Socio Project

A Project Work In SOCIOLOGY

‘‘ Social Mobility in India ’’

SSUBMITTEDUBMITTED T TOO :

Mr. Ayan Hazra

(Faculty of Sociology)

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Raipur, Chhattisgarh

SSUBMITTEDUBMITTED B BYY:

SACHIN

BATCH XI

ROLL NO. 114

B.A. LL.B (HB.A. LL.B (HONSONS.).)

Section ‘B’

Social Mobility in India

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... iii

2. Objectives..................................................................................................................... iv

3. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5

4. Social Mobility ............................................................................................................. 6

5. Types of Social Mobility .............................................................................................. 7

6. Sanskritization ............................................................................................................. 9

7. Westernization............................................................................................................. 11

8. Modernization………………………………………………………………………. 14

9. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 17

10. Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 18

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to the Almighty who gave me the strength to accomplish the project with sheer hard

work and honesty.

This research venture has been made possible due to the generous co-operation of various

persons. To list them all is not practicable, even to repay them in words is beyond the domain

of my lexicon.

May I observe the protocol to show my deep gratitude to the venerated Faculty-in-charge Mr. Ayan

Hazra, for his kind gesture in allotting me such a wonderful and elucidating research topic. Sir, your

sincere and honest approach have always inspired me and pulled me back on track whenever I went

astray.

I would like to thank all the members of HNLU family in general and my blooming and charismatic

friends in particular for their wholehearted co-operation throughout the odyssey.

SACHIN

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

The approach of this project is descriptive. The research is based on secondary sources. Books

from the university’s library have been used. Articles and reports from different websites have

been used in order to get comprehensive data on the subject.

SOURCES OF DATA:

The secondary sources of data have been used in the project. The secondary sources, which

are used in the project, are the following –

1. Books

2. Journals

3. Websites

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Introduction

Individuals are recognized in society through the statuses they occupy and the roles they

enact. The society as well as individuals is dynamic. Men are normally engaged in endless

endeavor to enhance their statuses in society, move from lower position to higher position,

secure superior job from an inferior one. For various reasons people of the higher status and

position may be forced to come down to a lower status and position. Thus people in society

continue to move up and down the status scale. This movement is called social mobility.

Social mobility is an inseparable aspect of the modern society. It does not mean that all

societies provide equal opportunities for mobility. The tempo of social mobility is also not

the same everywhere. Some societies are called to be more mobile than others. The Indian

society is also experiencing comparatively a high rate of social mobility now.

A belief that Indian society which is having caste as a dominant form of social stratification

system, is relatively rigid and does not favor mobility. Such unfounded views are not relevant

now. Social mobility seems to be very intense in India especially at the beginning of the 21 st

century.1

Prof. M.N. Srinivas, an eminent Indian Sociologist, have convincingly established the fact

that social mobility is taking place both within and outside the framework of caste. Prof.

Srinivas introduced new sociological terms such as, Sanskritization and Westernization in

support of his views.the two terms have assumed importance in the analysis of the socio-

cultural mobility in the Indian Society.

India is becoming more and more westernized. It means it is becoming modernized.

Modernization is taking place with such a speed that it has radically transformed our social,

political, educational, economic, religious and other organizations.

1 http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-mobility/index.php

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Social Mobility

People move from a lower position to a higher position to secure a good status and for many

reasons men are even forced to come down a lower status. The movement of people in the

society, that is, change in their statuses, is called the social mobility.

According to Wallace and Wallace social mobility is the movement of a person or persons

from one social status to another.

W.P Scott has defined social mobility as the movement of an individual or group from one

social class or social stratum to another.

Social mobility may be understood as the movement of an individual or group from one

social status or position to that of another. Example, the poor people may become rich, the

bank peons may become bank officers; farmers may become ministers; a petty businessman

may become a bankrupt and the ruling class may be turned out of the office, and so on.2

Types of Social Mobility –

2 Ram Ahuja, Indian Social Sysytem, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 1993

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Horizontal and Vertical Social Mobility

A distinction is made between horizontal and vertical social mobility. The former refers to

change of occupational position or role of an individual or a group without involving any

change in its position in the social hierarchy, the latter refers essentially to changes in the

position of an individual or a group along the social hierarchy. When a rural laborer comes to

the city and becomes an industrial worker or a manager takes a position in another company

there are no significant changes in their position in the hierarchy. Those are the examples of

horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is a change in position without the change in statue.

It indicates a change in position within the range of the same status.

It is a movement from one status to its equalivalent. But if an industrial worker becomes a

businessman or lawyer he has radically changed his position in the stratification system. This

is an example of vertical mobility. Vertical mobility refers to a movement of an individual or

people or groups from one status to another. It involves change within the lifetime of an

individual to a higher or lower status than the person had to begin with.

Forms of Vertical Social Mobility

The vertical mobility can take place in two ways - individuals and groups may improve their

position in the hierarchy by moving upwards or their position might worsen and they may fall

down the hierarchy. When individuals get into seats of political position; acquire money and

exert influence over others because of their new status they are said to have achieved

individual mobility. Like individuals even groups also attain high social mobility. When a

dalit from a village becomes an important official it is a case of upward mobility. On the

other hand an aristocrat or a member of an upper class may be dispossessed of his wealth and

he is forced to enter a manual occupation. This is an example of downward mobility.

Inter-Generational Social Mobility

Time factor is an important element in social mobility. On the basis of the time factor

involved in social mobility there is another type of inter-generational mobility. It is a change

in status from that which a child began within the parents, household to that of the child upon

reaching adulthood. It refers to a change in the status of family members from one generation

to the next. For example a farmer's son becoming an officer. It is important because the

amount of this mobility in a society tells us to what extent inequalities are passed on from one

generation to the next. If there is very little inter-generational mobility .inequality is clearly

deeply built into the society for people' life chances are being determined at the moment of

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birth. When there is a mobility people are clearly able to achieve new statuses through their

own efforts, regardless of the circumstances of their birth.

Intra-Generational Mobility

Mobility taking place in personal terms within the lifespan of the same person is called intra-

generational mobility. It refers to the advancement in one's social level during the course of

one's lifetime. It may also be understood as a change in social status which occurs within a

person's adult career. For example a person working as a supervisor in a factory becoming its

assistant manager after getting promotion.

Structural mobility

Structural mobility is a kind of vertical mobility. Structural mobility refers to mobility which

is brought about by changes in stratification hierarchy itself. It is a vertical movement of a

specific group, class or occupation relative to others in the stratification system. It is a type of

forced mobility for it takes place because of the structural changes and not because of

individual attempts. For example historical circumstances or labor market changes may lead

to the rise of decline of an occupational group within the social hierarchy. An influx of

immigrants may also alter class alignments -especially if the new arrivals are

disproportionately highly skilled or unskilled.3

Sanskritization

3 http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-mobility/types-of-mobility.php

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The term sanskritisation was coined and used by M. N. Snnivas to describe the process of

cultural mobility in the traditional social structure of Indian society. In his study among the

Coorgs of erstwhile State of Mysore, he found that lower castes, in order to raise their

position in the caste hierarchy, adopted some Brahmanic customs and gave up some of their

own considered to be impure by the higher castes. For instance, they gave up meat-eating,

consumption of liquor, offering of animal sacrifice to their deities; they imitated the

Brahmans in matters of dress, food and rituals. By doing this within a generation or so they

could claim higher positions in the social order.

In other words, they thought the higher castes should accept them as their equals and would

treat them with honour and dignity. To denote this process of social mobility Srinivas had

first used the term 'Brahmanisation'. But indeed, he found it difficult to keep in circulation the

concept of Brahmanisation in sociological and social anthropological paralance. Therefore,

subsequently he replaced it by more appropriate term, namely Sanskritisation.

M. N. Srinivas defines sanskritisation," as a process by which a low Hindu caste, or tribal, or

other group changes its customs, ritual, ideology and the way of life in the direction of a high,

frequently, 'twice-born' castes".

Srinivas says Sanskritisation is the process of cultural and social mobility which is disallowed

in the traditional Hindu social order. Sanskritisation is an endogenous and localised version

of social change. Yogendra Singh says that Sanskritisation is a culturally specific case of the

universal motivation toward 'anticipatory socialisation' of the culture of the higher group in

the hope of gaining its status in future. Sanskritisation is a unique historical explanation of the

general process of acculturation as a means for vertical social mobility.4

According to Yogendra Singh, sociologist, there are two levels of meaning which are implicit

in Sanskritisation and which have been made use of by M. N. Srinivas interchangeably.

These are 'historical specific' and 'contextual specific'. In historical specific sense,

Sanskritisation refers to those processes in Indian history which led to changes in various

castes. It is indicative an indigenous source of social change in the broad historical spectrum

of India. In contextual specific sense, Sanskritisation denotes contemporaneous processes of

cultural imitation of upper castes by lower castes or sub-castes in different parts of India.

Sanskritisation involves positional change in the caste system without producing any

structural change. sanskritisation is an extremely complex and heterogeneous concept.

4 C.N. Shankar Rao, Indian Society, S. Chnad, New Delhi, p. 238

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Process of Sanskritization –

A process of imitation – Sanskritization denotes a process in which the lower castes

try to imitate the life-style of the upper castes in their attempt to raise their social

status.

Areas of imitation – the lower started imitating some of the aspects of the upper

caste such as, marriage, treatment of women, rituals, food habits and dress habits,

system of giving manes to the newly born ones, imitation of ideologies and values.

Process of upward mobility – in the process of Sanskritization, a caste is trying to

raise its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a period of time. It takes

sometimes, a period of one or two generations.

Pre-conditions of Sanskritization – the imitated caste is normally regarded as

superior to the imitating caste in ritual status, economic matter and social prestige.

Castes taking part in the process of Sanskritization must have the will to increase its

social status at least by imitating the upper caste.

It does not take place in all the places at the same time – In most of the cases the

lower caste tend to imitate the upper castes particularly the Kshtriyas and Brahmin

castes. But there are instances of upper castes imitating some of the practices of the

lower castes and tribal groups. So, Sanskritization is not a one-way process, it is a

two-way process.

It indicates only positional changes – mobility, that is involved in the process of

Sanskritization results only in “positional changes” for particular castes and need not

necessarily lead to a “structural change”. It means while individual castes move up

and down, the structure as such remains the same.

It does not automatically results into achievement of a higher status – people will

have to wait for a period of a generation or two before their claim can be accepted. It

may so happen that their claim may not be accepted in particular area or period of

time.

Westernization

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M. N. Srinivas defines westernisation as, "the changes brought about in the Indian society

and culture as a result of our hundred fifty years of British rule, the term subsuming changes

occurring at different levels-technology, institutions, ideologies and values."

Emphasis on humanitarianism and rationalism is a part of westernisation which lead to a

series of institutional and social reforms in India. Establishment of scientific, technological

and educational institutions, rise of nationalism, new political culture and leadership in the

country are all biproducts of westernisation, According to Srinivas, the increase in

westernization does not retard the process of sanskritisation; both go on simultaneously and

to some extent, increase in westernisation accelerates the process of sanskritisation. For

instance, postal facilities, railways, buses and newspaper media which are tools of western

impact on India render more organised religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities etc.

are possible now than in the past. By westernisation he means primarily the British impact.

Westernisation in India commenced with the advent of British people whose culture was

different. On 1599 an English Company was formed under the name 'Merchant Adventurers',

popularly known as the East India Company, to undertake trade and commerce. The culture

of the English was totally different from that of the indigenous people of India. Queen

Elizabeth granted a royal charter to the British Company to trade in the east, including India

in December 31,1600. The East India Company established factories at Surat, Broach,

Ahmedabad, Agra and Masulipatnam between 1600 A.D. and 1714 A.D. The Company

opened its first factory in Orissa in 1633.

The East India Company gradually attempted to acquire political power and on 23rd June,

1757 the Company army defeated the army of Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey. The British rule

commenced in India systematically from this time onwards.

The Charter Act of 1813 was renewed in 1833 and Lord Bentick was appointed as the

Governor of Bengal. Lord Bentick appointed Lord Macaulay in 1834 as Law Member in the

Governor's Council. Mecaulay was entirely responsible to design the system of education for

Indians in India. On the basis of recommendations of Lord Macaulay primary schools were

established in British pattern with some modifications to prepare Indians to assist the British

in their administration. British system of liberal education which was introduced in India to

establishment of 3 Universities in the 3 Presidencies, namely, Kolkata, Mumbai, and

Chennai. Western liberal education gradually brought about changes in technology, social

institutions, ideology and values. Western liberal education introduced in India

humanitarianism and rationalism and was responsible for the development of a lessez faire

attitude among the educants.

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The British system of education created an awareness of exploitation in the minds of

educated ones and was instrumental in generating a rational attitude in their minds.

Establishment of scientific, technological, vocational and educational institutions led to the

rise of nationalism. A new political culture, indigenous leadership, and trade union movement

were the bi-products of westernisation. Professional, administrative and general bureaucracy

emerged under the impact of British rule.

Foundation of a new jural system in India was laid down by Warren Hastings. The process of

westernisation accelerated the process of sanskritisation which became the corner stone of

freedom movement later on. Westernisation mainly implies changes in the dress pattern,

dietary pattern or eating, etiquette, household articles and social encounters. When western

liberal education was introduced the Brahman and other high caste Hindus first seized with

the opportunities of receiving higher education. They developed some sort of secular

education so as to shun orthodoxy and conservatism. The school atmosphere was secular and

free from religious influences. Westernisation wiped out superstitions, inhibitions and ritual

taboos.

Westernisation paved the way for bringing about social reforms, such as removal of

untouchability, prevention of Sati and Child marriage. It farther emphasised widow

remarriage and opened vistas for women to take up public assignments. It also removed

intercaste commensal barriers and encouraged intercaste marriages.5

Westernisation was responsible for the rise of nationalism and launching of freedom

movement. It also introduced newspaper media which became a vital force in mobilising

public opinion against the British rule. Westernisation created scope for greater spatial

mobility and societal contact. People took to pilgrimages which in course of time helped

them to form larger political organisations and institutions. Travel also promoted caste

solidarity and regional and sub-regional solidarities. Such solidarities helped the Indians to

organise protest meetings against the British in order to voice their grievances.

Westernisation was responsible to bring women from seclusion to agitational fora which later

on reinforced the movement against the British rule.

The Western culture and tradition which at that time had undergone fundamental

transformation through industrial revolution created a liberal attitude in the minds of educated

Indians. The British society had shaken oppression of the church and feudalism and this value

was acquired by the Indians who opposed colonial imperialism and oppression. As the British

themselves were trying to promote rational individualism in their economy and society so

5 C.N. Shankar Rao, Indian Society, S. Chnad, New Delhi, p. 247

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also Indians tied to do the same thing against the British rule. In course of the British rule,

westernisation process forged unity among the discrete individual castes so as to counter the

British administration.

In course of time, westernisation helped Indians to launch resistance and freedom movements

against the British. But British could finally pack off from India from 15th August 1947

handing over the reigns of power to the Indians. Had westernisation not been there how much

time the departure of British rule had taken could not be easily estimated.

The influence of westernization on India society include;

Influence on caste system.

Disintegration of Joint family.

Number of social reform movements.

Disintegration of cottage industries.

Variety in cultivation.

New measures in land management.

Democratic values and ideas were promoted.

Social justice and uniform administrative system developed.

Modernization –

Modernization is understood as a process which indicates the adoption of the modern ways of

life and values. The term was used previously to refer only “to change in economy and its

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related effect on social values and practices”. As a result of the change in the economy, the

society itself underwent changes in its values, beliefs and norms. Today, the term,

“Modernization” is understood as an attempt to, on the part of the people, particularly those

who are custom-bound, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions, styles and ways

in general.

According to Daniel Lerner, who introduced the concept of Modernization, “Modernization

is the current term of an old process of social change whereby less developed societies

acquire the characteristics common to more developed societies”.

According to Semlser, Modernization refers to “a complex set of changes that take place

almost in every part of the society as it attempts to be industrialized. Modernization involves

ongoing change in a society’s economy, politics, education, traditions and religion.”6

Characteristics of Modernization –

The process of modernization has different dimensions. The spirit of modernization is

expressed in different areas such as – social organization, culture, political field, economy,

education, etc. in different ways. The process of Modernization reveals the following

important characteristics –

Modernization includes – “a temple of science, reason and rationalism, secularism, high

aspiration and achievement orientation, overall transformation of attitudes norms and

values, creation of new functional institutions, investment in human resources, a growth

oriented economy, a national interest rather than kin, caste, religion or language oriented

interests, an open society, and a mobile process.”7

According to B. Kuppuswamy, “the main feature of Modernization is the building up of an

“open society” in which individuals of talent, enterprise and training can find places in the

society appropriate to their achievement. The process of Modernization involves an increase

in social unrest till the social system is responsive to the new aspiration built up by the

Modernization process.”

Measures of Modernization –

Rustow and Ward [1964] have mentioned of some measures of modernization. They include

such specific aspects of changes as :

6 C.N. Shankar Rao, Indian Society, S. Chnad, New Delhi, p. 2517 Ram Ahuja, Indian Social Sysytem, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 1993

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Industrialisation of economy and adopting a scientific technology in industry,

agriculture, dairy farming, etc., to make them highly productive;

Secularism of ideas – that is, a diffusion of secular – rational norms on culture;

A remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility which includes occupational

mobility also;

A spread of scientific and technical education;

A transition from ascribed to achieved status;

An increase in material standard of living;

High expectancy of life at birth;

Relatively greater measures of public participation in the policy – or at least

democratic representation in defining and choosing policy alternatives.

Daniel Lerner observes : “According to this typology, the modern person is an urban

literate who participates fully in the public forum, market place, political arena.”

Causes of Modernization –

Modernization is not caused by any single factor. It is the result of a number of factors –

Education – Education, that too education pertaining to the fields of science and

technology provides the basis of modernization. Education involves a sense of loyalty

and creates skills and attitudes essential for technological innovations.

Mass Communication – the process of modernization hinges on the phenomenon of

mass communication. The development of mass communication [including T.V.,

newspaper, radio, computer, internet etc.] is an important means of spreading modern

ideas at a faster rate. The mass media is the device that can spread the requisite

knowledge and attitudes quickly and widely.

Ideology based on Nationalism – Nationalism and democracy are very much linked

with modernisation. Nationalism is connected with national awareness and political

consensus. Mass media plays a very vital role in democratic societies to spread

modern views, ideas, values etc. by persuading the masses.

Charismatic Leadership – A charismatic leader is in a better position to impress

upon the people to adopt modern beliefs, values, practices and behaviour patterns. But

the danger involves here is that this popular leader may take the undue advantage of

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his position and use modern values, ideas, etc., for his personal glorification rather

than for the national development.

Other Factors – there are two more factors which cause the modernization –

o Urbanization and Industrialisation – urbanization and industrialization are

two inter-related processes that are assumed to be invariably linked up with

modernization. Urbanisation refers to the process of growth and expansion of

cities. Industrialisation refers to the unprecedented growth and expansion of

the industries.

o Universal Legal System – the “rule of law” is one of the prerequisites of the

modernization. The present legal system places premium on the individual

protecting his rights and assuring his freedom.8

Problems of Modernization –

Prof. Ram Ahuja speaks of following problems of modernization –

Modernization demands that society must change in all ways at once. But such a

regular and co-ordinated pattern of growth cannot be planned and materialised.

During the period of modernization, structural changes mostly uneven. Example,

Industries may be modernized but religious system, family system, etc. remain

conservative.

Modernization of social and economic institutions may create conflicts with the

traditional ways of the life. Example, Trained M.B.B.S. doctors may pose a threat to

the traditional medical practitioners.

Most often roles adopted by the people are modern, but their values continue to be

traditional.

There is lack of cooperation among agencies which modernise and among those

institutions and systems which are already modernized.

Conclusion

8 C.N. Shankar Rao, Indian Society, S. Chnad, New Delhi, P. 253

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Sanskritisation and westernisation as concepts are primarily focussed to analyse cultural

changes. Describe the social changes occurring in modern India in terms of sanskritisation

and westernisation is to describe it primarily in cultural and not in structural terms. The

analysis in terms of structure is much more difficult than an analysis in terms of culture.

Westernization improved communication and technology; it hastened the process of

Sanskritization through religious propaganda and caste and communal congregation. Higher

castes gave up traditional customs and adopted the life style of the westerns. Lower castes

aspiring for higher status filled the higher caste vacuum through Sanskritization.

It was observed that the higher caste perhaps to maintain the social distance between them

and the lower castes they have adopted the life style of westerns. By the time the lower caste

reached their destiny through Sanskritization, the upper castes have vacated that place

through westernization.

Though modernization raises the aspiration of the people, the social system does not provide

enough chances to materialize them. This creates frustration, disappointment and social

unrest.

The concept of Sanskritization and Westernization help us only to analyze the superficial

change processes which took place in the later half of the 19th century and the first two

decades of the 20th century. Neither Sanskritization nor Westernization affects the social

structure. So they are entirely inadequate to help us to analyse the change processes which are

currently taking place in the Indian society. Though the terms Sanskritization and

Westernization are not entirely useless, but the term Modernization is more appropriate and

relevant one in providing a satisfactory explanation of social change.

REFERENCES

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BOOKS

Ram Ahuja, Indian Social Sysytem, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 1993.

C.N. Shankar Rao, Indian Society, S. Chnad, New Delhi

WEBLIOGRAPHY

www.publishyourarticles.net

www.sociologyguide.com/social-mobility

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