Sociology and the Self.Sociology and the Self.

The ‘I’; the ‘Me’; Identity and The ‘I’; the ‘Me’; Identity and Subjectivity.Subjectivity.

What is Identity?What is Identity?

‘‘A sense of self or personhood, of what kind of person one A sense of self or personhood, of what kind of person one is. Identities always involve both sameness and is. Identities always involve both sameness and difference… (2000) Penguin Dictionary of Sociology.difference… (2000) Penguin Dictionary of Sociology.

‘‘Identity is about belonging, about what you have in Identity is about belonging, about what you have in common with some people and what differentiates you common with some people and what differentiates you from others. At its most basic it gives you a sense of from others. At its most basic it gives you a sense of personal location, the stable core to individuality. But it is personal location, the stable core to individuality. But it is also about your social relationships, your complex also about your social relationships, your complex involvement with others’ (1996) Weeks in Bradley.involvement with others’ (1996) Weeks in Bradley.

Can be seen as something fixed or something fluid.Can be seen as something fixed or something fluid.

Three Main ArgumentsThree Main Arguments

1.1. We are born with our identitiesWe are born with our identities

2.2. Identities and culturally and historically Identities and culturally and historically dependentdependent

3.3. Identities are fluid and fragmented and are Identities are fluid and fragmented and are a result of conscious and unconscious a result of conscious and unconscious thought and emotion (affective attachment thought and emotion (affective attachment to particular identities).to particular identities).

Sources of Identity Construction.Sources of Identity Construction.

GenderGender AgeAge SexualitySexuality EthnicityEthnicity Social ClassSocial Class ConsumptionConsumption EmploymentEmployment Roles and Roles and

Responsibilities.Responsibilities.

Family networksFamily networks Friendship networks Friendship networks

Group membershipGroup membership Use of technologyUse of technology Use of informationUse of information PoliticsPolitics Leisure activitiesLeisure activities The bodyThe body

Bradley (1996)Bradley (1996)

Two types of IdentityTwo types of Identity Personal identity and Personal identity and

social identitysocial identity A blueprint of the self.A blueprint of the self. Personal- the core- Personal- the core-

PsychologyPsychology Social- how we locate Social- how we locate

ourselves in society- ourselves in society- sociology.sociology.

CritiqueCritique These are old subject These are old subject

divisionsdivisions Focus on Individual Focus on Individual

ignores social and vice ignores social and vice versaversa

Personal identity about Personal identity about subjectivitysubjectivity

What is Subjectivity?What is Subjectivity?

The concept of the selfThe concept of the self

George H. Mead (1863-1931)George H. Mead (1863-1931) emphasised the emphasised the subjective meaningsubjective meaning of human behaviour, of human behaviour,

the social process, and pragmatism. the social process, and pragmatism. subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective, subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective,

macro-structural aspects of social systems macro-structural aspects of social systems Human beings act toward things on the basis of the Human beings act toward things on the basis of the

meanings that the things have for themmeanings that the things have for them These meanings are a product of social interaction in These meanings are a product of social interaction in

society. society. These meanings are modified through a process of These meanings are modified through a process of

interpretation, which each individual deploys when dealing interpretation, which each individual deploys when dealing with the things that s/he encounters.with the things that s/he encounters.

George H. Mead (1863-1931)George H. Mead (1863-1931)

Mind, Self and Society (1934), The Philosophy of the Act Mind, Self and Society (1934), The Philosophy of the Act (1938)(1938)

emphasised the emphasised the subjective meaningsubjective meaning of human behaviour, of human behaviour, the social process, and pragmatism. the social process, and pragmatism.

subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective, subjective aspects of social life, rather than on objective, macro-structural aspects of social systems macro-structural aspects of social systems

Human beings act toward things on the basis of the Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for themmeanings that the things have for them

These meanings are a product of social interaction in society. These meanings are a product of social interaction in society. These meanings are modified through a process of These meanings are modified through a process of

interpretation, which each individual deploys when dealing interpretation, which each individual deploys when dealing with the things that s/he encounters.with the things that s/he encounters.

SI premises (2)SI premises (2)

society consists of organised and patterned interactions society consists of organised and patterned interactions among individuals. among individuals.

Social research methods based on observable face-to-face Social research methods based on observable face-to-face interactions rather than on macro-level structural interactions rather than on macro-level structural relationships involving social institutions. relationships involving social institutions.

shifts focus away from stable norms and values toward shifts focus away from stable norms and values toward more changeable, continually readjusting social processes. more changeable, continually readjusting social processes.

negotiation among members of society creates temporary, negotiation among members of society creates temporary, socially constructed relation socially constructed relation

This does no occur in a structural flux - we are 'schooled' to This does no occur in a structural flux - we are 'schooled' to act and respond to others within existing social meanings.act and respond to others within existing social meanings.

SI basicsSI basics

SI advocates reject the micro-macro, subjective-objective SI advocates reject the micro-macro, subjective-objective dualismsdualisms

Argue that there is no objective structure outside of Argue that there is no objective structure outside of individual experience/perceptionindividual experience/perception

That social life is constructed by individuals in interaction That social life is constructed by individuals in interaction with others.with others.

Hence, the lecture is concerned with a fundamental Hence, the lecture is concerned with a fundamental relations between (a) the reflexive self, (b) the way in which relations between (a) the reflexive self, (b) the way in which social roles and meanings evolve out of interaction social roles and meanings evolve out of interaction between people and (c) the idea that society is the sum of between people and (c) the idea that society is the sum of human relations and consciousness rather than objective human relations and consciousness rather than objective institutions.institutions.

The reflexive selfThe reflexive self

self-aware individual who consciously acts in the world. self-aware individual who consciously acts in the world. the reflexive individual emerges from processes of meaning-the reflexive individual emerges from processes of meaning-

making, interpretation and social interaction. making, interpretation and social interaction. Humans generating signs or communicative codes via Humans generating signs or communicative codes via

language (ie 'symbolic communication’)language (ie 'symbolic communication’) Firstly, the signs and symbols that constitute language allow Firstly, the signs and symbols that constitute language allow

people to develop a common symbolic and conceptual storepeople to develop a common symbolic and conceptual store which allows for nuanced and complex levels of negotiation.which allows for nuanced and complex levels of negotiation. Through social interaction, people learn meanings and Through social interaction, people learn meanings and

symbols that allow them to exercise thought. symbols that allow them to exercise thought. As people can develop subtle and complex forms of As people can develop subtle and complex forms of

communication, they also enable more complex interactions communication, they also enable more complex interactions to take place.to take place.

Ritzer continuedRitzer continued Meanings and symbols allow people to carry out human action Meanings and symbols allow people to carry out human action

and interactions and interactions People alter meaning and symbols they use in interaction > People alter meaning and symbols they use in interaction >

Language and communication deepens our capacity to become Language and communication deepens our capacity to become reflexive (self-aware and aware of others) reflexive (self-aware and aware of others)

In addition to 'talking to others' we engage in 'talking to In addition to 'talking to others' we engage in 'talking to ourselves', that is, engaging in internal conversations when we ourselves', that is, engaging in internal conversations when we are making decisions. are making decisions.

The intertwined effects of action and interaction make up The intertwined effects of action and interaction make up groups and societies.groups and societies.

Thus, 'symbolic communication' is central to the ways that we Thus, 'symbolic communication' is central to the ways that we make meaning make meaning

This also reflects the SI claim that society amounts to the This also reflects the SI claim that society amounts to the creative activity and that social change is brought about by creative activity and that social change is brought about by processes of interaction. processes of interaction.

Mead: The ‘I’ and the ‘Me’Mead: The ‘I’ and the ‘Me’

‘‘I’ is the spontaneous unpredictable element of I’ is the spontaneous unpredictable element of the self the self

'I' memory is a store of creativity, adaptability and 'I' memory is a store of creativity, adaptability and novelty in the social process.novelty in the social process.

Where our most important values are locatedWhere our most important values are located Constitutes the realisation of the self - i.e. reveals Constitutes the realisation of the self - i.e. reveals

a definite personalitya definite personality Seen as an evolutionary process Seen as an evolutionary process

Mead – ‘I’ and ‘Me’Mead – ‘I’ and ‘Me’

'Me' is the conformist aspect of the self, and the 'Me' is the conformist aspect of the self, and the reflexive, organised aspect of the self (Mead 1934: reflexive, organised aspect of the self (Mead 1934: 197).197).

Mead's concept of "playing the game”, where one Mead's concept of "playing the game”, where one must participate in a "conversation of gestures”, must participate in a "conversation of gestures”, use " significant symbols, if one is to participate in use " significant symbols, if one is to participate in society. Through this conversation, members society. Through this conversation, members playing the game are ‘socialised’ or made to playing the game are ‘socialised’ or made to conform to social system. conform to social system.

We alternative between ‘I’ and ‘Me’.We alternative between ‘I’ and ‘Me’.

Mead and ‘multiple Mead and ‘multiple selves/others’selves/others’

Multiple Selves "... we divide ourselves up in all sorts of different selves Multiple Selves "... we divide ourselves up in all sorts of different selves with reference to our acquaintances." with reference to our acquaintances."

generalised othergeneralised other significant other. Each group has their own significant symbols in which significant other. Each group has their own significant symbols in which

they communicate with our "self" and we perpetuate triadic relations they communicate with our "self" and we perpetuate triadic relations accordingly. accordingly.

Cooley’s ‘looking Glass Self’ ‘As we see our face, figure and dress in the Cooley’s ‘looking Glass Self’ ‘As we see our face, figure and dress in the glass, and are interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or glass, and are interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we should lime them to be; so in imagination we perceive in another’s some should lime them to be; so in imagination we perceive in another’s some though of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends and though of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends and so on, and are variously affected by it. A self-idea of this sort seems to so on, and are variously affected by it. A self-idea of this sort seems to have three principle elements: the imagination of our appearance to the have three principle elements: the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgement of that appearance; and other person; the imagination of his judgement of that appearance; and some sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification . The comparison some sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification . The comparison with a looking-glass hardly suggests the second element, the imagined with a looking-glass hardly suggests the second element, the imagined judgement, which is quite essential 9CH Cooley, 1902: 153).judgement, which is quite essential 9CH Cooley, 1902: 153).

Erving GoffmanErving Goffman

StigmaStigma (1963) (1963) Interaction RitualInteraction Ritual (1967), (1967), Forms of TalkForms of Talk (1981)(1981)

Presentation of the Self in Everyday lifePresentation of the Self in Everyday life (1956), (1956), Dramaturgy - with human social behaviour seen as Dramaturgy - with human social behaviour seen as

more or less well scripted and with humans as role-more or less well scripted and with humans as role-taking actors. taking actors.

Role-Role-taking taking is a key mechanism of interaction > is a key mechanism of interaction > reflexive awareness of self and othersreflexive awareness of self and others

Role-Role-making making a key mechanism of interaction in a key mechanism of interaction in unaccustomed situationsunaccustomed situations

improvisational quality of roles, with human social improvisational quality of roles, with human social behaviour seen as poorly scripted and with humans as behaviour seen as poorly scripted and with humans as role-making improvisers. role-making improvisers.

SI defines ‘society’SI defines ‘society’ Reflexive selves – social roles – meaning (triangular Reflexive selves – social roles – meaning (triangular

relationship).relationship). Society is the sum of human relations and consciousness rather Society is the sum of human relations and consciousness rather

than objective institutionsthan objective institutions There is no objective structure outside of individual There is no objective structure outside of individual

experience/perception experience/perception Social life is constructed by individuals in interaction with othersSocial life is constructed by individuals in interaction with others The self is social because we are born into existing society BUT The self is social because we are born into existing society BUT the self is bound by language (shared symbolic meanings ) and the self is bound by language (shared symbolic meanings ) and

interaction. interaction. Thus, the mind and self are socialised. (SI Thus, the mind and self are socialised. (SI doesdoes have a theory have a theory

of ‘structure’).of ‘structure’). THUS the self can adopt various social roles – significant and THUS the self can adopt various social roles – significant and

generalised othersgeneralised others

Symbolic Interactionism as action Symbolic Interactionism as action thoery - Herbert thoery - Herbert BlumerBlumer

Mead’s student at U. Chicago. responsible for coining the Mead’s student at U. Chicago. responsible for coining the term, "symbolic interactionism" term, "symbolic interactionism"

Symbolic Interactionism, a study of human group life and Symbolic Interactionism, a study of human group life and conduct which holds the centrality of the production of conduct which holds the centrality of the production of meaning as central to human behaviour.meaning as central to human behaviour.

concerned with observing social behaviour in relation to concerned with observing social behaviour in relation to what he called the 'root images' of social interaction. what he called the 'root images' of social interaction.

The Dilemma of Qualitative Method: Herbert Blumer and The Dilemma of Qualitative Method: Herbert Blumer and the Chicago Tradition (1989)Martyn Hammersley (ed). the Chicago Tradition (1989)Martyn Hammersley (ed).

Three core principles to his theory. They are meaning, Three core principles to his theory. They are meaning, language, and thought language, and thought

Blumer (2) ‘meaning’Blumer (2) ‘meaning’ meaning meaning states that humans act toward people and things based upon states that humans act toward people and things based upon

the meanings that they have given to those people or things. the meanings that they have given to those people or things. LanguageLanguage gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning

through symbols. through symbols. Thought,Thought, based on language, is a mental conversation or dialogue based on language, is a mental conversation or dialogue

that requires role taking, or imagining different points of view that requires role taking, or imagining different points of view symbolic importance we attach to signs in the world around us was symbolic importance we attach to signs in the world around us was

highly significant to the organisation of social behaviour highly significant to the organisation of social behaviour Meaning of cultural signs not ‘arbitrary’ but outcomes of social Meaning of cultural signs not ‘arbitrary’ but outcomes of social

processes (like Structuralists)processes (like Structuralists) symbolic importance of physical things, such as flags, clothing, symbolic importance of physical things, such as flags, clothing,

uniforms, and to weddings rituals such as weddings, funerals, uniforms, and to weddings rituals such as weddings, funerals, courtroom trials, conferences, etc. courtroom trials, conferences, etc.

Social symbols are not universal or ahistorical – Layder - kiss (of Social symbols are not universal or ahistorical – Layder - kiss (of friendship, romance, greeting, celebration – men hugging and football, friendship, romance, greeting, celebration – men hugging and football, ‘continental’ manners)‘continental’ manners)

Becker, HowardBecker, Howard Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance(1969)Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance(1969) Studies of group values among ‘delinquents’ and emergence of Studies of group values among ‘delinquents’ and emergence of

shared codes, values contra ‘mainstream’ valuesshared codes, values contra ‘mainstream’ values People continuously shape and reshape social worlds by attaching People continuously shape and reshape social worlds by attaching

meanings to objects in their environmentmeanings to objects in their environment Thus every human action bears potentially diverse symbolic Thus every human action bears potentially diverse symbolic

meaningsmeanings All people attach meanings to their behaviourm but such meanings All people attach meanings to their behaviourm but such meanings

are not always validated or acceptedare not always validated or accepted Becker argued, for example that (1) that the meaning of marijuana Becker argued, for example that (1) that the meaning of marijuana

was not lodged in the drug itself, but in the user's experiences of was not lodged in the drug itself, but in the user's experiences of the drugthe drug

(2) meaning cemented social roles in the rituals of exchange and (2) meaning cemented social roles in the rituals of exchange and interaction with other user's .interaction with other user's .

(3) the meaning value of the drug is also bound up future (3) the meaning value of the drug is also bound up future development of its value to the user (the cycle of meaning-making is development of its value to the user (the cycle of meaning-making is ongoing).ongoing).

Becker, deviance and labellingBecker, deviance and labelling

Becker and labelling – ‘social groups create Becker and labelling – ‘social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a qaulity, of the act the person commits, not a qaulity, of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’. others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’. The deviant is one to whom that label has The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behaviour successfully been applied; deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.is behaviour that people so label.

LEGACY OF SILEGACY OF SI A rejection of the dualisms that bedevilled sociological theory up A rejection of the dualisms that bedevilled sociological theory up

to that point to that point no objective structure outside of individual experience, emphasis no objective structure outside of individual experience, emphasis

- perhaps deterministically – on human agency in processes of - perhaps deterministically – on human agency in processes of social change social change

social life is constructed by individuals in interaction with otherssocial life is constructed by individuals in interaction with others EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology participant observation participant observation Focuses on social structures as in construction – interested in Focuses on social structures as in construction – interested in

how institutions are created and adapted by peoplehow institutions are created and adapted by people Significantly draws attention to construction and reinforcement of Significantly draws attention to construction and reinforcement of

dominant meanings (deviance and labelling)dominant meanings (deviance and labelling) Emphasis on action at the micro-level and processes of social Emphasis on action at the micro-level and processes of social

engagement and shifts in power (Foucault), amongst other engagement and shifts in power (Foucault), amongst other ideas.ideas.

Critiques of SI Critiques of SI

Idealistic - tends to overlook the deep Idealistic - tends to overlook the deep seated possibilities of conflict and resistance seated possibilities of conflict and resistance to the collective willto the collective will

overly impressionistic in their research overly impressionistic in their research methods and somewhat unsystematic in methods and somewhat unsystematic in their theories. their theories.

Inattention to the functions of institutions or Inattention to the functions of institutions or structural forces and what structures we are structural forces and what structures we are trying to make sense of and adapt to.trying to make sense of and adapt to.