cont5. Select the best solution: This step refers to the process of selecting the best solution to fix the problemThe selection of the best solution should take in to account the circumstances, resources and other considerations. There are always a number of things that can affect a solution, for instance, money, time, people, procedures, policies, rules, and so on. All of these factors must be thought about. Eventually, managers should narrow down the choices to one best possible solution which will promise the best or optimal outcomes. Appropriate Technology*

Cont6. Implementation: Implementation is a crucial part of problem-solving process. In order to implement the solution chosen, managers must have an action plan and communicate it to those directly and indirectly affected. Gemmy Allen (Problem-Solving & Decision-Making) says that communication is most effective when it precedes action and events.


Cont.7. Evaluation: This refers to the review of the effectiveness of the solution against desired outcomes. Did the solution work? If not, why not? What went right, and what went wrong? What adjustments do they have to make to ensure that the solution works better? This stage requires careful analysis that improves upon the best solution. Appropriate Technology*

1.8.1.3 Personality Types & Problem-Solving Orientations According to Karl Jungs (Psychological Types), people are all different in fundamental ways. Their aptitude and competence to process different information is limited by their personality type. There are eight personality types. Extroverts vs. Introverts Sensing vs. Intuition Thinking vs. Feeling Perceiving vs. Judging


Cont Extroverts vs. Introverts Extroverts are directed towards the objective worldIntroverts are directed towards the subjective world. The most common differences between Extroverts and Introverts are shown below: Appropriate Technology*

Priority Areas in Engineering Technology in LDCAppropriate Technology*

Cont Sensing vs. Intuition Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its physical qualities and its relation to other information. Intuition is an ability to deal with the information on the basis of its hidden potential and its possible existence.The most common differences between Sensing and Intuitive types are shown below:


Cont Thinking vs. FeelingThinking is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its structure and its function. Feeling is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its initial energetic/active condition and its interactions. The most common differences between Thinking and Feeling types are shown belowAppropriate Technology*

ContPerceiving vs. Judging Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the changes in a situation. Judging types are motivated into activity by their decisions resulting from the changes in a situation. The most common differences between Perceiving and Judging types are shown below: Appropriate Technology*

ContResearchers like Lawrence, McCaulley and Myers have investigated the relationship of Karl Jungs theory of individuals preferences/personality type and their approach to problem solving and decision-making. Their findings are summarized and presented in the manual. Please refer in to it.Table also lists important aspects of personality when considering attention to individual differences during problem solving. Each aspect of personality has a different orientation to problem solving, different criteria for judging the effectiveness of the process and different associated strengths.


1.8.1.4 Personality Types & Problem-Solving TechniquesA variety of problem-solving techniques has been identified to accommodate individual preferences. Some of these techniques are oriented more to individuals who are more structured, more rational and analytical, and more goal-oriented in their approach to problem-solving. Other techniques are more suited to individuals who demonstrate a preference for an approach that is more holistic and parallel, more emotional and intuitive, more creative, more visual, and more tactual/kinesthetic. It is important that techniques from both categories be selected and used in the problem-solving process.Appropriate Technology*

Cont a) Brainstorming: An attempt to spontaneously generate as many ideas on a subject as possible; ideas are not criticized during the brainstorming process;participants are encouraged to form new ideas from ideas already stated. b) Imaging/Visualization:It is producing mental pictures of the total problem or specific parts of the problem. c) Incubation: It is putting aside the problem and doing something else to allow the mind to unconsciously consider the problem


Cont d) Outcome Psychodrama: It is enacting/passing a scenario of alternatives or solutions through role playing. e) Outrageous Provocation: It is making a statement that is known to be incorrect (e.g., the brain is made of charcoal) and then considering it; used as a bridge to a new idea. f) Overload: It is considering a large number of facts and details until the logic part of the brain becomes overwhelmed and begins looking for patterns. It can also be generated by immersion in aesthetic/visual experiences, sensitivity training or similar experiences.


Cont g) Random Word Technique: It is selecting a word randomly from the dictionary and juxtaposing/putting it together with/compare and contrast it with problem statement, then brainstorming about possible relationships h) Relaxation: It is systematically relaxing all muscles while repeating a personally meaningful focus word or phrase. i) Synthesizing:It is combining parts or elements into a new and original pattern.Appropriate Technology*

Cont j) Taking Anothers Perspective: It is deliberately taking another persons point of view. k) Value Clarification: It is using techniques such as role playing, simulations, self analysis exercises, and structured controversy to gain a greater understanding of attitudes and beliefs that individuals hold important. Thinking loud Following is a table summarizing the personality types, orientations and problem solving techniques:


1.8.2 Decision Making Skills and Techniques 1.8.2.2 DefinitionA decision is a choice made from two or more alternatives. Decision Making is defined as: The cognitive process of reaching a decision. A position or opinion or judgment reached after consideration Choosing between alternative courses of action using cognitive processes - memory, thinking, evaluation, etc The process of mapping the likely consequences of decisions, working out the importance of individual factors, and choosing the best course of action to take. A significant part of decision making skills is in knowing and practicing good decision making techniques.


ContThe decision-making process is defined as a set of steps consisting of identification, analysis of problems, selection and implementation of alternative solutions as well as evaluation of the effectiveness of the decision. 1.8.2.3 The nature of managerial decision makingDecision makers face three types of problems.A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring immediate action.A non-crisis problem is an issue that requires resolution, but does not simultaneously have the importance and immediacy characteristics of crises.


ContAn opportunity problem is a situation that offers a strong potential for significant organizational gain if appropriate actions are taken.Opportunities involve ideas that could be sued/indicated , rather than difficulties that must be resolved.Non-innovative managers tend to focus on problems rather than upon opportunities.


1.8.2.4 Decision-Making ConditionsDecision-making situations differ according to the types of problems that must be handled. Decision can be made under conditions of certainty, uncertainty and risk.Certainty is a situation in which a manager can make accurate decisions because all outcomes are known. Few managerial decisions are made under the condition of certainty.Uncertainty is a situation in which the decision maker is not certain and cannot even make reasonable probability estimates concerning outcomes of alternatives. Appropriate Technology*

ContIt is a condition in which the decision maker chooses a course of action without complete knowledge of the consequences that will follow implementation.In such a situation, the choice of alternative is influenced by the limited amount of information available to the decision maker and the psychological orientation of the decision maker.Risk is the possibility that a chosen action could lead to losses rather than the intended results.Uncertainty is seen as the reason why situation is risky.A rapidly changing environment is a major cause of uncertainty.


Cont1) An optimistic manager will follow a maximax choice, maximizing the maximum possible payoff.2) A pessimistic manager will pursue a maximin choice, maximizing the minimum possible payoff.3) The manager who desires to minimize the maximum regret will opt for a minimax choice.


1.8.2.5 General Steps in an Effective Decision-Making Process1. The first step is to identify the organizational problem, i.e., discrepancies between a current state or condition and what is desired.The scanning state involves monitoring the work situation for changing circumstances that may signal the emergence of a problem.The categorization stage entails attempting to understand and verify signs that there is some type of discrepancy between a current state and what is desired.The diagnosis stage involves gathering additional information and specifying both the nature and the causes of the problem.


Cont2 The generation of alternative solutions step is facilitated by using the four principles associated with brainstorming.Dont criticize ideas while generating possible solutionsFreewheel, i.e., offer even seemingly wild and outrageous ideas in an effort to trigger more usable ideas from others.Offer as many ideas as possible to increase the probability of coming up with an effective solution.Combine and improve on ideas that have been offered.


ContThe choice of an alternative step comes only after the alternatives are evaluated systematically according to six general criteria:Feasibility: extent the accomplishment of alternative Quality; extent to which an alternative solves the problem.Acceptability is the degree of effect by the implementation of the alternative are willing to support it.Reversibility is the extent to which the alternative can be reversed, if at all.The ethics criterion refers to the extent to which an alternative is compatible with the social responsibilities of the organization and with ethical standards.Finally, the implementing and monitoring the chosen solution: must be planned to avoid failure of the entire effort.

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1.8.2.6 Basis/methods of Decision MakingManagers can make decisions on the basis of rationality, non-rationality, or intuition. Accordingly, there are three bases for decision making:Rational decision makingNon-rational decision makingIntuitive decision making


1.8.2.6.1 Rational decision making. Managerial decision making is assumed to be rationalthat is, making choices that are consistent and value-maximizing within specified constraints. A rational manager would be completely logical and objective. According to the rational model of decision making,managers engage in completely rational decision processes, make optimal decisions, possess and understand all information relevant to their decisionsRational decision making assumes that the manager is making decisions in the best interests of the organization, not in his/her own interests.


ContThe assumptions of rationality can be met if the manager is faced with a simple problem in which (1) goals are clear and alternatives limited, (2) time pressures are minimal and the cost of finding and evaluating alternatives is low, (3) the organizational culture supports innovation and risk taking, and (4) outcomes are concrete and measurable.

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Steps in decision- making by Rational Step 1:Identification of the problem and purpose of your decision. A problem is defined as a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs. Some cautions about problem identification include the following:Make sure its a problem and not just a symptom of a problem.Problem identification is subjective.Before a problem can be determined, a manager must be aware of any discrepancies.Discrepancies can be found by comparing current results with some standard.Pressure must be exerted on the manager to correct the discrepancy.


ContStep 2: Gather InformationThis helps to gather the reasons that causes the problem and factors that the problem involve.Step 3: Setting the decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria . Decision criteria are criteria that define what is relevant and important in making a decision. The criteria identified are not all equally important, so weight must be assigned in order to give them correct priority in the decision. This provides a response to the question What standards and judgment criteria should the solution meet?Appropriate Technology*

ContStep 5: Analyzing alternatives. Each of the alternatives must now be critically analyzed.Each alternative is evaluated by appraising it against the criteria. Evaluate each choice in terms of its consequences.Use your standards and judgment criteria to determine the cons and pros of each alternative*

ContStep 6: Selection of best alternative. The act of selecting the best alternative from among those identified and assessed is critical. If criteria weights have been used, the decision maker simply selects the alternative with the highest score from Step 5. In general this is much easier after we go through the above preparation steps


ContStep 7: Choosing a course of action and implementing the alternative. The chosen alternative must be implemented.Implementation is conveying a decision to those affected by it and getting their commitment to it. In this step we need to put the decision into action. Thus we first need to transform the decision into specific plan of action steps and then execute our plan.

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ContStep 8: Evaluating the effectiveness of the decision. This step refers to assessing the result of the decision to see whether or not the problem has been resolved.In general in this step we need to evaluate the outcome of our decision and action steps. What lessons can be learnt? This is an important step for further development of our decision making skills and judgment.


1.8.2.6.2 Non-Rational Decision Making : Non-rational modelThe non-rational models of managerial decision making suggests that information-gathering and processing limitations make it difficult for managers to make optimal decisions. It includes the following models.1. The Satisficing Model, 2. The Incremental Model 3. The Garbage-Can Model Appropriate Technology*

Cont1.8.2.6. 3. Intuitive decision making. Managers also regularly use their intuition.Intuitive decision making is a subconscious process of making decisions on the basis of experience and accumulated judgment. Although intuitive decision making will not replace the rational decision-making process, it does play an important role in managerial decision making.

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1.8.2.7. Types of Problems and DecisionsManagers encounter different types of problems and use different types of decisions to resolve them. Problems can be structured problems or unstructured problems Decisions can be programmed decisions or non-programmed decisions.Structured problems are straightforward, familiar, and easily defined. In dealing with structured problems, a manager may use a programmed decision, Programmed decision is a repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach.


ContManagers rely on three types of programmed decisions:A procedure is a series of interrelated sequential steps that can be used to respond to a structured problem.A rule is an explicit statement that tells managers what they can or cannot do.A policy is a guideline for making decisions.Unstructured problems are problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete. These problems are best handled by a nonprogrammed decision that is a unique decision that requires a custom made solution.

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Part II: HUMAN RELATION SKILLS

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ContHuman relations and interpersonal communication skills are essential to working effectively in an organization.Personality conflicts or communication interference causes friction between people, which can drastically reduce productivity. The term human relations means interactions among people . The goal of human relations is to create a winwin situationHuman relations cover all types of interactions among people including conflics, cooperative effort and group relationships. A winwin situation occurs when the organization and the employees get what they want.

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2.2 Communication In the biblical story of the Tower of Babel, the people of the world come together to build a tower that would reach heaven. In a single stroke, their efforts came to naught because they were besieged by befuddled communication, resulting in breakdown of coordination.Intended message is frequently mis - communicated, misunderstood, mis-quoted or even missed altogether because of ineffective interpersonal communication skills. Appropriate Technology*

ContCommunication is the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs.The ability to effectively communicate with other people is an important skill. Through communication, people reach some understanding of each other, learn to like each other, influence one another, build trust, and learn more about themselves and how people perceive them. Communication is a significant part of a managers job. In todays team-oriented workplace, the development of good interpersonal communication skills is an important key to success

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ContThrough effective communication, a manager can mobilize the employees behind an organizations vision and inspire a conscious and concerted team effort to attain the vision. 2.2.1 Classification of communication 2.2.1.1 Intrapersonal Communication 2.2.1.2 Interpersonal Communication2.2.1.3 Small Group Communication2.2.1.4 Public Communication or Public Speaking2.2.1.5 Mass Communication2.2.1.6 Non-Verbal Communication


2.2.1.1 Intrapersonal Communication Intrapersonal communication: people talk to themselves, communication takes place within the brain. It embraces their thoughts, experiences and perceptions during a communication event. Behavioral responses on all their levels of communication essentially begin on intrapersonal level. On this level, the individual forms personal rules and patterns of communication.

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ContIntrapersonal communication encompasses: Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures, eye contact Communication between body parts; e.g. My stomach is telling me its time for lunch. Day-dreaming Nocturnal dreaming and Many others... Appropriate Technology*

2.2.1.2 Interpersonal CommunicationInterpersonal communication refers to communication between two or more individuals. It involves face-to-face communicationIt can occur in both a one-on-one and a group setting.Its type may vary from verbal to non-verbal and from situation to situation. Gestures such as eye contact, body movement, and hand gestures are also part of interpersonal communication. The most common functions of interpersonal communication are listening, talking and conflict resolution. *

2.2.1.3 Small Group CommunicationSmall group communication is an interaction process that occurs among three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through mediated/faciletated forms. This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level the most obvious difference is the number of persons involved in the process. The small group may be a family of three talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization with just a few members.


2.2.1.4 Public Communication or Public SpeakingThe speaker sends messages to an audience, which is not identified as individuals. Unlike the previous levels, the speaker is doing most, if not all, of the talking. 2.2.1.5 Mass CommunicationMass communication occurs when a small number of people send messages to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience using specialized communication media. It represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media.

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Cont 2.2.1.6 Non-Verbal CommunicationIn non-verbal communication, people send messages to each other without talking. They communicate through facial expressions, head positions, arm and hand movements, body posture, and positioning of legs and feet. *

2.2.2 Methods of Communication Communication occurs in an organization in the context of people trying to fulfill one or several of the following six needs: To feel respected To give or get information To be empathically understood and respected To cause change of action To create excitement and reduce boredom To avoid something unpleasant, like silence or confrontation The methods used by them to fulfill those needs include listening, speaking, reading and writing.


2.2.3 Communication Styles Every time a manager speaks, s/he chooses and uses one of four basic communication styles: assertive, aggressive, passive and passive-aggressive. 1. Passive Style: Passive communication is based on compliance and hopes to avoid confrontation at all costs. In this mode, people do not talk much, question even less, and actually do very little. They usually have a low sense of self-esteem, and have a difficult time recognizing their own needs and knowing how to meet them more appropriately. Appropriate Technology*

ContThey internalize discomfort rather than risk, upsetting others. This style tends to result in a lose-win situation, and results in feelings of victimization, resentment/betterness, and a loss of a sense of control. 2. Aggressive Style: Aggressive communication always involves manipulation. Managers adopting the aggressive style create a win-lose situation. They use intimidation and control to get their needs met, and they are disrespectful and hurtful to others in communications. Appropriate Technology*

ContThey have the underlying beliefs that power and control are the only way to get needs met. 3. Passive - Aggressive Style: It is a combination of passive-aggressive styles, It avoids direct confrontation (passive), but attempts to get even through manipulation(aggressive). The passive aggressive people try to use procrastination, forgetfulness, and intentional inefficiency rather that being direct in their communications with others.


Cont4. Assertive Style: It is the most effective and healthiest form of communication Its how people naturally express themselves when their self-esteem /self respect is intact, giving them the confidence to communicate without games and manipulation. The assertive people are direct with the goal of creating a win-win situation. They operate from the belief that each person is responsible for solving his or her own problems, and neither party in communication has to justify themselves to each other. They take responsibility for their own decisions and actions.


Table of various interpersonal communication styles against selected important issuesAppropriate Technology*

ContAppropriate Technology*

2.2.4 Communication Barriers Sender barrier. The sender may send a message to an audience that is not interested in the content of the message. Encoding barrier. The sender uses a vocabulary that is too technical for the audience. Communication channel barrier. The sender selects a communication channel that is too lean/tiny/wiry to provide the richness of information receivers need to decode the message. For example, a written memo is inadequate for explaining a change in the employee retirement plan.


ContReceiver barrier. The receiver is too busy focusing on other things to be able to accurately listen to and understand the verbal or nonverbal content of the message. Feedback barrier. The organization has few formal communication channels with feedback loops/circles to give lower echelon/rank employees the opportunity to communicate their true feelings about policies. Noise barrier. The receiver does not understand how to use time-saving feature of e-mail and voice mail, resulting in message overload and unacceptable delays in responding to message of customer and coworker.


Cont Perception barriers. Perception barriers occur when two individual experiences the same message differently because their mental images of the message are not identical.A receiver will fit a message into an existing pattern of experiences to make sense out of it. Sometimes the message becomes distorted during this sense making process. One type of perception barrier is selective perception, whereby the receiver focuses on the parts of the message that are most relevant to his or her interests and ignores other parts that are viewed as not relevant.Appropriate Technology*

2.3 Conflict Management Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals.Conflict on team work is inevitable; however, the results of conflict are not predetermined. Conflict might escalate and lead to nonproductive results, or conflict can be beneficially resolved and lead to quality final products. Therefore, learning to manage conflict is integral to a high performance team. Appropriate Technology*

ContConflict management is the principle that all conflicts cannot necessarily be resolved, but learning how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of nonproductive escalation. Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict in your environment. 2.3.2 Responding to Conflict Physiologically we respond to conflict in one of two wayswe want to get away from the conflict (flee) or we are ready to take on anyone who comes our way.Appropriate Technology*

ContWhether we feel like we want to fight or flee when a conflict arises, we can deliberately choose a conflict modeBy consciously choosing a conflict mode instead of to conflict, we are more likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at hand. Below are five conflict response modes that can be used in conflict. 1. Competing 2. Avoiding 3. Accommodating 4. Compromising 5. Collaborating


CompetingThe competing conflict mode is high assertiveness and low cooperation. Competing mode is appropriate are when quick action needs to be taken, when unpopular decisions need to be made, when vital issues must be handled, or when one is protecting self-interests. Competing Skills: Arguing or debating Using rank or influence Asserting your opinions and feelings Standing your ground Stating your position clearly


2. Avoiding The avoiding mode is low assertiveness and low cooperation. Many times people will avoid conflicts out of fear of engaging in a conflict or because they do not have confidence in their conflict management skills. Times when the avoiding mode is appropriate are when you have issues of low importance, to reduce tensions, to buy some time, or when you are in a position of lower power. Avoiding Skills: Ability to withdraw Ability to sidestep issues Ability to leave things unresolved Sense of timing


3. Accommodating The accommodating mode is low assertiveness and high cooperation. Times when the accommodating mode is appropriate are to show reasonableness, develop performance, create good will, or keep peace. Some people use the accommodating mode when the issue or outcome is of low importance to them. Accommodating Skills: Forgetting your desires Selflessness Ability to yield Obeying orders


4. Compromising The compromising mode is moderate assertiveness and moderate cooperation. Some people define compromise as giving up more than you want, while others see compromise as b

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