Socio Socio

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Cultural LagThe role played by material inventions, that is, by technology, in social change probably received most

emphasis in the work of William F. Ogburn. It was Ogburn, also, who was chiefly responsible for the ideathat the rate of invention within society is a function of the size of the eisting culture base. !e saw the

rate of material invention as increasing with the passage of time.Ogburn believed that material andnon"material cultures change in different ways. #hange in material culture is believed to have a marked

directional or progressive character. This is because there are agreed"upon standards of efficiency thatare used to evaluate material inventions. To use air"planes, as an eample, we keep working to develop

planes that will fly, higher and faster, and carry more payloads on a lower unit cost. $ecause airplanes

can be measured against these standards, inventions in this area appear rapidly and predictably. In thearea of non"material culture, on the other hand there often are no such generally accepted standards.Whether one prefers a !ussain, a %icasso, or a &ainsborough, for eample, is a matter of taste, and

styles of painting fluctuate unevenly. 'imilarly, in institutions such as government and the economicsystem there are competing forms of styles, &overnments may be dictatorships, oligarchies, republics

or democracies.

(conomic system includes communist, socialist, feudal, and capitalist ones. )s far as can be told, there

is no regular progression from one form of government or economic system to another. The obviousdirectional character of change in material culture is lacking in many areas of non"material culture. In

addition to the difference in the directional character of change, Ogburn and others believe that materialculture tends to change faster than non"material culture. #ertainly one of the imperative aspects of

modern )merican life is the tremendous development of technology. Within this century, life has been

transformed by invention of the radio, T*, automobiles, airplanes, rockets, transistors, and computersand so on. While this has been happening in material culture, change in government, economic system,family life, education, and religion seems to have been much slower. This difference in rates of cultural

change led Ogburn to formulate the concept of culture lag. +aterial inventions, he believed bringchanges that reuire ad-ustments in various areas of non"material culture.Invention of the automobile,

for instance, freed young people from direct parental observation, made it possible for them to work atdistances from their homes, and, among other things, facilitated crime by making escape easier. !alf a

century earlier, families still were structured as they were in the era of the family farm when youngpeople were under continuous observation and worked right on the homestead.

#ulture lag is defined as the time between the appearance of a new material invention and the making

of appropriate ad-ustments in corresponding area of non"material culture. This time is often long. It wasover fifty years, for eample, after the typewriter was invented before it was used systematically inoffices. (ven today, we may have a family system better adapted to a farm economy than to an urban

industrial one, and nuclear weapons eist in a diplomatic atmosphere attuned to the nineteenth century.)s the discussion implies, the concept of culture lag is associated with the definition of social problems.

'cholars envision some balance or ad-ustment eisting between material and non"material cultures.That balance is upset by the appearance of raw material ob-ects. The resulting imbalance is defined as a

social problem until non"material culture changes in ad-ustment to the new technology.

Cultural Relativism

This is a method whereby different societies or cultures are analyzed ob-ectively without using thevalues of one culture to -udge the worth of another. We cannot possibly understand the actions of other

groups if we analyze them in terms of our motives and values. We must interpret their behavior in the

light of their motives, habits and values if we are to understand them. #ultural relativism means thatthe function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural setting. ) trait is neither good nor bad initself. It is good or bad only with reference to the culture in which it is to function. Fur clothing is good

in the )rctic but not in the tropics. In some hunting societies which occasionally face long periods ofhunger to be fat is good it has real survival value and fat people are admired. In our society to be fat is

not only unnecessary but is known to be unhealthful and fat people are not admired.

The concept of cultural relativism does not mean that all customs are eually valuable, nor does it imply

that no customs are harmful. 'ome patterns of behavior may be in-urious everywhere, but even suchpatterns serve some purpose in the culture and the society will suffer unless a substitute is provided.

The central point in cultural relativism is that in a particular cultural setting certain traits are right

because they work well in that setting while other traits are wrong because they would clash painfullywith parts of that culture.

Socialization

'ocialization is predominately an unconscious process by which a newborn child learns the values,beliefs, rules and regulations of society or internalizes the culture in which it is born. 'ocialization, in

fact, includes learning of three important processes/ 012 cognitive 032 affective, and 042 evaluative. Inother words, socialization includes the knowledge of how things are caused and the establishment of

emotional links with the rest of the members of the society. 'ocialization, therefore, euips an individualin such a way that he can perform his duties in his society. Who are the agents of socialization5 The

agents of socialization vary from society to society. !owever, in most of the cases, it is the family which

is a ma-or socializing agent, that is, the nearest kinsmen are the first and the most important agents of


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socialization. The other groups which are socializing units in a society vary according to the compleity.Thus, in modern comple society, the important socializing agents are educational institutions, while in

primitive societies, clans and lineages play a more important role. 'ocialization is a slow process.

There is no fied time regarding the beginning and the end of this process. !owever, some sociologists

formulated different stages of socialization. These are 012 oral stage, 032 anal stage 042 oedipal stage,and 062 adolescence. In all these stages, especially in the first three, the main socializing agent is the

family. The first stage is that of a new"born child when he is not involved in the family as a whole butonly with his mother. !e does not recognize anyone ecept his mother. The time at which the second

stage begins is generally after first year and ends when the infant is around three. )t this stage, thechild separates the role of his mother and his own. )lso during this time force is used on the child, that

is, he is made to learn a few basic things. The third stage etends from about fourth year to 13th to14th year, that is, till puberty. 7uring this time, the child becomes a member of the family as a whole

and identifies himself with the social role ascribed to him. The fourth stage begins at puberty when achild wants freedom from parental control. !e has to choose a -ob and a partner for himself. !e also

learns about incest taboo.

8uestions on 'ocialization

How does socialization shape a person's self-image?

To some etent, we accept the definitions of ourselves that we are taught by our families and other

members of our society.

What does Cooley mean y loo!ing glass self?

#ooley decided that a person comes to think of himself or herself as an 9I9 through a combination of

biological and social processes. The looking glass self is the image of self that a person sees reflected by

others.

How does "ead e#plain people ta!ing the role of the other?

+ead believes people take the role of the other by progressing through three stages. In stage I the

infant is all :I:. The :me: begins to develop through play in stage II and fully develops as the child

learns to respond to the generalized other in stage III, taking into account the broader social

community. 'ignificant others or persons with whom an individual has intimate and long term contact

facilitate this process. This self"awareness makes it possible for people to position themselves within

larger social units.

What is $offman's contriution to the idea of the social self?

&offman points out that the socialization process continues into adulthood. !e discusses for instance,

impression management, or how in daily activity we alter ourselves to fit the audience we areaddressing, a process made up of thousands of small every day social responses.

What is socioiology and why is it controversial?

'ociobiology introduced by (dward Wilson is the systematic study of the biological basis of social

behavior in every kind of organism. Wilson believes that human social behavior rests on a genetic

foundation. !is ideas have created controversy because they could conceivably be used to promote

racist and seist policies.

What are three modes of socialization?

'ocialization occurs through eplicit instruction, conditioning and innovation and role modeling. In

practice, these modes are usually blended.

What are three characteristics of the socialization process?

The socialization process tends to be general rather than specific, calls forth automatic behaviors and

responses and persists through time.


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What are the asic agents of socialization or domination?

The family, peer groups, television, day care and schools are today9s basic agents of socialization.

#onflict theorists point out that these agents can be thought of as agents of domination because they

may use their position to perpetuate an uneual power situation and to dominate the one being

socialized.

What are the asic thesis of %ri!son& iaget& (ohlerg and $illigan?

(rikson presented an eight stage theory of personality development in which each stage may be

positively resolved or unresolved. !e stressed that the close interaction between the social environment

and personality.%iaget suggests that everyone passes through four ma-or intellectual stages/ 'ensory"

motor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations. !e believes that social contact is

necessary for advancing through the stages. ;ohlberg/ +oral decisions based on fear of punishment,

idea of rewards taken into account, immediate punishments and rewards not necessary, strict

adherence to rules, recognition that conventional rules may come into conflict with a higher sense of

right and wrong and universal principles of -ustice, human rights and human dignity guide decisions.

&illigan/ When women reach the upper stages of moral development their decisions are guided by the

principle of protecting relationships and people rather than by the principle of individual rights that

guides mens9 decisions.

How does socialization continue in adulthood?

'ocialization in adulthood is more concerned with learning overt norms and behaviors than is the

socialization of childhood which is concerned primarily with regulating antisocial behavior.ot all socialization is intentional, it depends on the surroundings.The most profound affect is gender socialization however the family also shoulders the task of teaching

children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and others.

#hildren learn continuously from the environment that adults create.#hildren also become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class

accordingly.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoctrinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoctrinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)


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Religion

)gents of socialization differ in effects across religious traditions.

'ome believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it less likely for the individuals tobreak from religious affiliations and be more socialized in this setting.

%arental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization@more so thanreligious peers or religious beliefs.

eer group

) peer group is a social group whose members have interests, social positions and age in common.

This is where children can escape supervision and learn to form relationships on their own.The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence however peer groups generally onlyaffect short term interests unlike the family which has long term influence.

%conomic systems

'ocialization within an economic system is the process of learning the conseuences of economicdecisions.

'ocialization impacts decisions regarding Aacceptable alternatives for consumption,B Asocial values of

consumption alternatives,B the Aestablishment of dominant values,B and Athe nature of involvement inconsumptionB.

Legal systems

#hildren are pressured from both parents and peers to conform and obey certain laws or norms of thegroupCcommunity.%arents? attitudes toward legal systems influence children?s views as to what is legally acceptable.

For eample, children whose parents are continually in -ail are more accepting of incarceration.

Language

%eople learn to socialize differently depending on the specific language and culture in which they live.

) specific eample of this is code switching. This is where immigrant children learn to behave inaccordance with the languages used in their lives/ separate languages at home and in peer groups

0mainly in educational settings2.7epending on the language and situation at any given time, people will socialize differently.

"ass media

The mass media are the means for delivering impersonal communications directed to a vast audience.The term media comes from


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influenced by all persons, some are important to us than others. These whose -udgements areimportant are called 9significant others9 For an infant, significant others are, it9s +other, Father, &rand

parents , Teachers, and playmates. Teenagers rely heavily on their peers, while for the adults significantothers may be from their parents, and friends to ministers and employers.

!uman beings have thinking capacity and language, so they can carry on mental conversation. It

means, mentally indicate something to ourselves and respond internally to it. It is through this facilitywe can anticipate others9 behavior. Through internal conversation we can imagine the thoughts,

emotions, and behavior of others in a given situations This ability enables human beings to engage in

role taking which is the process of mentally guessing the viewpoint of another individual and thenresponding to oneself from that imaginary view point.

)ccording to +ead, the ability for role taking is the result of the two stage process viz play and gamestages. ) child in it9s third or fourth year of age, beings to assume the status of individuals and acts out

the behaviour associated with them. ) young child can be seen playing the role of mother, father, policeofficer, cow boy etc. This imitation or play involves, acting and thinking, as a child imagines another

person would. This is play stage according to +ead, the stage in which children take on the role ofindividuals one at a time.

The second stage is the game stage which enables children to engage in much more refined role taking.

In a game a child begins to consider the roles of several others at the same time . )ll the players need

to know several roles, rules so as to ensure that the behavior of the participants fits together. )ll the9

participants are epected to know what is epected of all others in the game. It is during the gamestage that the children learn to ad-ust their behavior to the group. It is in this stage a child9s selfconcept, attitudes, beliefs, and values and beliefs of one9s community and society are formed.

The self, according to +ead, is composed of two parts viz. 9me9 and 9T9. The 9me9 is part of the self,formed during socialization and it accounts for predictability and conformity. Get most of the social

behavior is spontaneous and unpredictable.

The T constantly encounters me as we conduct ourselves in social situations. The first reaction of selfcomes from the T but before we act the initial impulse is directed in socially acceptable channels by the

9me9 Thus T normally takes on 9me9 into account before acting. $ut 9me9 does not always control the

innovative dimension, of the self.

Sigmund Frued:Through diagnosis of disturbed female patients, Frued concluded that much human

behaviour is due to unconscious motivation. We are often unaware of the real reason for our actions.The influence of early childhood eperiences are fundamental for personality development. It is

eperiences within the family in the first few years of life, Freud contends, which largely shape our

future psychological and social functioning.

Frued emphasizes the instinctual and biological side of human development, rather than the social sideof human development stressed by +ead and #ooley. )ccording to Frued, society prohibits us from

epressing certain instincts and desires, especially impulses related to se and aggression, social orderwould be impossible without the regulation of these drives. !ence society imposes it9s will on the

individual, suppressing and channeling the drives for socially acceptable outlets but often doing so inways that lead to later neuroses and personality disturbances. Freud lays heavy emphasis on the social

control of the se drive. This drive present even in infants leads to constant conflict between individualand society.

%ersonality, Frued segments, into three basic interacting parts. 9Id9 is made up of biologically inherited

urges, impulses and desires. It is selfish irrational, impulsive, antisocial and unconscious. The 9Id9 isoperative on the pleasure mechanism, on the principle of having whatever feels good. Infants are said

to be controlled totally by 9Id9. They want every desire fulfilled without delay, but parents interfere and

infants learn to wait until it is time to eat, to control bowel movements and to hold their temper.

To cope up eith the denial of pleasure children begin to develop 9ego9 which is the conscious, rational

part of the self that rationally attempts to medias between the demands of the social environment andthe deep unconscious urges of the 9Id9. $ut ego itself is not sufficient to control the 9Id9.

)t about four or five years of age, the9super ego9or the conscience begins to develop. The child learnsabout the demands of the society through parents, internalizes these demands into personality in the

form of the 9superego9 which in a sense an internal version of the moral authority of the society. Wepunish ourselves through guilt feelings and shame at the same time we feel good about ourselves whenwe live up to the standards of the 9super ego9. Through this internal monitoring mechanism we learns to

mould our behavior in socially acceptable ways and repress socially undesirable thought and actions.

Freud did not see 9Id9, 9(go9 and the 9'uperego9 as separate regions of the brain but he saw them asseparate interacting, conflicting processed within mind. Freud9s theory is valuable in the sense that it

stressed the personality as the product of the interaction between the human organism and the socialforces that surround it and he underlined the importance of early childhood socialization on later

conscious motives and behaviour.

Status and Role


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+he term has two sociological uses0

12=.


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) common method of identifying the statuses in a social system is to discover the list of status"

designators, as for eample, kinship status typically begins with a list of kin terms and their usage. One

other characteristic feature of status, as understood today, is that any person can have more than one

status. &enerally, no status in any social situation encompasses one person. )lso, it has to be kept in

mind those statuses and persons are not only distinct concepts but also at distinct levels of analysis.

$esides, in sociology it is status, rather than person, which is more useful as a tool of analysis.

Why we should treat these two terms as separate can be argued on various grounds. First, two persons

having uite different characters may possess similar observable conduct if they have the same status,as for eample, very acuisitive and very altruistic doctors may behave in much the same way.

'econdly, two persons having the same character, very often, have different observable conduct

because of having two different statuses. Thirdly, even two persons having similar characters but having

two different statuses show very often different observable conduct, as for eample, a docile son and a

kind father.

Thus, in society, which in reality is a social system where interaction occurs between actors, status but

not person in important. If we treat person as the unit of such a system we must discover a basic

personality structure which is an impossible task. On the other hand, it is easy to comprehend status

although it is an abstract concept. 'tatus is the most elementary component of the social system which

is eually abstract.

Interaction between two actors occurs not as persons but as two having statuses. ) social position is

always defined in relation to a counter position, as for eample, a doctor to a patient, to a nurse, and to

the hospital administrator. In other words, the basic unit of analysis for social system is not status itself

but the relation of two statuses. The first writer to do considerable work in this field was +erton in

1EJ. )ccording to him, there are three aspects of status. To illustrate, +r. %andey is a doctor must

have social relations with nurses, patients, other doctors, hospital administrators, and so on, that is, a

role set. If +r. %andey is also a husband, a father, a member of !are";rishna cult and a municipal

councilor, it is a status set. )nd the process, by which +r. %andey became a doctor, reuired that he first

be a medical student, then an intern and then a resident, that is, a status seuence.

'ince what is known as status is related to other statuses, the interaction of statuses is a very crucial

one. 'table interaction systems depend on the emergence of normative epectations. Once it emerges,

such epectations are not created anew every time. Two new actors encounter each other. The idea

underlying this statement is that every actor is sensitive to the attitudes others will have towards him.

(very actor, therefore, tends to feel tense and upset if he is unable to define the social situation in such

a way that the behaviour of the other is predictable.

) more dynamic feature of this series of social interactions is the idea that each action implies a status

and each status action. Therein each actor reveals how he defines a situation by the way he behaves,

and thus provides other actors with cues to their own statuses in the situation.

)lthough the interaction of statuses is normally satisfactory, at times, confusion might arise because of

status ambiguity. If, however, an actor has more than one status, the attitudes of any two statuses may

be either compatible or incompatible with their demands on the person. If two statuses that are

activated in the same situation are incompatible it would be difficult for each status occupant to know

how to interact with the other, because it will be difficult for him to know which status is the basis of

their interaction. 'uch ambiguities are a source of strain and discomfort and people either get out of

such situations or wish that they be changed.

The term social role is borrowed by social scientists originally from the &reek 7rama. The word person

comes from the


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occupies in society because it is these social positions which lay down norms by indicating which

individual should observe which norms. In other words, status refers to a collection of norms and each

society classifies its members into a more or less elaborate system of statuses. (ach of the statuses

involves a role, set of behaviour or action"patterns that people belonging to a given status are epected

to perform. One plays as many roles as he has statuses. ) given man may both concurrently and

seuentially enact the roles of husband, father bread"winner, and football fan and so on. 'ocial roles

may be linked to blue"prints for behaviour that are handed to the individual, hypothetically, when he

becomes a member of a group. )s such these constitute the group9s epectations concerning how one

would behave. Thus, whereas the status of a person tells us what he is, his role will tell us what he doesas a member of a status group.

7espite this fundamental difference between the two, statuses and roles are very closely interlinked.

There are no roles without statuses and no statuses without roles. Indeed, there are some eceptions.

Though all statuses imply some role or roles, it is not always possible to infer people9s statuses from

what they do, as for eample, two persons, who bear the title of knighthood and thus holding same

social positions, might be performing completely different roles. )lso, many statuses are wholly or

partly defined with reference to roles which their occupants are epected to perform. (ample

policemen, poets, etc.

The importance of role was recognized from 14H when


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In the end we have to say that it is actor who faces the strain for, the dynamic hinges on his

management of the several roles in his repertoire. This may come about through failure of role cues,

gross lack of consensus and so forth. This situation results in an individual adopting his own repertoire

of role relationship as a framework for his own behaviour, and as a perspective for the interpretation of

the behaviour of others. When the individual forms a self"conception by selective identification of certain

roles as his own to be held in his repertoire, the individual is said to develop a sense of personalprestige, which is likely to be reflected in his bearing, his self"assurance and other aspects of his

interpersonal relations.

In general, the concept of role is crucial in all sociological analyses which attempt to link the functioning

of the social orders with the characteristics and behaviour of the individuals who belong to that order. )

study of roles provides a comprehensive pattern of social behaviour and attitudes. It constitutes a

strategy for coping with a recurrent type of situation. It is socially identified as an entity. It can be

played recognizably by different individuals, and it supplies a ma-or basis for identifying and placing

persons in a society.

Social Control and Socialization

'ocial control and socialization are closely related to each other. 'ocial control is a part of socialization.

7uring the process of socialization the process of social control also is in op"eration. Through

socialization social control becomes effective. In order to maintain the so"cial order there are definite

procedures in society. These customs and procedures become a part of man9s life and man gets

ad-usted to the society. )s a matter of fact, societies depend heavily upon effective socialization to

internalize social norms and values as the individual9s guides and motives to action. Through

socialization societies aim to control the behavior of its members subconsciously. The various agencies

of socialization like family, state, school, club etc are also the agencies of social control. They eercise

regulatory influence over the behavior of the individual.

4eviance is Relative

7eviance is relative means that there is no absolute way of defining a deviant act. 7eviance can be

defined in relation to a particular standard and no standards are fied or absolute. )s such deviance

varies from time to time and place to place. In a particular society an act that is considered deviant

today may be detained as normal in future. 'ocial deviance should not be confused with statistical

rarity. %eople whose behavior or characteristics are found only in a minority of the population are

statistically unusual but that does not necessarily make them socially deviant.

+ost people who escape discovery of their deviant behavior are not stigmatized as deviants and

generally do not even regard themselves as deviant at all.

>o act is inherently deviant. It becomes deviant only when it is socially defined as such and definitions

vary greatly from time to time, place to place and group to group. 7eviance can be defined in relation

to a particular standard and no standards are fied or absolute.

7eviance is both a threat and protection to social stability. On the one hand society can operate

efficiently only if there is order and predictability in social life. 7eviant behavior threatens social order.

7eviant behavior is one way of adapting a culture to social change. >o society can remain static forever.

The deviant behavior of few persons may be the beginning of a new norm. )s more and more people

-oin in it ceases to be deviant a new norm is established.

The fact that a particular norm is often violated does not create a norm of evasion. It is only when there

is a pattern of violation that is recognized and sanctioned by one9s group that we have a norm of

evasion. 'ometimes a pattern of deviation is neither sufficiently accepted to be a norm of evasion nor

sufficiently condemned to be routinely suppressed. In such situations the tolerance of such deviation

may operate as a form of social control.


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4eviance

7eviance is defined as any violation of norms, whether the infraction is as minor as driving over the

speed limit, as serious as murder. )ccording to sociologist !oward '. $ecker It is not the act itself but

the reactions to the act that make some thing deviant.

)ccording to !orton and !unt deviance is given to any failure to conform to customary norms.


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4.7eviance promotes social change. &roups do not always agree on what to do with people who push

beyond their accepted ways of doing things. 'ome group members may even approve of the rule"

breaking behavior. $oundary violations that gain enough support become new acceptable behaviors.

7eviance, then, may force a group to rethink and redefine its moral boundaries, helping groups and

whole societies to adapt to changing circumstances.

#onflict theorists take the position that the group in power imposes its definitions of deviance on other

groups. From this perspective, the law is an instrument of oppression used by the powerful to maintaintheir position of privilege. The ruling class uses the criminal -ustice system to punish the crimes of the

poor while diverting its own criminal activities away from this punitive system.

Social Control

)ccording to +annheim, social control is the sum of those methods by which a society tries to influence

human behavior to maintain a given order.

)ny society must have harmony and order. Where there is no harmony or order the society actually

does not eist because society is a harmonious organization of human relationships. nless the

individuals live up to the prescribed norms of conduct and unless their self"seeking impulses aresub-ugated to the welfare of the whole it would be uite difficult to maintain effectively the social

organization.

'ociety in order to eist and progress has to eercise a certain control over its members since any

marked deviation from the established ways is considered a threat to its welfare. 'uch control has been

termed by sociologists as social control.

'ocial control has been defined by +aclver as the way in which entire social order coheres and

maintains itself" how it operates as a whole as a changing euilibrium. To Ogburn and >imkoff the

patterns of pressure that a society eerts to maintain order and established rules is social control.

)ccording to &illin and &illin social control is that system of measures, suggestions, persuasions,restraint and coercion by whatever means including physical force by which a society brings into

conformity to the approved pattern of behavior or subgroup or by which a group molds into conformity

its members.

What do sociologists mean y social control and when do social controls influence ehavior?

'ocial control is the means by which members of a society attempt to induce each other to comply withthe society9s norms. 'ocial controls influence behavior constantly because they are internalized and

come into play every time a person has a deviant impulse.

How do the various theories e#plain deviance?

'ocial "control theory argues that deviance is largely a matter of failed social controls. +erton believes

that the strain between the norms that define socially appropriate goals and the norms that specifysocially appropriate means for attaining these goals creates an atmosphere in which deviance will

appear. Travis !irschi says that persons with a weakened bond to their social group are likely to become

deviant.

7ifferential association and cultural transmission theories propose that deviance is a natural outgrowth

of a person9s contacts during socialization and can be a part of a subculture that can be transmitted

indefinitely. #onflict theory traces the origin of criminal behavior to class conflict between the powerful

and the weak and sees criminals as reasonable individuals forced by circumstance to break laws in

order to regain some of what has been taken from them or denied to them by an eploitative system.

Functionalist theory proposes that deviance enhances feelings of unity within a society and helps define

and redefine the norms.


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What is the difference etween deviance and deviants?7eviance is behavior that violates the norms of the social group in which the behavior occurs where as a

deviant is one who is characterized as a violator of a norm. (ngaging in deviant behavior does notautomatically lead to a deviant reputation or self"image.

How the mentally ill are treated?The mentally ill not only are treated as deviants but are feared. The fact that society treats them in this

way increases their chances of being deviant in the future. The labeling of the mentally ill decreasestheir chances of future employment and of normal social relationships.

How does society define crime?#rime is behavior that violates criminal law. It can be defined through laws, through official police

reports of crime, or through victimization surveys of persons who have been involved in crime butperhaps not involved with the police department.

Who are the criminals and how are they treated y society?

) criminal is someone who has become publicly associated with commission of crime.

What distinguishes white collar crime and how might it e deterred?White"collar crime is crime committed by a person of responsibility and high social status in the course

of his or her occupation. It differs from conventional crime in that the victims may be unaware of thecrime and the offender may not view himself as a criminal.7eterrence of white"collar crime by

regulatory agencies and internalized controls in organizations appears to be most promising.

7eviance

In everyday language to deviate means to stray from an accepted path. +any sociological definitions of

deviance simply elaborate upon this idea. Thus deviance consists of those areas which do not follow the

norms and epectations of a particular social group. 7eviance may be positively sanctioned 0rewarded2,

negatively sanctioned 0punished2, or simply accepted without reward or punishment. In terms of the

above definition of deviance, the soldier on the battlefield who risks his life above and beyond the

normal call of duty may be termed deviant, as the physicist who breaks the rules of his discipline and

develops a new theory. Their deviance may be positively sanctioned the soldier might be rewarded with

a medal, the physicist with a >oble prize. In one sense, though, neither is deviant since both conform tothe values of society, the soldier to the value of courage the physicist to the value of academic

progress.

$y comparison, a murderer deviates not only from society9s norms and epectations but also from its

values, in particular the value placed on human life. !is deviance generally results in widespread

disapproval and punishment. ) third form of deviance consists of acts which depart from the norms and

epectations of a particular society but are generally tolerated and accepted. The little old lady with a

house full of cats or the old gentleman with an obsession for collecting clocks would fall into this

category. sually their eccentricities are neither rewarded nor punished by others. They are simply

defined as a 9bit odd9 but harmless, and therefore tolerated. 7eviance is relative. This means that there

is no absolute way of defining a deviant act. 7eviance can only be defined in relation to a particularstandard, but no standards are fied or absolute. )s such deviance varies from time to time and place

to place. In a particular society an act which is considered deviant today may be defined as normal in

the future. )n act defined as deviant in one society may be seen as perfectly normal in another. %ut

another way, deviance is culturally determined and cultures change over time and vary from society to

society. The following eamples will serve to illustrate the above points. 'ometimes ago in Western

society it had been considered deviant for women to smoke, use make"up and consume alcoholic drinks

in public. Today this is no longer the case. In the same way, definitions of crime change over time.

!omoseuality was formerly a criminal offence in $ritain. 'ince 1H, however, homoseual acts

conducted between consenting adults in private are no longer illegal. ) comparison of modern Western

culture with the traditional culture of the Teton 'iou Indians of the ') illustrates how deviance varies

from society to society. )s part of their religions rituals during the annual 'un 7ance #eremony 'iouWarriors mutilated their bodies, leather thongs were inserted through strips of flesh on the chest and

attached to a central pole, and warriors had to break free by tearing their flesh and in return they were

granted favors by the supernatural powers. 'imilar actions by members of Western society may well be

viewed as masochism or madness. In the same way behaviour accepted as normal in Western society

may be defined as deviant within primitive society. In the West the private ownership of property is an

established norm members of society strive to accumulate wealth and substantial property holding

brings power and prestige. 'uch behaviour would have incurred strong disapproval amongst the 'iou

and those who acted in terms of the above norms would be regarded as deviant. &enerosity was a

ma-or value of 'iou culture and the distributed rather than accumulation of wealth was the route to


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power and prestige. #hiefs were epected to distribute gifts of horses, beadwork and weapons to their

followers. The norms of 'iou culture prevented the accumulation of Wealth. The 'iou had no

conception of the individual ownership of land the produce of the hunt was automatically shared by all

members of the group. (mile 7urkheim developed his view on deviance in his discussion of crime in The

=ules of 'ociological +ethod. !e argues that crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life it is

an integral part of all healthy societies. It is inevitable because not every member of society can be

eually committed to the 9collective sentiments, the shared values and beliefs of society. 'ince

individuals are eposed to different influences and circumstances, it is impossible for all to be alike.

Therefore, not everybody shares the same restraints about breaking the law.

#rime is not only inevitable, it can also be functional. 7urkheim argues that it only becomes

dysfunctional when its rate is unusually high. !e argues that all social change begins with some form of

deviance. In order for change to occur, Gesterday9s deviance must become today9s normality. 'ince a

certain amount of change is healthy for society, so it can progress rather than stagnate. 'o for change

to occur, the collective sentiments must not be too strong, or too hostile. Infact, they must have only

moderate energy9 because if they were to strong they would crush all originality both of the criminal and

of the genius. Thus the collective sentiments must not be sufficiently powerful to block the epression of

people like Kesus, William Wilberforce, +artin


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+erton uses the term 9ritualism9 to describe the third possible response. Those who select this

alternative are deviant because they have largely abandoned the commonly held success goals. The

pressure to adopt this alternative is greatest on members of the lower middle class. Their occupations

provide less opportunity for success than those of other members of the middle class. !owever,

compared o members of the working class, they have been strongly socialized to conform to social

norms. This prevents them from turning to crime. nable to innovate and with -obs that offer little

opportunity for advancement, their only solution is to scale down or abandon their success goals.

+erton terms the fourth and least common response, 9retreatism9. It applies to psychotics, artists,

pariahs, drug addicts. They have strongly internalized both the cultural goals and the institutionalizedmeans but is unable to achieve success. They resolve the conflict of their situation by abandoning both

the goals and the means of reaching them. They are unable to cope with challenges and drop out of

society defeated and resigned to their failure. They are deviant in two ways/ they have re-ected both

the cultural goals and the institutionalized means. +erton does not relate retreatism to social class

position. =ebellion forms the fifth and final response. It is a re-ection of both the success goals and the

institutionalized means and their replacement by different goals and means. Those who adopt this

alternative want to create a new society. Thus urban guerillas in Western (uropean capitalist societies

adopt deviant means" terrorism" to reach deviant goals such as a communist society. +erton argues

that it is typically members of a rising class rather than the most depressed strata who organize the

resentful and rebellious into a revolutionary group.

To summarize, +erton claims that his analysis shows how the culture and structure of society generates

deviance.

5uestions on Crime

What is the difference between deviance and crime5

7eviance is behavior that violates norms and rules of society, and crime is a type of deviant behavior

that violates the formal criminal law. #riminology is the study of crime from a scientific perspective.

How do sociologists conceptualize and e#plain deviance and crime?

7eviance is behavior that is recognized as violating epected rules and norms and that should be

understood in the social contet in which it occurs. %sychological eplanations of deviance place the

cause of deviance primarily within the individual. 'ociologists emphasize the total social contet in

which deviance occurs. 'ociologists see deviance more as the result of group and institutional, not

individual, behavior.

What does sociological theory contriute to the study of deviance and crime?

Functionalist theory sees both deviance and crime as functional for the society because it affirms what

is acceptable by defining what is not. 'tructural strain theory, a type of functionalist theory, predictsthat societal ineualities actually force and compel the individual into deviant and criminal behavior.

#onflict theory eplains deviance and crime as a conseuence of uneual power relationships and

ineuality in society. 'ymbolic interaction theory eplains deviance and crime as the result of meanings

people give to various behaviors.

7ifferential association theory, a type of symbolic interaction theory, interprets deviance as behavior

learned through social interaction with other deviants.


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What are the connections etween ine7uality& deviance& and crime?

'ociological studies of crime analyze the various types of crimes, such as elite crime, organized crime,

corporate crime, and personal and property crimes. +any types of crimes are underreported, such as

rape and certain elite and corporate crimes. 'ociologists study the conditions, including race, class, and

gender ineuality, that pro" duce crime and shape how different groups are treated by the criminal

-ustice system, such as showing group differences in sentencing.

!ow is crime related to race, class, and gender5

In general, crime rates for a variety of crimes are higher among minorities than among Whites, among

poorer persons than among middle or upper class persons, and among men than among women.

Women, especially minority women, are more likely to be victimized by serious crimes such as rape or

violence from a spouse or boy" friend.

!ow is globalization affecting the development of deviance and crime5

International terrorism is a crime, and crime is thus global. Other global crimes of significance are

bioterrorism and cyber terrorism. Osama bin ew Gork

#ity, in order to protest the lavish means of life of those at the top of the socioeconomicladder.

5uestions on Social Stratification

%opular uestions on 'ocial 'tratification answered for you in short. For detailed notes please follow the

link.
https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/typologyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/goalhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/deviancehttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/conformityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/innovationhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/structural-functionalismhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/structural-functionalismhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/functionalismhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/deviant-behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/societyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/populationhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/conflict-theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/conflict-theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/inequalityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/social-grouphttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/social-grouphttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/grouphttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/labeling-theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/identityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/definition/typology/https://www.boundless.com/definition/conformity/https://www.boundless.com/definition/retrospective-labeling/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/valueshttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/moneyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/normhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/wealthhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/statehttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/moreshttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/socioeconomicshttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/typologyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/goalhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/deviancehttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/conformityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/innovationhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/structural-functionalismhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/functionalismhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/deviant-behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/societyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/populationhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/conflict-theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/inequalityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/social-grouphttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/grouphttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/labeling-theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/identityhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/definition/typology/https://www.boundless.com/definition/conformity/https://www.boundless.com/definition/retrospective-labeling/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/deviance-social-control-and-crime-7/theories-of-crime-and-deviance-61/sociological-theories-of-deviance-371-10205/issues/new/https://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/valueshttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/moneyhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/normhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/wealthhttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/statehttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/moreshttps://www.boundless.com/sociology/definition/socioeconomics


16/27

'ocial 'tratification

What is social stratification5

'tratification is a hierarchy of positions with regard to economic production which influences the socialrewards to those in the positions.

What is class5

#lass is large set of people regarded by themselves or others as sharing similar status with regard to

wealth, power and prestige.

What are the ma-or forms of stratification5

%rimitive communalism characterized by a high degree of sharing and minimal social ineuality. 'laveryinvolving great social ineuality and the ownership of some persons by others. #aste in which an

individual is permanently assigned to a status based on his or her parents9 status. (state in whichpeasants are reuired by law to work land owned by the noble class in echange for food and protection

from outside attacks.

!ow do stratification systems differ5

Openness is the opportunity for individuals to change their status. #aste stratification systems areclosed whereas class stratification systems are more open. The degree of euality is the degree to

which the social structure approaches an eual distribution of resources. !unting and gatheringsocieties are typically very eual with ineuality developing in later stages of agriculture and

industrialization.

What are Weber9s three dimensions of stratification5

#lass or a set of people with similar amounts of income and wealth. %arty or a set of people with similaramounts of power. 'tatus group or a set of people with similar social prestige or positive regard from

members of a society.

What are the five basic viewpoints on why stratification eists5

>atural inevitability which suggests that ineuality eists because of natural differences in people9sabilities and is a -ust system. 'tructural "functionalist which states that stratification is useful to society

because it enhances stability and induces members of the society to work hard. #onflict which suggests

that stratification occurs through conflict between different classes, with the upper classes usingsuperior power to take a larger share of the social resources. (volutionary which states that people will

share enough resources to ensure the survival of the group until a surplus eists at which time power

determines how the surplus is distributed. 'ymbolic Interactionist which calls attention to theimportance of symbolic displays of wealth and power that influence one9s definition of self and the

importance of ideas in defining social situations.

In what regard is some stratification inevitable5

Ineuality may emanate from natural differences in people9s abilities.

What are the functionalist and conflict theories as to the reasons for stratification5

'tructural"functionalists believe that societies tend to be stable and are held together throughconsensus.'tratifiction provides an important function to society by aiding this process because it

lessens conflict and provides structure. #onflict theorists believe that society tends toward conflict and

change and that stratification system coerce the lower classes in order to benefit the upper classes.

What are the basic premises of the evolutionary perspective5
http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-stratification/index.phphttp://www.sociologyguide.com/social-stratification/index.php


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In primitive societies the survival of the group is paramount and people will share their resources toensure that the group survives. )s society develops increasingly sophisticated technology, surplus eists

and power will determine the distribution of the surplus.

!ow are the supporting beliefs symbolically important to a stratification system5

'ymbolic Interactionists point out that symbols help to define the meaning of all social actions, and aperson9s self is developed socially through social interaction.


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What are the ma6or socialization agents that teach us our gender roles?

The ma-or gender "role socialization agents are the family, schools, the media and the language and the

observed interactions in the institutions of the culture.

What are the asic modes in which the family socializes gender ehavior?

The family socializes gender roles through reinforcement of appropriate behaviors differential

opportunities for boys and girls, role modeling of adult gender behavior and eplicit verbal instruction.

What is the relationship etween women's wor! and power in society?

One reason men hesitate to perform traditional female tasks is that the tasks are often seen as less

valuable to society than are traditional male tasks. )s a society we are only beginning to appreciate the

economic and social value of homemakers, women or men.

What political gains have women made?

+ore women are entering government from the local to the national level.

What changes might occur in the second stage of gender relations?

In the second stage of gender relations, women and men must -oin together, contributing their own

special ualities to building a better society both in the family and in the business world. Women must

seek out friendships with other women and learn to value their own contributions to the world.

What is 8essie 9ernard's asic concept concerning the female world?

$ernard believes that the female world is based on love, cooperation and duty whereas the male world

is based on competition and striving. 'he seeks to sensitize women to the uniue contributions thefemale world view might make to society in order to help it to grow more cooperative and peaceful.

What is patriarchy?

It is a form of social organization in which men dominate or rule over women.

What is se#ism?

It is a belief that one se is inferior and thus deserves inferior treatment.

What is ethnicity and how is it transmitted?

(thnicity is a sense of people hood or nationhood that is culturally transmitted.

What is race and how has it een used y societies?

) race is a population that shares visible physical characteristics from inbreeding and that thinks of itself

or is thought of by outsiders as distinct. It has been used by societies to -ustify poor treatment of

minority groups.

What is a minority group?

) minority group is one that has less power and influence than the dominant group.

What is pre6udice?

%re-udice is a -udgment based on group membership or social status.


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What is discrimination?

7iscrimination involves treating someone differently because of his or her group membership or social

status.

What is the relationship etween pre6udice and discrimination?

%re-udice and discrimination can eist separately but are most often mutually reinforcing.

What are the asic patterns of race and ethnic group relations?

The basic patterns of race and ethnic relations are amalgamation 0blending two or more groups into a

society that reflects the cultural and biological traits of the group2, assimilation, pluralism, structured

ineuality, population relocation and etermination.

How do conflict theorists define inter group conflict and what are the five ma6or factors that

might contriute to it?

When conflict eists between two groups the group that gains the most power, wealth and prestige

becomes the ma-ority regardless of its size. The five ma-or factors that contribute to such conflict are

visible differences between groups, competition for resources, racist ideology, potential for eploitation

and the minority "group response to the ma-ority definition of the situation.

What are some of the possile sources of pre6udice and discrimination?

%re-udice may be formed through both individual and group influences including socialization,

rationalizing through stereotypes, the scapegoating process, reinforcement of a self"fulfilling prophecy

ramification of an authoritarian personality and degree of contact with minority groups.

%re-udice may be formed through both individual and group influences including socialization,rationalizing through stereotypes, the scapegoating process, reinforcement of a self"fulfilling prophecy

ramification of an authoritarian personality and degree of contact with minority groups.

8uestions on #ollective $ehavior and 'ocial +ovements

What are the differences etween collective ehavior and social movements?

#ollective behavior describes the actions, thoughts and feelings of a relatively temporary andunstructured group of people. In contrast a social movement is a large ongoing group of people

engaged in organized behavior designed to bring about or resist change in society.

What are the four types of crowd ehavior?

The casual crowd gathers around a specific event and its members have little interaction with oneanother. ) conventional crowd gathers for a socially sanctioned purpose. )n epressive crowd gathers

specifically for the purpose of letting out emotions. )n acting crowd focuses on a specific action or goal.

What do contagion and convergence theories say aout crowd ehavior?


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How does .eil Smelser e#plain collective ehavior?'melser says si determinants are necessary and sufficient for a collective episode to occur. They are

structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth and spread of a generalized belief, precipitatingfactors, mobilization of participants for action and the operation of social control.

:nder what circumstances does a diffuse crowd form?7iffuse crowd or mass behavior involves action by people with common concerns who may or may not

have met each other.

Why do we elieve in rumors and how do they affect our actions?=umors are information that travels from person to person usually by word of mouth. )s they spreadrumors become leveled or simplified and sharpened or focused on certain details. =umors may be a

casual factor in riots. It has been suggested that they are often a substitute for news.

How do hysteria and panic affect us?

!ysteria generalized aniety about some unknown situation and panic an attempt to flee from an

imagined or real threat often create behavior changes in individuals from illness caused by an imaginedbug to flight out of town in response to an imagined invasion from +ars.

What is the difference etween fashions and fads?

Fashions and fads are changing styles currently accepted by a part of the population but which are notconsidered a permanent part of the culture. Fashions change more gradually than fads.

What are the ma6or influences on pulic opinion?) public is an unorganized diffuse crowd with opinions on an issue of current interest. %ublic opinion is

influenced in two ma-or ways/ by friends or reference groups and by members of that group whose-udgment is considered important opinion leaders.

How does the mass media influence other social phenomena?The national media strongly influence the formation of public opinion. They may also be a catalyst in

social eplosions such as riots. The fact that programming is now immediate leads to less sorting ofwhat is important and what is not and may actually distort reality for the viewer.

What is the relationship etween television and suicide?7avid %hilips and


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)uguste #omte the father of 'ociology has posed two problems" the uestion of social statics and the

uestion of social dynamics, what is and how it changes. The sociologists not only outline the structure

of the society but also seek to know its causes also.

Social rolems

Indian society maintains continuity with her remote past. The social institutions such as varnashram,caste, -oint family system and village communities emerged in the early phase of India society which

are also responsible for several of the social problems in the modern period.

In contemporary India, there are several social problems. Though, they are called as social problems,

yet, in some problems socio"cultural overtones are more prominent, whereas in some others, the

economic and legal overtones are conspicuous. Thus, the contemporary social problems may be

classified in the following categories/

1. 'ocio"cultural problems/ communalism, untouchability, population eplosion, child"abuse andproblems of the scheduled castes, the scheduled tribes, women, and alcoholism and drug

addiction

3. (conomic problems/ poverty, unemployment

4.


22/27

societies M democracy could not function successfully. The ethnic, communal, tribal, caste and regional

aspirations have become so strong that they are eroding even the basic structures of democracy,

modern state and civic society.

In the Indian contet, structural inconsistencies are also visible. They are symptoms as well as the

cause of social disorganization and social problems. $y structural inconsistencies is meant the eistence

of two opposite sub" structures within the same structure that are not consistent with each other. In

India, on the one hand, there are highly sophisticated modern metropolitan upper and upper middle

classes influenced by consumerism. On the other hand, there are large numbers of the Indian people

who live in inaccessible tribal and rural areas and who might have not seen even a train

This situation is the clear indicator of the gap between the rich and the poor, the rural and the urban

creating a gulf between the different groups and strata. These structural inconsistencies are the

indicators of poverty, ineuality, inaccessibility and deprivation eisting in Indian society.

/actors responsile for social prolems

The multi"religious nature of society and conflict among the different religions has given rise to the

problem of communalism in India. The phenomenon of communalism, as a vitiated form of inter"

religious group relationship, particularly between !indus and +uslims is a grave problem in India. The

policy of a 9soft state9 and not taking hard decisions against communal organizations has also

aggravated problems of communalism in India. The considerations of electoral gains by using religions

have also contributed in the growth of communalism in the post"independent period of India.

The caste system is an important social structure in India .The caste system has been divided Indian

population into numerous groups that enter into relationships of various types and degrees among

them. It has been the root cause of various social problems in India. The casteism as a problem refers

to both the discrimination of one caste against another and the particularistic tendency of favoring one9s

caste group in violation of the principle of universalism. The practice of mobilization on the basis of

caste and favor or disfavor shown in education and employment on caste considerations are the ma-or

features of casteism. The scheduled castes signify those groups of people who were out of the caste

system. They comprise the bulk of untouchable castes. They have been discriminated against by the

superior castes through the ages and they have never had any kind of social acceptance from the

ma-ority of people who belong to the upper castes. Over the ages they had no share in the social,

political and -udiciary powers and their position was like that of a slave.

India has recognized the socio"political reality of language by reorganizing the states on the basis of

language that has encouraged the assertion of linguistic identities. The situation arising out of this

peculiar linguistic configuration has created the problems of linguistic minorities in several states, border

dispute between states, and the uestion of the medium of instruction in educational institutions.

India is a country with large population of Tribals. Tribals in India are not a homogeneous group. They

differ in terms of their ways of life, eposure to the outside world and adoption of the programmes of

welfare and development. The Tribals have been isolated from the mainstream of the Indian society for

several years that accounted for their backwardness. The process of land alienation among the Tribals

has been going on for a long time. The land has been taken over by the &overnment for mining and

industries. The tribals are uprooted and displaced from their land. They have also not benefited from

industrialization. )s the tribals have remained mostly unskilled their claims for government -obs are

overlooked. ) large number of tribals are living below poverty line. The education level is low as most of


23/27

them are engaged in agricultural activities with their children. +any tribes are nomads who move from

place to place. There are others who migrate in search of employment. The medium of instruction is

another hindrance for promotion of education among the tribes. The tribal population in India is still at

fringe and development has hardly touched them. They remain discontented to a large etent.

+inority problem can be seen in two broad forms i.e in a democratic set up a minority community may

compete as well as collaborate with the ma-ority. The basic issues of minority are for political, social and

economic euality. In India among different minority groups the economic status may vary. The

minorities whose position is economically weak may easily promote disaffection particularly in a

situation with the increased communication facilities and freuent interaction among the different

groups. +any minority institutions allege governmental discrimination against them. +any such

institutions insist on religious or traditional education and those oppose the modern scientific education.

This keeps the minority youth deprived of modern education and lagging behind others.

The population in India has been growing phenomenally during this century. 7evelopment and welfare

programmes for the masses have not been able to catch up with the increasing population.

#onseuently, the benefits of the developmental programmes have been far below the epectation.

With the increase in population, the problems of poverty, unemployment and illiteracy have been

accentuated in India. The sheer size of the population is also a factor that affects the increasing ethnic

problem of various kinds. The larger the size of the caste or the tribe, the greater is the tendency to

assert their parochial or ethnic identities at the cost of national integration.

The increasing population of India is making increasing demands on the resources of the land, capital

and forest. The hunger for land in both rural and urban areas is increasing. With the growing burden on

the national finance, the welfare programmes and social services like education, health, employment,

rural development, welfare of the 'cheduled #astes, 'cheduled Tribes, backward castes, youth and

women etc. are adversely affected.

) cultural element that has been relevant to social problems in India is fatalism. The !indu doctrines of

:karma: and rebirth contain strong elements of fatalistic attitude to lifeMan attitude of acceptance of and

resignation to the vicissitudes and failures in life. It has proved to be a one of the mechanisms for

checking the resistance of the masses against of in-ustice and eploitation.

)nother cultural trait widespread in Indian society is particularism as against universalism. This

reflected in the ecessive consideration for one9s own people, kin group, caste or religion. #orruption

involving favoritism or discrimination that is prevalent in our society is the result of such disregard for

the norms of universalism.

The Indian society, by and large, has been patriarchal where woman is sub-ected inferior to man. The

role of woman in the Indian society has been conceived as that of wife and mother. The problem is

further accentuated by the cultural need to have male offspring for perpetuating the family performing

the rituals after one9s death. It has contributed to the cultural preference for a male child and imposition

of inferior status to the female. This had led to the sub-ugation of women and discrimination against

them in various spheres of social life.

(conomically, India remains predominantly an agricultural society. There is an ecessive dependence of

labor force on agriculture. This overdependence of the labor force on the underdeveloped agriculture is


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the ma-or cause of many of the social problems in India. It directly leads to poverty that is one of the

basic causes of many other social problems in India. The malnutrition, ill health, beggary, prostitution,

etc. are rooted in the large"scale poverty in India.

Indian society is characterized by the uneual distribution of wealth. There is affluence amidst pervasive

poverty in both the rural and urban area of India. On account of this disparity, benefits of development

and welfare services also accrue uneually to the different sections of the society. The benefits that the

poor gain are comparatively low.

#hild labour, a manifestation of poverty in the country has become a social problem in India. ) large

number of families belonging to the poor section of the society are forced to depend upon their

children9s contribution to the family income. They are not in a position to spare their children for full"

time or even part"time schooling. Thus children who are epected to be in schools are found working as

laborers. )part from the economic constraints of the families of the working children, the owners of

some of the small"scale enterprises also prefer to employ child labor. For them, child labor is cheap. It

reduces the cost of production and maimizes their profit. Thus, child labor gets encouragement from

both " the parents of the children and the owners of the enterprise. Therefore, despite the appalling

conditions under which children work and the low wages they earn, child labour thrives in India.

Widespread poverty has its own repercussions on education in India. The problem of mass"illiteracy in

the country is largely by the result of the situation of poverty under which the masses live. The poor are

so preoccupied with the concern for their survival that they do not have the inclination or time for

education. It is ridiculous to convince a poor man about the value of education when he is struggling to

make both ends meet. +ost of the people belonging to the poor section are not inclined for schooling of

their children. +any of those who enroll their children in schools withdraw them before they acuire any

meaningful standard of literacy. The result is that India is faced with the problem of mass"illiteracy.

The process of industrialization and urbanization has been slow in India. Industrialization has been

concentrated in certain pockets in the country. The result is the inordinate growth of population in a few

urban centers. This over" growth of population in a few urban centers has created various problems of

urban poverty, unemployment, congestion, pollution, slum, etc.

=ural poverty and unemployment have had their own contribution to the urban problem in so far as

people migrated from the rural areas to the urban centers in numbers larger than the urban areas can

absorb. )s a large section of the rural migrants are illiterate and unskilled, they are unable to ad-ust

themselves into the urban economic situation and thereby suffer from unemployment and poverty.

%ost +odernism

%ostmodern society is diverse and pluralistic. %ostmodern society9s images are perceived through films,

videos, T* programmes and websites and circulated around the world. We come into contact with many

ideas and values, having little connection with the history of the areas in which we live, or with our own

personal histories. One important theorist of postmodernity is the French author Kean $audrillard, who

was strongly influenced by +arism in his early days, believes that the electronic media have destroyed

our relationship to the past and created a chaotic, empty world. !e argues that the spread of electronic

communication and the mass media has reversed the +arist theorem that economic forces shape

society. Instead, signs and images influence social life.


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%volutionary +heories

(volutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple

beginnings into even more comple forms. (arly sociologists beginning with )uguste #omte believed

that human societies evolve in a unilinear way" that is in one line of development. )ccording to them

social change meant progress toward something better. They saw change as positive and beneficial. To

them the evolutionary process implied that societies would necessarily reach new and higher levels of

civilization.


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Soro!in0

%itirin 'orokin in his book 'ocial and #ulture 7ynamics " 14N has offered another eplanation of social

change. Instead of viewing civilization into the terms of development and decline he proposed that they

alternate of fluctuate between two cultural etremes/ the sensate and the ideational. The sensate

culture stresses those things which can be perceived directly by the senses. It is practical, hedonistic,

sensual and materialistic. Ideational culture emphasizes those things which can be perceived only by

the mind. It is abstract, religious concerned with faith and ultimate truth. It is the opposite of the

sensate culture. $oth represent pure types of culture. !ence no society ever fully conforms to either

type. )s the culture of a society develops towards one pure type, it is countered by the opposing

cultural force. #ultural development is then reversed moving towards the opposite type of culture. Too

much emphasis on one type of culture leads to a reaction towards the other. 'ocieties contain both

these impulses in varying degrees and the tension between them creates long"term instability. $etween

these types lies a third type 9idealistic9 culture. This is a desirable blend of other two but no society ever

seems to have achieved it as a stable condition.

/unctionalist or 4ynamic theories0

In the middle decades of the 3Dth century a number of )merican sociologists shifted their attention

from social dynamics to social static or from social change to social stability.Talcott %arsons stressed the

importance of cultural patterns in controlling the stability of a society. )ccording to him society has the

ability to absorb disruptive forces while maintaining overall stability. #hange is not as something that

disturbs the social euilibrium but as something that alters the state of euilibrium so that a

ualitatively new euilibrium results. !e has stated that changes may arise from two sources. They may

come from outside the society through contact with other societies. They may also come from inside the

society through ad-ustment that must be made to resolve strains within the system. %arsons speaks of

two processes that are at work in social change. In simple societies institutions are undifferentiated that

is a single institution serves many functions. The family performs reproductive, educational, socializing,

economic, recreational and other functions. ) process of differentiation takes place when the society

becomes more and more comple. 7ifferent institutions such as school, factory may take over some of

the functions of a family. The new institutions must be linked together in a proper way by the process of

integration. >ew norms must be established in order to govern the relationship between the school and

the home. Further bridging institutions such as law courts must resolve conflicts between other

components in the system.

Conflict theories0

Whereas the euilibrium theories emphasize the stabilizing processes at work in social systems the so"

called conflict theories highlight the forces producing instability, struggle and social disorganization.

)ccording to =alf 7ahrendorf the conflict theories assume that " every society is sub-ected at every

moment to change, hence social change is ubiuitous. (very society eperiences at every moment

social conflict, hence social conflict is ubiuitous. (very element in society contributes to change. (very

society rests on constraint of some of its members by others. The most famous and influential of the

conflict theories is the one put forward by ;arl +ar who along with (ngel wrote in #ommunist

+anifesto 9all history is the history of class conflict.9 Individuals and groups with opposing interests are

bound to be at conflict. 'ince the two ma-or social classes the rich and poor or capitalists and the

proletariat have mutually hostile interests they are at conflict. !istory is the story of conflict between

the eploiter and the eploited. This conflict repeats itself off and on until capitalism is overthrown by

the workers and a socialist state is created. What is to be stressed here is that +ar and other conflict

theorists deem society as basically dynamic and not static. They consider conflict as a normal process.

They also believe that the eisting conditions in any society contain the seeds of future social changes.


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Socio Socio

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