Sociology - Theories and Methods Revision.pdf

7/25/2019 Sociology - Theories and Methods Revision.pdf

1/14

AQA A2 Sociology Theories and Methods RevisionDarryl Adie - Page 1 of 14

A2 AQA Sociology Theories and Methods

A2 AQA Sociology Theories and Methods ................... ....... ............................................ 1

Methodology Revision .....................................................................................................3

Assessing Research Findings ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... .......... ..... ..3

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods and Data ................................................................................. 3

Validity and Reliability ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ........ ...... ..... ..3

Triangulation........................................................................................................................................3

Reflexivity ............................................................................................................................................ 3

Dialogic Research.................................................................................................................................4

Methodological Pluralism ............................................................................. .......................................4

Sociology and Science..............................................................................................................................4

Auguste Comte Positivism ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ......... ..... .4

Durkheim Sociological Methodology................................................................................................5

Karl Popper Deduction and Falsification ......................................................................................... 5

Kuhn Paradigms and Science ................................................................................................................ 5

Realist Approaches (Open and Closed Systems)..................................................................................6

Interpretivist Sociology ........................................................................................ ...................................6

Max Weber (Social Action, Verstehen) ..................................................................................... ...........6

Blumer Symbolic Interactionism ................................................................................ ......................6

Phenomenology....................................................................................................................................6

Two Sociologies? ...................................................................................... ............................................7

Postmodernist Methodology....................................................................................................................7

Feminist Methodology.............................................................................................................................7

Sociology, Methodology and Values ........................................................................................................ 7

Values and the Study of Deviance ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ..... ...... ...... ......... ....8

Relativism ................................................................................................................ ............................8

Sociology and Social Policy......................................................................................................................8

The Founding Fathers ......................................................................................................... .................8

Shaping Social Policy ................................................................................................... ........................8

Sociology, Social Policy and Labour (Giddens Third Way) ..............................................................9


2/14


3/14


Methodology Revision

Assessing Research Findings

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods and Data

Quantitative Data numerical (questionnaires, structured interviews) i.e. official statistics

Qualitative Data written (unstructured interviews, observation)

Validity and Reliability

Validity refers to accuracy data is valid if it gives a true picture of social life. It could be

argued that qualitative data gives a truer picture of social life than quantitative data.

Reliability methods and data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods

obtain similar results. A reliable method allows studies to be replicated.

Triangulation

Triangulation is a means of testing the validity and reliability of methodology and data ( Denzin,

1970)

Investigator Triangulation Using different researchers (observers / interviewers)

Data Triangulation Collecting data at different times, in different places and from differentpeople.

Methodological Triangulation there are two types of methodological triangulation. Within-

method is using the same method with different approaches i.e. open and closed interviews. The

other is Between-method using a combination of research techniques interviews, observation,

questionnaires etc.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is recognition of the reflexive nature of research. Researchers should question whether

their presence affects the actions of the people they are studying. This awareness will help to produce

a more valid picture of society.

How Can Sociologists Reduce Their Influence On Research?

Asking the ResearchedWhyte (1955) studied an Italian-American gang in Boston, he

discussed his findings with the leader of the gang (Doc). Doc assessedWhytesinterpretation from

an insiders point of view.


4/14


Playing the Part Cicourel (1976)spent four years studying probation officers in California. Part

of this time was spent as an unpaid probation officer. His aim was to discover the meanings used by

probation officers to define young people as delinquent.

Presenting the Data In The Social Organisation of Juvenile Justice, Cicourelpresents lengthyextracts from conversations between probation officers and juveniles giving other researchers the

opportunity to assess Cicourels interpretations.

Comparing Results if researchers look at similar studies they can question their results and

findings and the extent to which their own beliefs and values may have affected the research.

Critical Self Awareness None of these methods is fool-proof but they do encourage a critical

self-awareness which can only benefit the validity of research.

Dialogic Research

Awareness of reflexivity has also led some sociologists to examine the relationship between the

researcher and the researched. They argue that the relationship is unequal.

Dialogic Researchinvolves dialog between the researched and researcher. The researcher lets go of

power and inviting the researched to set the agenda, to decide whats important and how to express it

(Puwar, 2001).

Cohen (1996-97) provides an example of this research methodology. He gave young people in

East London cameras and tape recorders and asked them to record their social world in their own

way.

Dialogic Research offers an opportunity to capture peoples outlook, priorities, hopes and anxietieswith a minimum of intrusion by the official researcher.

Methodological Pluralism

Methodological pluralism recognises the strengths and weaknesses of different research methods and

aims to build up a fuller picture of social life by combining different research methods and different

types of data.

Eileen Barkers (1984)study of The Moonies shows the strengths of methodological pluralism.

She conducted in-depth interviews, participant observation and questionnaires. Barkerclaimed that

combining different methods gave her a fuller picture than if she had just used one method or data

source.

Sociology and Science

Auguste Comte Positivism

Comte (1798-1857)invented the word sociology. He argued sociology should be based on the

methodology of the natural sciences. This would result in a positive science of society. He insisted


5/14


that only observable facts were acceptable evidence for his science of society. The facts of society

should be objectively measured and quantified.

Durkheim Sociological Methodology

Durkheimsaw society in terms of social factsthat could then be quantified and be subject to

statistical analysis. Durkheimsfamous study of suicide (1897) argued that rate of suicide was

found in society, not the psychology of individuals. Suicide rates are social facts, as well as the

product of other social facts. Durkheimexamined official statistics on suicide from a number of

European countries and he found that:

1.

Suicide rates within each country were fairly consistent over a number of years.

2.

There were significant differences between societies and between social groups within the

same society.

Durkheimfound correlations between suicide rates and a number of social facts for example

religion, location, age and family situation.

Protestants < Catholics

City Dwellers < Rural Dwellers

Older Adults < Younger Adults

Unmarried < Married

Married with Children < Married without Children

More on this study later

Karl Popper Deduction and Falsification

Durkheimargued that theories should come from evidence gathering, describing, classifying and

analysing social facts from this theories can be generated. This is an inductive approach.

A deductive approachreverses Durkheims inductive approach. It starts with a theory and uses

data to test that theory.

According to Popper rather than looking for evidence that confirms their theories, scientists should

do their best to disprove their theories (falsification). Popper argues that Marxs theory of history

fails in this respect because it cannot be falsified and is therefore unscientific.

Kuhn Paradigms and Science

For Kuhn (1962), natural sciences are paradigmatic they are dominated by a single theory

currently Einsteinian and formerly Newtonian theory. Because sociology is pre-paradigmatic(lots

of theories functionalism, Marxism, feminism, postmodernism) it is therefore pre-scientific.

However, Lakatos (1970)disagrees that the history of science is dominated by a single paradigm

but that the development of science is a development of constantly competing paradigms (theories);

similarly to sociology which Lakatosargues means sociology can still be seen as scientific.


6/14


Realist Approaches (Open and Closed Systems)

Sayer (1992)distinguishes between open and closed systems laboratories are closed systems.

This allows them to reveal more clearly the operation of mechanisms

Because human behaviour takes place in an open system it is more difficult to predict its course with

any degree of accuracy.

However, structures constrain human behaviour but human beings are not simply directed by

structural constraints. Realists accept the Marxist view of false consciousness that socially

constructed meanings can distort reality (Blaikie, 1993).

Interpretivist Sociology

Max Weber (Social Action, Verstehen)

Weber defined sociology as a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social

action in order to thereby arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects(1964).

Social action is action that involves other members of society it is based on the meanings of in the

minds of the social actors which direct their actions. Weber was particularly interested in motives

and direct social action to achieve certain goals.

Verstehen translated as empathetic understanding, the researcher places themselves in the

position of the researched to try and understand their motives within social action. (Criticism: this is

not reflexive!)

Blumer Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic Interactionists tend to focus on small scale interactions and the meanings within these

situations. Blumer (1962)developed a methodology for the study of social interaction.

Symbolic Interactionists accept that to some extent social interaction is structured and meanings are

not constantly reinvented, social interaction is often routine and repetitive but this doesnt mean that

negotiation and interpretation arent important aspects of interaction.

See Also: Symbolic Interactionism in Theories

Phenomenology

Phenomenologists argue that as a human being our only reality consists of meanings. The job of

the sociologist is to find those meanings.

This approach can be found in Atkinsons study Discovering Suicidewhere he seeks to discover

who deaths are categorised as suicide. He sees suicide as a meaning and has no real ity beyond this.

Atkinsons reach attempted to discover the meanings used by coroners to classify suicides.


7/14


Atkinsons research does not concentrate on social facts as in Durkheimsstudy. They do not

believe that suicides are objective facts that can be explained, they are meanings. To try and discover

the causes of suicide will simply result in uncovering meanings that are used to classify suicides.

Two Sociologies?

Halfpenny (1984)argues that there are two sociologies one based on scientific methodology

and hard quantitative data (positivism)and the other based on interpretivist methodology and

soft qualitative data (interpretivism).

However, Pawson (1989)rejects this view; he sees the distinction as a methodological myth.

Postmodernist Methodology

Postmodernists challenge the entire basis of research methodology in the social sciences. They

question the possibility of making definite statements about social reality. They argue that findings in

research reports are simply sociologists construction of reality rather than a valid

description of society.

From a postmodernist view, research reports are not objectivethey are constructions which are

designed to persuade, to give the impression of rational, analytical thinking and to convince the

reader that the researchers view is the truth (Alvesson, 2002).

Postmodernists are particularly hostile to metanarrativeswhich try to give a single explanation to

the entire make up of social reality, such as Marxism and functionalism. For postmodernists there are

multiple (if not infinite) interpretations of the social world, who is to say which is right or best?

Feminist Methodology

The weak thesis(Pawson, 1992)in feminist methodology states that androcentricity (a male-

centred view of the world which assumes male dominance and superiority) and over generalisation

are found in all aspects of the research process.

Research methods in themselves however are not sexistbut sociologists need to learn how to

conduct their research and their methodology in a non-sexist way.

The strong thesis(supported by Oakley, 1981) states that feminism requires its own research

methods for example, feminist interviewing.

Postmodern feminism rejects feminism as a single perspective it emphasises diversity and variation

between different women (such as black, working class and homosexual) .

Sociology, Methodology and Values


8/14


Values and the Study of Deviance

Becker (1970) argues that it is impossible to conduct research uncontaminated by personal and

political sympathies. He believes that interactionist theories and methods are infused with left-wing

value judgements.

Gouldner (1975) also believes that value-free sociology is impossible. Gouldner argues that values

underlie every sociological perspective; these values influence the way sociologists picture and

examine the social world.

Relativism

Relativists see all knowledge as relative, there is no such thing as objective knowledge since

everything is seen through the lens of our values and culture.

Sociology and Social Policy

The Founding Fathers

The founding fathers of sociology believed it should play a part in society, in reforming social

problems and improving the social condition. Comte (d.1857)saw sociology as a practical subject

that should be applied to wider society. Durkheim (d.1917)also focused on the question of order in

society; he was interested in the break down of value consensus due to industrialisation. He saw

sociology as a way of restoring order and strengthening order and social integration. Marx (1818-

1883)saw sociologists working with governments to improve existing societies but he also looked

forward to the overthrowing of governments and their replacement with communist societies.

Shaping Social Policy

During the 19th century the dominant view of poverty was the poor were to blame for their poverty

(Page, 2001). In 1899, Rowntreeconducted a systematic study of poverty in York and found

differently, research such as this influenced Liberal governments in the 1900s.

Examples: Old Age Pensions Act (1908) pensions for over 70s; National Insurance Act

(1911) sick benefits to manual workers.

Governments listen to sociologists when it suits them, this can be seen from Thatchers

Conservative government (1979-1990) she had no time for sociology except the American right-

wing sociologist Charles Murrayand David Marslandfrom the UK.

The Thatcher and Major governments attempted to end a dependency culture (nanny state) by

reducing welfare benefits and introducing measures such as the Job Seekers Allowance and The Child

Support Agency (Page, 2001).

Donnison (2001)claims that major shifts in policy come about, not when the old questions are

finally answered but when new questions are asked. For example:


9/14


1.

Initially people asked: Does the death penalty deter people from killing each other? Then

from about 1963, a new question was asked Is the death penalty acceptable in a civilised

society? Two years later, the death penalty was abolished.

2.

Rowntreesearly study of York looked at absolute poverty. By this definition in the 1960spoverty was dwindling. ThenAbel-Smith and Townsend (1965) developed a new

concept relative povertyand the emphasis of poverty shifted from the old to those on low

incomes with dependant children, this directed a shift in resources to the low paid with

young children.

Sociology, Social Policy and Labour (Giddens Third Way)

When New Labour came to power in 1997, they offer the Third Way, neither the left-wing policies of

Old Labour nor the right-wing policies of the Conservatives in the 1980s and early 1990s.

Much of this was influenced by Giddensbook The Third Way (1998), it stressed the importance

of social solidarityand social cohesion. He also saw social exclusion as the main threat to social

order and solidarity.

He believed that exclusion of the poor could be prevented by providing welfare benefits and better

public services (particularly health and education) as well as opportunities to move out of poverty.

Without these measures the poor would be excluded from mainstream society and solidarity would be

threatened (Giddens, 1998; Bennett, 2001).

Giddenss Third Way is reflected in Labours social policy. In their first years of government, Labour

set up the Social Exclusion Unitto find solutions to the problems of exclusion in society. It is

directly responsible to the Cabinet and it attempts to ensure that all policies health, education,

poverty, crime and urban renewals are part of a coordinated strategy to deal with social exclusion

(MacGregor, 2001).


10/14


Theories Revision

What is Sociological Theory?

There are two essential elements to sociological theories models and propositions.

Theories can be evaluated in two ways logical evaluation(checking for contradictions) and

empirical evaluation(using evidence).

Empirical evaluation is problematic because of people have false consciousness; evidence based on

their statements may not be valid.

Classical Sociology and Modernity

Sociology emerged in the 19th Century; political revolutions in France and the Industrial Revolution

in England (and later elsewhere) signalled a radical change in society and the advent of modernity.

The Enlightenment

The enlightenment was the change from religious superstition to scientific rationalisation in Europe

from 1800 onwards. The Roman Catholic Church lost control over peoples lives and emphasis was

placed on the human ability to create knowledge, rather than relying on the teachings of the church.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Marxdid not see himself as a sociologist but his work has had a profound effect on the discipline.

Marx believed that society was based on a conflict between the proletariat and the capitalist

class. The capitalist class (bourgeoisie) exploit the working class by gaining from the surplus value

(profit) that the working class create through their labour. In effect, the working classes are

underpaid by the capitalist class.

He also predicted that the working class would gain class consciousnessand would rise up against

the bourgeoisie and replace the capitalist system with communism.

Marxand other Marxist sociologists have identified a number of things that prevent class

consciousness and a communist revolution. Marxsaw the state as having a key ideological role. The

state gives the appearance of working in the interests of society as a whole yet, in reality; it is workingin the interests of the capitalist class.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

See Also: Durkheim in Methodology Section

Durkheimsaw society in terms of functions (functionalism). Durkheimargued that only by

examining the contribution which each of a societys parts makes to its overall functioning can we

arrive at a complete understanding of these parts.


11/14


Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber emphasised the importance of taking into account the points of view of social actors, and the

meanings which they attribute to their own behaviour and that of others.

Weber would say that peoples actions are meaningful, they are not just the product of external forces

over which you have no control, but they are the result of your own interpretations of the world

around you and of the conscious choices you make about your future.

See also: Verstehen

Four categories of action:

1.

Instrumentally Rational Action the actor assesses both their goals and the means by

which they should be achieved.

2.

Value-rational Action unlike instrumentally rational action the goal cannot be

abandoned no matter how difficult. Rejecting it would be an example of instrumentally

rational action.

3.

Traditional Action- this does not involve the assessment of goals or means, it is carried

out just because tradition dictates it.

4.

Affective Action this action is the result of an emotion, Weber believed this was

becoming less significant in industrial societies.

Weber argued that modern societies are characterised increasingly by a process of rationalisation.

In industrial development the increasing adoption of bureaucracy produces a trend towards

disenchantment(or the more literal translation: taking the magic out of things) and theprogressive removal of non-rational elementsfrom all spheres of life.

Establishment of Sociological Theory

Functionalism (Parsons and Merton)

Parsons- in his book entitled The Social System (1951) Parsonsbelieves that all social systems

inevitably face four problems, which must be solved for the system to survive.

1.

Adaptation the need for social systems to adapt to their surroundings and environment

and create some mechanism which ensures food and shelter can be obtained. Adaptation

requires normative regulation; in simple societies this is through the existence of customs

and norms, in more advanced societies this is through regulated economies.

2. Goal Attainment this refers to the goals that need to be set by societies towards which

the activities of their members are directed. In simple societies, this could be producing

sufficient food to maintain the population. In an advanced society these could be more

complex economic goals such as seeking profit.


12/14


3.

Integration the need to maintain cohesion within society and to deal efficiently with

deviance which threatens the overall stability of the society.

4. Pattern Maintenance the need to maintain the pattern of value commitments amongst a

societys members. Crucial to this is socialisation and the institutions that this takes placewithin the family and education.

Equilibrium this relates to the balance of the four elements above. For Parsons, this means that

a change in one part of the social system will produce a change elsewhere in the system such that it

will return to a state of equilibrium. Social systems are therefore, self-regulating .

Social Evolution all social systems are involved in an evolutionary process of development from

more simple to more complex systems. The central concept to explain this Parsonscalled

structural differentiation the tendency of social institutions to become more specialised.

In advanced societies with greater specialisation there is a need for increasingly broad and general

values capable of regulating a wider range of activities. In modern industrial societies, such values

include a belief in universalismand in achievement.

Merton (1957) rejects Parsonsidea of functional unity - that all parts of society are connected

and beneficial (functional) to the running of that society. Merton believes that in a highly

differentiated society there is some degree of functional autonomy.

Merton also challenges universal functionalismthat all parts of the social system fulfil

someone positive function and this should not be assumed in advance, as Parsonsdid.

Marxism (Gramsci and Althusser)

Gramsci (d.1937) also highlighted the importance of ideology in ensuring the maintenance of

capitalism. Gramscisnotion of hegemony (intellectual and moral leadership), argues that the

capitalist class exercise hegemony because their ideas and values are dominant. As a result they are

able to persuade others to consent to their rule. According to Gramsci:

Revolution is only possible if the working class challenge the hegemony of the ruling class.

However, he also says that sometimes the working class can force concessions from their rulers.

These concessions can only come from organised working class pressure (sometimes called power

blocs) - for example, the NHS and the welfare (benefits) system. While, these concessions reduce the

profits of the capitalist class (because of increases in taxes), they temporarily prevent a revolution

and maintain the capitalist system, which is in the long term interests of the bourgeoisie.

Althusser believes that societies exist on three levels: the economic, the political and the

ideological. The later two are not mere reflections of the economic level (as Marx believed economic

determinism) but they have relative autonomy although still having an effect on the economy.

Althusser (1971) also identifies two kinds of state apparatus used to help maintain the position of

the capitalist class:

Ideological state apparatus education and the mass media


13/14


Repressive state apparatus the army and police

Symbolic Interactionism (Mead, Blumer and Goffman)

Blumer it is simply not legitimate to see human behaviour as resulting from the operation of

measurable variables. Instead, individual actions need to be examined from the point of view of the

actors interpretation of the situation in which they find themselves.

Goffman (1959) Sees society as a drama dramaturgical analogy

Impression Management- Goffman argues that in everyday social interaction individuals are not

just expressing themselves but also trying to create impressions of themselves in the minds of the

audience.

Structure and Action in Sociology

Structuralism (Levi-Strauss and Barthes [Semiotics])

Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel) and Phenomenology

Documentary Method taking certain aspects of a situation from an infinite number which could

have been selected, and then using them to define them in a particular way, and this definition is

evidence for some underlying pattern; for exampleAtkinsons study of coroners and suicide. The

underlying pattern was here was this commonsense view of what constituted a suicide.

Indexicality people make interpretations of actions based on the context of the situation. (i.e. joke

told at a comedy night, at a convent).

Unification of Structure and Action (Giddens)

Duality of Structure Action and structure are two ways of looking at the same thing. Structures

are produced by action and action maintains structure.

Challenges of Sociological Theory

Globalisation (Giddens, Beck)

Chernobyl, Beck (1992) risk society

Giddens (1990) globalisation does not bring about generalisation and uniform action but

opposing tendencies:

1.

Cultural homogenisation vs. differentiation


14/14


2.

New identities vs. Old identities

3.

Centralisation vs. decentralisation

Postmodernism (Lyotard)

Criticisms of Postmodernism:

Philo and Miller (2001):

1.

People are able to make judgements about what is right or wrong

2.

People are aware of the images beyond the media. They recognise that media images are

often one-sided, partial and distorted.

3. Many people are not free to create their own identities cannot afford expensive goods.

Lyotard (1992) criticises metanarratives, this postmodern rejection of metanarratives has alsomeant a questioning of science (as a metanarrative). In postmodernism there is a change to hear the

voices

Sociology - Theories and Methods Revision.pdf

Documents

Transcript of Sociology - Theories and Methods Revision.pdf