Socio-economic Profile of Paniyas in...

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Chapter 5

Socio-economic Profile of Paniyas in Wayanad

Introduction

The relation to the earth as property is always mediated through the occupation of the land and

soil, peacefully or violently, by the tribe or any community in some more or less naturally arisen or

already historically developed form. An unequal distribution of environmental benefits reinforces or

diminishes existing social and economic inequalities. If the environment for the tribal community is

above all a livelihood issue, then any change to that environment will invariably alter the ability of that

actor to earn a livelihood.

The present chapter deals with Paniyas. They are distributed across Wayanad district and the

adjoining Kozhikode, Kannur and Malappuram districts in Kerala. They also inhabit the Gudalur taluk

of the Nilgiri district in Tamil Nadu and the Coorg district of Karnataka which is situated to the north of

Wayanad district. These tribes serve better understanding of social phenomena, of life and livelihood

matters - from barter to market system and beyond. This chapter seeks to present a brief description

about their livelihood.

Distribution of Paniya Community

The Ippimala makkal (Children of the Ippi Hills, a legendary mountain range) constitute the

largest tribal community in Wayanad district of Kerala. The distribution of Paniyas in Kerala is as follows:-

Table 5.1Distribution of Paniyas in Kerala

District Rural Urban Total Total %

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Kannur 5297 5511 73 80 5370 5591 10961 13.38

Kozhikode 1189 1213 36 46 1225 1259 2484 3.03

Wayanad 28654 29875 1105 1167 29759 31042 60801 74.2

Malappuram 3262 3632 9 3 3271 3635 6906 8.43

Other districts 338 364 38 146 376 412 788 0.96

Total 38740 40597 1261 1342 40001 41939 81940 100

Source: Census 2001

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The major portion of the Paniyas is in Wayanad i.e. 74.2 percent. A lion’s share of the community

is concentrated in rural areas. A small percentage of the population is also found in other districts (0.96)

of Kerala. This is mainly due to the migration of the community in search of occupation.

Population Trend

As per 1971 census their population was 45,562 and it got increased to 56,922 in 1981. According

to 1991 census their population is 67948, of which 33273 are women and 34675 are men. Table 5.2

gives an idea about the population variation of the community. The rate of population growth of the

community was highest during the decade 1971 to 1981 (24.93%), declined to 19.37 % in the next

decade, and then increased to 20.59 % during the period 1991 to 2001. However, the total ST population

of the State shows highest rate (22.75%) of growth during 1981 to 1991 while the Paniyan community’s

population growth rate was lower in that period.

Table 5.2Population Variation of Paniyan Community (1971 – 2001)

Year Male Female Total Sex % of Total ST % of % of STof Paniyan Ratio Population Population Population PopulationCensus Population Growth of the State Growth to Total

(Paniya) Population

of the State

1971 22936 22626 45562 986 NA 269356 NA 1.26

1981 27880 29042 56922 1042 24.93 261475 -2.93 1.03

1991 33273 34675 67948 1042 19.37 320967 22.75 1.1

2001 40001 41939 81940 1048 20.59 364189 13.47 1.14

Source: Census various years

The table further reveals that the total ST population showed a negative growth rate (-2.93 %)

during the decade 1971 to 1981. This may be due to the inclusion/exclusion of certain communities

from the ST list of the State in the year 1976. During the 1991-2001 decade the growth rate of the

Paniyan community is higher than that of the total ST communities of the State.

Physical Appearance

The Paniyas are short in stature with thick lips, curly hair, broad noses and black skin. The curly

hair which is grown like a ‘boe’ is their distinctive feature. In physiognomy they are of an almost Negroid

type (Innes, C.A., 1951). The Gazetteer of India (1965) also holds the view that Paniyas are the remnants

of the ancient Indian Negroid. Both male and female are fond of growing hair up to the shoulder. The

females (called Panichi) grow their hair in front of their head trimming it evenly forming a bonnet.

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Hamlet

The Paniyas live in a variety of ecological settings-some in relatively isolated hilly tracts, some

close to urban locations and relatively few near forest fringes. Their dwellings are mostly poor huts near

farms and plantations. The cluster of their huts (Chala) are called “Padis” (Edgar, Thurston, p.135.).

Three categories of houses (pire) are found among this community. The first category includes the poor

huts which are independent bamboo structures having a small courtyard. Most of these huts have only

one room and a verandah. The roof is thatched with grass or straw. A fireside is located at one corner of

the room. The second type of pire are built with mud-brick walls, with mostly two rooms and a verandah.

They are tiled, and most of them are built with government aid. The floor of the house is made up of mud

and is plastered with cow-dung. The third type is of recent origin and has concrete roof or tiles over the

concrete roof. They have cement/laterite brick walls with a verandah and two or three rooms. Most of

them are constructed with government aid, and the nature of the floor remains the same as that of the

second type. However, the size of the house remains small in all the three cases. The pires in a hamlet are

clustered over a small patch of land with a narrow foot-path between them. A separate hearth is also

kept in the backyard of some houses, after the monsoon season.

The Paniya hamlets are generally situated on paddy fields owned by non-tribal settlers’ or other

ethnic groups, hill slopes or in valleys near plantations. Their settlements are usually a cluster of few huts

consisting of five to fifteen families. The huts are constructed on the small plot of land from the landlords

(‘Janmis’) under whom they were bonded labourers from time immemorial.

Means of communication

The community has a language of its own. This is a very corrupt dialect of Malayalam, Tamil and

Tulu words and phrases. They have a profound liking towards their language and talk within the

community only by using the language. There is no particular alphabet for the Paniya language. While

conversing with people outside their community, they use malayalam for communication.

Religious attitude

Paniyas worship animistic deities, of which the chief is ‘Kuli’, whom they worship on a raised

platform called ‘Kulithara’ offering coconut, flowers, rice etc. They perform animal sacrifices, and what

is offered before Kuli is eaten after the ceremony. After a hunt, the heart and liver of the animal is sliced

and offered to the hunting deities (Jacob John Kattakayam, 1983, p.40). They also worship ‘Maladaivangal’

(Gods of mountain’), ‘Kuttichathan’, ‘Kuliyan’, ‘Kattu Bhagavati’, ‘Malakkari’, ‘Mariyamma’, ‘Ayyappan’

and spirits of the dead (their forefathers). The ‘Bhagavati’ of Valliyurkavu temple at Mananthavady and

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banyan tree are also worshipped by the Paniyas. They hesitate to cut such trees and believe that if

anyone attempts to cut them, they will fall sick.

The priest of Paniyas is called ‘Kuttan’. He is also accompanied by a ‘Komaram’ or oracle. They

are also called ‘Attali’. The elder headmen of the community (age old persons) are called Muppanmar or

Muppans. The Muppan is appointed by the land lord. ‘Chemmi’or ‘Chemmakkaran’, another priest from

the community is appointed by the landlord under whom the Paniyas work. The ‘Chemmi’ is the leader

and head of each settlement. He is the authority to settle disputes, incidents of stealing, quarrels, sexual

offences etc in the hamlet.

Dressing Pattern

The dress of Paniyas is simple and easily distinguishable from that of other tribal groups. The

males wear a long cloth (Mundu) which is wrapped around the waist and a small ‘mundu’ is worn on the

shoulders covering the body. The Paniya women (Panichis) wear a long cloth on the loins and a smaller

one is wrapped above the breast through the arm-pits. A coloured scarf (either red or black), which they

call ‘aratti’ is tied around the waist of women. The colour of aratti has regional variations. In Mananthavady

area, it is red while in Kalpetta and Sulthan Battery it is black. The dressing pattern of Paniyas has

undergone many changes now. In the place of mundu, men now wear shirts and trousers. The younger

generation of Panichis wear saris, churidar and jeans while going outside the tribal hamlet.

Ornaments and fashion

During the early periods, both men and women used to wear ornaments in their hands and legs.

Rings and ear rings were used by both sexes. At present gents seldom use ear rings. However even today

various ear ornaments are worn by women. The most prominent ones among them are the ‘Ola’ (a roll of

Pandanus leaf worn on the ears also known as Koradu), the ‘murula’ (a piece of light wood with conch

shell in the groove at edges) and the ‘chootumani’ (dried pandanus leaf rolled with a central cavity, filled

with bees wax, on the one side of which small red seeds are fixed). A proud possession of a Panichi is the

‘thoda’ a rounded ear ornament made of brass. The females decorate their nose with Pache (nose studs)

also known as ‘mooppoti’ made of fancy metals. They wear a number of necklaces around their neck

and bangles in their hand (known as balae and malaei). The ornaments are mainly of plastic and glass

beads stringed together in various patterns and bright colours. Bangles are however made of copper or

aluminium and those worn between the elbow and shoulder are called thol balae. A flat necklace made

of small beads worn close to neck is called muduchulu. Below the muduchulu, karikallae, ballikallae,

thathikallae and malae are worn in that order. Ballikallae is the thali (wedding necklace) worn during the

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marriage. Nowadays twenty five paise or fifty paise coins are used as “thali” during the marriage. Old

coins are strung together to form the thathikallae. The thathikallae is also worn by the priests called attali

and the chemmakkaran. Children wear undae balae (bangle). They also wear finger rings. The irelli, a

bamboo comb is plainly kept with the hair. Kathala (anklet) of copper or aluminium is used by younger

maidens. When working in the fields they wear a big basket-work hat made of split reeds and shaded like

an inverted coal-scoop called kontai.

Marriage

The Paniyas follow endogamy at community level. Marriage among the community is usually by

negotiation. The initiative for marriage starts from the boy’s side. In the Paniya community there is the

practice of payment of bride price by the groom. After marriage the husband also has to pay Thalappattam

(Uchal) an annual subscription to his wife’s parents. After one year of marriage 30 Kolagam (750 gram

paddy) has to be paid and 10 Kolagam paddy has to be paid in the succeeding years.

Paniya’s means of sustenance

Paniyar were traditional food gatherers leading a nomadic life. They were of the hunting and

gathering type heavily depending upon collection of edible roots, tubers and hunting small games for

their sustenance. Most wild food that Paniyas collected came from the paddy fields and its fringes,

bunds, wayside bushes, agricultural or unmanaged or semi-managed habitats. Along with this they also

collected non-timber forest produce (NTFP) like honey, fruits, bark, leaves and other edible items. The

sharp insights gained through close and sustained interaction with nature, helped them to adapt to new

modes of production in their forest life.

The Paniyas ate ox, buffalo and bison. Their day started and ended with the battle for food, and

they seldom found time to earn for other essential needs (John Jacob Kattayam, 1983). They used to trap

animals like rabbit, pole-cat, small deer, civet cat, wild squirrel, wild goat, porcupine all of which were

included in their diet. Along with this, honey, nuran (a kind of tuber), bamboo shoot, crab, ponnamkanni

(Alternanthera Sessilis) and many varieties of green leafy plants (about 83 wild leaf species) were also

eaten. The Paniya women used to make puzhukku and upperi with leaves of pumpkin, Cassia tora etc.

Puzhukku is a simple side dish made by cooking vegetable leaf, turmeric and salt. The leaves are simply

fried in oil with a little salt and taken as side dish called upperi. Narakizhangu, Nurakizhangu, Kavattu,

Kachil (Yam) figured among some of the favourite tubers that they used to collect.

They had knowledge about different herbal medicines too. The Paniyar used to collect five different

varieties of crabs (The meat of the crab is believed to cure cough and whooping cough). The community

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had knowledge about 35 different varieties of fishes. The entire Paniya family took part in fishing activity.

While the men folk went for casting the nets, the Paniya women spread a paste of hydrocotyl javanica in

water-bodies. The paste stupefies the fish making the catch easy (Anil, Kumar & Ratheesh, Narayanan,

2005). Deforestation and alienation of adivasi land has however resulted in the reduction in the use of

their natural resources. Habitat destruction and commercialization has left the Paniyas of Wayanad with

few choices. The younger generations of Paniyas have been forced to discard their traditional way of life

and adapt to the changing situations.

Alcoholism is high among Paniyas. Majority of the gents are addicted to alcohol. Ladies are also

alcohol addicts in many hamlets. The members of the community have a distinct ecstasy for alcohol

since time immemorial, (Thurston, 1975:59). Country brewing is common in the colonies. Murukkal

(chewing of betel leaves, pieces of arecanuts, tobacco leaves, and lime) is widespread among the

community. Women carry a small cotton bag in order to take the ingredients for chewing. Paniya children

are accustomed to chewing at the age of five or six, mostly with the encouragement of elders.

Historical Locale

The tradition about their origin is captivating. There are numerous speculations about the origin of

the community. One such assumption is that they were an African tribe who came to India after a shipwreck

on the West coast. There is also a presumption that the community had their origin in the Ippi hills as the

members of the community were reported to utter the word ‘Ippi’ when excited. Ippimala, a hill which

no one in Wayanad could localize and which is said to be somewhere near the Thamarassery ghats was

the home of the Paniyasii. The identity of Ippimala is also attributed to the Banasura hills in the western

Wayanad (Francis, Kulrani, B). Paniyas were savage tribes living in caves and thick forests, coming out

only at nights and feeding on paddy and other crops. The community is one of the earliest inhabitants in

the Wayanad region. They established co-existence and linked themselves in economic and social

symbiosis for a long time.

The Period of Bondage

The second part of the history of the Paniyas refers to the suppression of their ancestors ‘Ippimala

muthappe and Ippimala muthassi (great great….grand father and grand mother of Ippimala), by the

Goudar and Uralikurumbaiii marking a very drastic shift in the livelihood strategy of the ippimala makkal.

The Goudan landowners finding their crops always destroyed by these “black beasts,” managed to secure

them by means of nets known as ‘Thandati’. These domesticated Paniyas induced their friends of the

forests to join them and gradually they spread from place to place (Gopalan, C., 2000). Another interesting

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account regarding their origin is that they were discovered in their primitive state by the ‘Chettis’ of

Wayanad, who trapped them, brought them to the plains and trained them in agricultural works. From

this period onwards they became the slaves under the local chieftains, mainly subsisting upon agricultural

labour (Suresh, K.P., 2006). The story about their early history clearly shows that these people were

captured and turned to slaves from their aboriginal life style. It was during this period that the ‘Ippimala

makkal’ came to be called Paniyar, which means labourers or the conquered ones of the landowners.

The etymology of the word Paniyar indicates their main activity. It is derived from the word Pani

meaning ‘work’ and those who do pani (work) is Paniyar. They have been mentioned by several authors

mainly as agricultural workers. The name by which they refer about themselves is Kachavan ,the subaltern

to their employers(Somasekharan, Nair, P.,1976). From the meaning of the word itself it is clear that they

are the people who are born for working for others. To some extent this trend is still prevalent in Wayanad.

It is a known fact that the term ‘Paniyar’, also refers to the backward class people having no property of

their own and who used to earn by rendering their services to the masters.

Wayanad existed as a tribal republic under the Kudumbiyil and Veda kings till the end of 13th

century. After that the power went into the hands of Kottayam kings. Life of Paniyas started changing

when the power went into the hands of Kottayam kings. The land upon which the tribes lived freely got

into the hands of Nair chieftains to whom the land had been distributed by the Kottayam dynasty and

adivasis got degraded as landless slaves (Bhagadu, K.P., 1972). The biggest impact of the regime of the

Rajas and janmi was that Paniyas were denied the opportunity to emerge on their own. The establishment

of temples and large areas of land earmarked as devaswom (property of the deity) further strengthened

their enslavement. These local high caste elites also exploited to their personal advantage the limited

access to forests and common pool resources that the communities like Paniyas had.

Under the feudal administration, the land is the property of the Kings and Paniyar and other tribal

communities were reduced to bonded labourers under various ownership categories like Janmam, (absolute

ownership and transferable on payment of fixed amount), Kanam, (mortgaged by the owner for a certain

amount of cash which is repayable and an annual payment of a certain measure of paddy) and Patam,

(the owner rented out his Janmam Paniyar for a short term, i.e., an agricultural season). The system of

cultivator labour relations that prevailed in those periods were known differently as Kundalpani , Valli

pani etc, where annual contracts were entered into by the landlords and the agrestic serf during the

annual temple festivals like that of Valliyoorkavu near Manananthavady, Erulam, Pulpally etc. It had

certain elements of symbiotic relationship between the cultivator and the family of the labour force, but

was highly exploitative in terms of meagre wages that was paid mainly in measure of paddy.

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“Kundalpani iv” is a system of slavery under which the Paniyas were compelled to work for a

particular Nair or Gowdan or any other Hindu higher caste employer for a fixed term. The bonded

labourers built huts in the properties of the tenant cultivators. Annually they were supplied with some

clothing. These labourers usually supplemented their food requirements by gathering leaves, roots, catching

crabs, fishes etc from the agricultural fields and nearby bushes. The relationship between the Paniyan

and the patron lasted for years and sometimes even for the whole life (Mathur, P.M.G., 1975).

The agriculture in Wayanad depended much on these agrestic slaves who had been the backbone

of the production relations in a pre-colonial and pre-capitalist agrarian system. The rise of agrarian

labour from a free labour market based on direct payment was unknown in the feudalistic society where

the free play of capital and labour had been restricted. The depressed castes like the Paniyas constituted

a major part of the labour force and these members were attached to cultivable land and the dominant

classes that consisted of local chieftains and landlords.

Colonialism and Paniya life

Under the British, the relations of production became vastly different from that of a tribal autonomous

system of social and political organization and sustainable system of production. The adivasis were

abridged from their early position of autonomy and only a few of them like the Kurichyas continued to

remain landowners at least in a marginal sense. The plantation economy had a huge impact on tribal

groups who had freely used the forests and hills that were now being converted into ordered productive

landscapes. The local tribes like Paniyas lost their dependence on their surroundings and had to take up

wage labour on the British plantations.

The process of forest clearing by the colonial state for commercial purposes had sweeping ecological

implications, especially for river systems and soil conditions. The priorities of the new system of forest

management and control, imposed by the colonial state, conflicted sharply with local systems of forest

use and control. In short, the environment in which Paniyas depended upon was taken over by the state,

and the rights of these communities were progressively eroded. Rice had been introduced on large scale

and all the native tribes developed liking to it. As a result ceasing of food grain dependence between

tribes slowly emerged. Because of liking of rice almost all tribes started buying rice from the commercial

centres either by selling their products or cash earned through labour. Thus, all indigenous groups traded

in cash rather then through the traditional barter system. The forest department meanwhile imposed

restrictions on hunting and collection of forest produce. This restriction brought long term impacts on

food gathering technologies of tribes like Paniyas and as a result their dependencies on the surrounding

ecology for food started declining. The ultimate effect of all these was that they got uprooted from their

traditional moorings and became wage labourers.

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Impact of post-independence policies on Paniya livelihood

Independence followed by the state re-organisation in 1956 brought in more immigrants and new

political equations. The combined impact of the immigration and large scale introduction of cash crops

was far reaching on the tribes of Wayanad in general and on Paniyar in particular. Intensive plantation

agriculture increased the demand for labour and the Paniyar began to turn increasingly to kulippani

(wage labour) for cash payment on daily basis. The Minimum Wages Act 1951 made the outside labour

expensive and Paniyar began to be preferred as they worked for lesser rates. The wage labourers like the

Paniyas also became totally dependent on the market for all their food, clothing and other house hold

requirements.

The complete transition of the Paniyar from a subsistence economy to cash and market economy

however occurred as late as 1976, after the abolition of the bonded labour system. When the initial

uncertainties with the strange settlers were over, the Paniyar slowly gained familiarity with the immigrant

communities. But the Paniyar and other tribal labourers had to compete for the new labour opportunities

with the migrated labourers. In this cut-throat employment marketplace Paniyas were only the second

option. The non-tribal cultivators considered the Paniyas as sluggish and lethargic, whereas the Paniyas

felt that settlers were brutal, cruel and more demanding. The liberalisation process and the impact of the

Green Revolution on Adivasi areas has only made matters worse. The Paniyas still continue to eke out a

pathetic life in the midst of ignorance, indebtedness, ill health and above all unhealthy economic practices.

From the social point of view also the tribals of Wayanad can be set in different strata of social status. The

Kurichya tribal community stand highest in the hierarchical social structure. The erstwhile agricultural

bonded labourers like Adiyas and Paniyas occupy the last strata of tribal hierarchy. Among these tribes

Paniyas are considered the lowest. They are the agrestic slaves once bought and sold with the land, to

which they were attached as slave labourers. After the abolition of slavery they are freed but their freedom

is even now limited by the hard economic conditions under which they live.

At present wage labour in the plantations and agricultural fields owned by the higher caste landlords

is the main livelihood of the Paniyas in Wayanad. The crisis in the agricultural sector, especially the

plantation zone has resulted in the total loss of job and wage for the agricultural labourers (Gopimony,

R., 2004).This crisis affects wage labour households through decline in income from cultivation. Thus

the changes in the local ecology and economy have had a direct impact on the food security of socially

and economically weaker communities like Paniyas. Habitat destruction and commercialization has left

them with few choices. This situation has resulted in the run over of their cultural values also. A study

conducted by KIRTADS (2010) on Paniyas states that the social, economic, educational and other aspects

of the Paniyan community has not much improved in spite of the decades of interventions from the part

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Chart 5.1

Social stratification among tribes in Wayanad

of the Government and other agencies. This is mainly because the members of the community are not in

a position to make use of the so called developmental initiatives in the present scenario. On the one hand

there is lack of orientation, awareness and capability from the part of the members of the community and

on the other side there is negligence, irresponsibility and lack of involvement from the part of implementers

of the various development schemes.

Methodology and approach of the study

The major focus of the study is to gain a micro level understanding of the various dimensions of

livelihood among the Paniyas in Wayanad. A systematic and scientific approach is hence necessary to

deal with the problems under study to arrive at convincing conclusions. The approach adopted for the

study is supplemented partly with secondary data and partly with primary data. The case study is based

on a mix of research tools consisting of interviews, group discussions and survey of sample households

through questionnaires. The initial step in semi-structured interviewing is to construct an interview guide

containing a summary of the essential themes to be covered during the session. The interview guide

serves as a reminder of what the researcher aims to learn in the session. Following the conception of the

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interview guide, the second step is to select the interview participants. It is important that chosen participants

be relevant to the research objective. It is equally important that there be a representative sample of the

population and that no key stakeholders be left out.

Informal group discussions and interactions with the immigrant non-tribals were carried out at

different times during the period 2007-09. The assessment has been done on the basis of a set of criteria

such as objective accomplishment, objective fulfilment, implementation process etc. In a concise form,

the methodological approach adopted in this study involves the following aspects:

(1) Primary data were collected from various departments of the Government of Kerala and Census

reports.

(2) The field observation and on the spot data collection methods were adopted for assessing and

evaluating beneficiary oriented income generating programmes like MGNREGA. The

questionnaire for the individual households covered livelihood assets possessed by the

households, educational and health parameters etc (See Appendix).

(3) An in-depth and careful interview method was adopted. For the above the researcher stayed

in Vellamunda panchayat for getting acquainted with the place, people and their problems.

Though the purpose of carrying out household surveys in all the seven panchayats was to

collect qualitative data needed for examining the research questions raised, attempt has been

made wherever possible to supplement the qualitative data with insights about various aspects

of livelihood gathered from formal and informal interactions with the households. Besides

this the researcher had also visited the tribal colonies in Jharkand (2009) and Warangal (2010).

At the time of Chengara agitation, a ‘Solution Package’ for the land issue of the agitators was

submitted by the researcher to the government for consideration. Then the researcher got an

opportunity to know in depth about the agonies of the landless Scheduled Tribes in

Pattanamthitta. In 2007 the researcher worked as District Collector, Idukki. At that time the

researcher was closely associated with implementation of Tribal Sub Plan schemes. This also

have helped the researcher in the analysis of the tribal issue in Wayanad.

(4) Library works also supported the study with ideas and materials. Books, reports, research

articles etc were also referred.

The approach followed for understanding the phenomenon of livelihood has been made possible

mainly by the adoption of a livelihood asset based framework for understanding the rural Paniya livelihood

system. But livelihood has to be looked at not only from the point of view of household capabilities,

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assets, materials and social activities which are required as a means of living but also in terms of

opportunities and strategies available for livelihood improvement(Shylendra, H.S. & Uma Rani, 2005,

p.33.). Taking such a broad approach to livelihood has been largely necessitated as the earlier approaches

focussed too narrowly on any one issue like income or employment ignoring the scope for a multi-

dimensional strategy for enduring livelihood security. Having taken a broader view of the concept of

livelihood, such an approach has been adopted in this study in understanding the educational and health

issues as well as political participation.

The Paniyas are distributed, in all the three taluks of Wayanad district. Of the three taluks,

Mananthavady taluk one of the prominent tribal centres was selected for the analysis. In this taluk there

are seven panchayats. All these seven panchayats were selected for the study. Social, economic and

biophysical features of the area were studied using primary data collected mainly by the participant

observation method. Agriculture, land use, development projects, man-forest interaction, socio-economic

relationships etc were also examined. Two distinct geographical units from two ecological units have

been identified for the study.

Mananthavady

The current political scenario in Wayanad is one of demonstrations, agitations, dharnas and public

meetings voicing various grievances. Most of these movements are organized in Mananthavady.

Mananthavady is situated on the banks of Mananthavady Puzha, a tributary of the Kabini River in

Wayanad district. The tomb of Pazhassi Raja is an important heritage site located in the heart of the town.

This is also the headquarters of the Adivasi Gothra Mahasabha. The Adivasi Autonomous Council, that

led the tribal rights movement under C. K. Janu, was formed in a small hamlet called Panavalli near

Mananthavady. Valliyoorkav temple (3 km from Manathavady town) is of Mother Goddess and is

worshipped in three principal forms viz. Vana Durga, Bhadrakali and Jala Durga. It is the most important

place of worship for the tribal communities. The grandest festival of the district is celebrated for 15 days

annually in March/April in this temple. Slave trade of tribals used to take place here during the festival.

Even now this temple is the largest congregation of all tribals of Wayanad.

Mananthavady has political importance too. The Naxalite movement as mentioned in chapter 4

had its first operation in Mananthavady Taluk. Naxalite leader Varghese attacked Pulpally police station

in Thirunelli panchayat. We have also incorporated Thirunelli panchayat in out study. It was in

Mananthavady on October 12, 1992 that about 1500 adivasis representing over 35 adivasi organisations

from 11 states converged for the ‘Adivasi Sangamam’ the confluence of expressions of self-assertions.

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On this very day 190 years ago, the British imperialist forces advanced towards Mananthavady, destroying

Panamaram fort 16 km from Mananthavady). The adivasis of Wayanad led by Thalakkal Chandu, a

Kurichya, beat them back (Bijoy, C.R., 1993, p.1357.). Mananthavady town has witnessed time and

again a search for renewed vigour to strengthen struggles against decimation.

Mananthavady has also witnessed several adivasi movements in the recent past also. The decision

to enter into the historic “Muthanga Struggle’ was taken in Mananthavady town. When the government

failed to honour the 2001 agreement. The Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha assumed responsibility for further

struggles and on 25th August 2002, thousands of adivasis assembled in Mananthavady to deliberate on

the future course of action if the government did not deliver on its promises by December 31st 2002. A

‘Tribal Court’ consisting of 20 women and 40 men representing the different adivasi communities was

constituted. The Tribal Court in Mananthavady declared that if the government did not abide by the 2001

Agreements, the adivasis would go ahead and claim their rights by forcibly occupying government

lands. When the government failed to take any decision, on 4th January 2003, they embarked upon the

‘Muthanga Struggle’. The tribals also recently agitated against the Mananthavady Hydro Electric Project.

A total of 17 tribal colonies will be evicted and would become homeless by this project. Taking

consideration all these facts, we have selected Mananthavady Taluk for our study (See Appendices IV, V

& VI). The population of the panchayats of Mananthavady taluk are given below:

Table 5.3Population/Mananthavady Block

Grama Tribal Tribal Population

panchayat families Male Female Total Percentage

Vellamunda 1428 3174 3262 6436 14.2

Thirunelli 3116 6373 6730 13103 28.91

Thondernadu 1191 2631 2550 5181 11.43

Edavaka 1062 2477 2549 5026 11.09

Thavinjal 1795 3972 3881 7853 17.32

Mananthavady 1697 3681 3842 7523 16.6

Total 10289 22308 22814 45122 99.54

Scheduled Caste ** 27 34 61 0.13

Others ** 79 69 148 0.33

Total ** 106 103 209 0.46

Total population 10289 22414 22917 45331 100

Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Mananthavady Block Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

127

Table 5.4Community wise Population-Mananthavady Block

CommunityFamilies Population (in No.)

(No.) Male Female Total PercentageAdiyas 1953 4042 4405 8447 18.63

Wayanadan Kadars 87 170 157 327 0.72Kattunaikans 895 1792 1871 3663 8.08Kurichyas 3419 7619 7366 14985 33.06

Mala Arayans 33 64 69 133 0.29Paniyas 3458 7774 8102 15876 35.02Ulladans 4 9 9 18 0.04

Thachanad Moopan 1 2 2 4 0.01Vetta Kuruman 411 780 779 1559 3.44Kurumar/

Mulla Kurumar 28 56 54 110 0.24Total 10289 22308 22814 45122 99.54Scheduled Castes 0 27 34 61 0.13

Others 0 79 69 148 0.33Total 0 106 103 209 0.46

Total Population 10289 22414 22917 45331 100

Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Mananthavady Block Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

Table 5.5Community wise Population-Vellamunda Panchayat

CommunityFamilies Population Community Families Population

(No.) (in No.) (No.) (in No.)

Male Female Total Percentage

Adiyan 4 9 6 15 0.23

Wayanadan Kadars 41 72 72 144 2.23

Kattunaikans 29 61 59 120 1.86

Kurichyas 510 1148 1071 2219 34.37

Paniyas 844 1884 2054 3938 61

Total 1428 3174 3262 6436 99.69

Scheduled Castes 0 1 4 5 0.08

Others 0 5 10 15 0.23

Total 0 6 14 20 0.31


Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Vellamunda Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

128

Table 5.6Community wise Population-Edavaka Panchayat

Community

Families Population Community Families Population



Adiyan 42 90 91 181 3.59


Kurichyas 371 863 903 1766 35.07

Paniyas 627 1482 1513 2995 59.47

Vetta Kuruman 2 2 4 6 0.12

Total 1062 2477 2549 5026 99.8


Others 0 6 3 9 0.18

Total 0 7 3 10 0.2


Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Edavaka Grama Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

Table 5.7Community wise Population-Thirunelli Panchayat

Community




Adiyan 1196 2448 2641 5089 38.6

Kattunaikans 786 1568 1652 3220 24.42

Kurichyas 365 755 782 1537 11.66

Mala Arayans 24 51 55 106 0.8

Paniyas 382 869 915 1784 13.53

Vetta Kuruman 360 677 677 1354 10.27

Kurumar/Mulla Kurumar 3 5 8 13 0.1

Total 3116 6373 6730 13103 99.38


Others 0 28 18 46 0.35

Total 0 43 39 82 0.62


Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Thirunelli Grama Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

129

Table 5.8Community wise Population-Thondernadu Panchayat

Community






Kurichyas 656 1437 1393 2830 54.53

Paniyas 500 1125 1092 2217 42.72

Ulladan 3 6 8 14 0.27

Vetta Kuruman 3 5 5 10 0.19

Total 1191 2631 2550 5181 99.83


Others 0 3 2 5 0.1

Total 0 5 4 9 0.17


Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Thondernadu Grama Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

Table 5.9Community wise Population-Thavinjal Panchayat

Community




Adiyan 11 25 24 49 0.62


Kattunaikans 63 126 131 257 3.26

Kurichyas 1092 2452 2320 4772 60.61

Paniyas 597 1295 1353 2648 33.63

Thachanad Moopan 1 2 2 4 0.05

Vetta Kuruman 7 21 8 29 0.37Kurumar/Mulla Kurumar 23 48 42 90 1.14

Total 1795 3972 3881 7853 99.75


Others 0 7 9 16 0.2

Total 0 10 10 20 0.25

Total Population 1795 3982 3891 7873 100Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Thavinjal Grama Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute of LocalAdministration, January.

130

Table 5.10Community wise Population-Mananthavady Panchayat

Community




Adiyan 700 1470 1643 3113 41.01



Kurichyas 425 964 897 1861 24.52

Mala Arayan 9 13 14 27 0.36

Paniyas 508 1119 1175 2294 30.22

Ulladan 1 3 1 4 0.05

Vetta Kuruman 39 75 85 160 2.11

Kurumar/

Mulla Kurumar 2 3 4 7 0.09

Total 1697 3681 3842 7523 99.1


Others 0 30 27 57 0.75

Total 0 35 33 68 0.9


Source: Tribal Sub Plan: Wayanad District, Mananthavady Grama Panchayat(2011), Kerala Institute ofLocal Administration, January.

Seven panchayats constituted our study sample. From each of the sample area i.e. from each

panchayat, we selected two hamlets. We also selected the hamlets located inside the reserve forest for

our study. Several of the households from the fourteen hamlets were selected as the sample. Interviews

were also held with the elderly persons, Mooppans and non-tribal population. Elderly were interviewed

mainly for getting information about the traditional form of cultivation, about slavery and other aspects.

Young generation were interviewed for knowing about the present situation, especially farmers’ suicide,

unemployment, use of liquor, pan etc by the youth and the problems faced by the youth in Paniya

community. From each panchayat fifty samples were selected, in order to get a sample size of three

hundred and fifty.

Summary of the hamlets under study

Puthiyoor and Edakkode Colonies

Thirunelli is a predominantly tribal village. Puthiyoor and Edakkode Colonies are located in

Thirunelli panchayat on the Kerala-Karnataka border. Eighty two per cent of the total area of this panchayat

is under forest cover. Puthiyoor colony has twenty five families and Edakkode twenty eight families. A

majority of the tribal population here depends on agriculture and related wage labour. The agriculture

131

practised here is rain fed and hence highly dependent on the vagaries of the monsoon. In the two colonies,

wild animals pose a major threat to agricultural crops. People here complained about wild elephants, and

pigs ruining the crops. Agricultural productivity is quite uncertain.

The entire region is highly politically sensitive and volatile, after the Muthanga incident. Losers,

beneficiaries, and opponents of the Naxalite movement could be found in Thirunelli. Rice is the staple

food. A male unskilled worker earns Rs. 100–120 for a day’s work whereas a female worker is paid only

Rs. 80. Some times women are paid even Rs. sixty.

Table 5.11Basic facilities in Puthiyoor Colony

Basic FacilitiesDistance

from the colony

Tribal Extension Office 12 Km

Tribal Development Office 22 Km

Office of grama panchayat 14 Km

Office of Block Panchayat 26 Km

Taluk office 26 Km

Bus stop 4 Km

Foot path 0.5 Km

Mud road 1 Km

Metalled road 2 Km

Tar/Concrete road 3 Km

Service Centres

Ration Shop 4 Km

Village Office 10 Km

Post Office 10 Km

Police Station 40 Km

Grocery Shop 4 Km

Market 4 Km

Telephone Booth 4 Km

Animal Dispensary 10 Km

Electricity Board Section Office 10 Km

Water Authority Section Office 10 Km

Internet/Akshaya Centre 17 Km

Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 17 Km

Source: Survey data

132

Access to basic amenities like educational facilities, health facilities, communication networks and

transportation is a major problem in Thirunelli. The nearest higher secondary school is located about 14

km away. The only mode of transport available is road transport with intermittent bus service. If they

miss the bus or if the bus service is suspended, students have to walk at least 10 km to reach home. Most

students drop out of school by fourth standard because of a lack of adequate infrastructure coupled with

financial constraints. To avail of health care services, villagers have to go to Mananthavady, the nearest

town, which is about 31 km from Thirunelli. Tribal people are the most affected by this lack of access to

basic facilities.

Table 5.12Basic facilities in Edakkode Colony


from the colony

Tribal Extension Office 12 Km




Taluk office 26 Km

Bus stop 5 Km

Foot path 0.5 Km

Mud road 2 Km

Metalled road 3 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 5 Km

Village Office 7 Km

Post Office 7 Km


Grocery 5 Km

Market 5 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 17 Km

Source: Survey data

133

Table 5.13Basic facilities in Cherkode Colony


from the colony

Tribal Extention Office 10 Km

Office of grama panchayat 4.5 Km


Taluk office 10 Km

Bus stop 7 Km

Foot path 0.5 Km

Mud road 1 Km

Metalled road 2 Km

Tar/Concrete road 4.5 Km

Service Centres

Ration Shop 8 Km

Village Office 8 Km

Post Office 8 Km

Police Station 12.5 Km

Grocery 8 Km

Market 8 Km

Telephone Booth 8.5 Km

Animal Dispensary 9.5 Km

Electricity Board Section Office 12.5 Km

Water Authority Section Office 12.5 Km

Internet/Akshaya Centre 12.5 Km

Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 10 Km

Source: Survey data

Cherkode and Kulathuvayal Colonies

Edavaka is an urbanising panchayat. Cherkode and Kulathuvayal Colonies are located in this

panchayat. There is no forest cover in this panchayat. Cherkode colony has 15 Paniya families. Along

with them there are also Kurichyas (twelve families) and other non tribal families near the colony.

Kulathuvayal colony has forty five families. Christian families also reside in the vicinity. Majority of the

tribal population depends on agriculture and related wage labour. Rice is the staple food. Women from

the colony often go to fields and side way bushes to collect fire wood and leafy vegetables for cooking.

134

A male unskilled worker earns Rs. 100–120 for a day’s work whereas a female worker is paid only Rs.

80. Some times women are paid even Rs. sixty. Women also work as housemaids. For this they are paid

a pittance – as low as Rs. 10 a day. We met two girls who discontinued their education in the 8th standard

and who are now working as wage labourers. The mode of transport available is road, with intermittent

bus service.

Table 5.14Basic facilities in Kulathuvayal Colony


from the colony

Tribal Development Office 6.5 Km


Office of Block Panchayat 6.5 Km

Taluk office 6.5 Km

Bus stop 4.5 Km

Foot path 0.5 Km

Mud road 1 Km

Metalled road NA


Service Centres

Ration Shop 4.5 Km

Village Office 5 Km

Post Office 7 Km

Police Station 8.5 Km

Grocery 4.5 Km

Market 4.5 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 6.5 Km

Source: Survey data

135

Palarikunnu and Mottakunnu Colonies

Thavinjal is a rural panchayat. Palarikunnu and Mottakunnu Colonies are located in this panchayat.

Palarikunnu colony has eighty two Paniya families and is located in a remote area. Along with them there

are also Kurichyas (sixteen families) and other non tribal families near the colony. Mottakunnu colony

has thirty six families. Near the colony there is a handloom mill. All the workers in the mill are non-

tribals. The colony people are not employed in the mill. The Paniya population here depends on agriculture

and related wage labour. Most of the paddy fields have been converted to banana plantations. There is

Table 5.15Basic facilities in Palarikunnu Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 14 Km

Bus stop 2.5 Km

Foot path 0.5 Km

Mud road 1 Km

Metalled road 2.5 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 3 Km

Village Office 2 Km

Post Office 2.5 Km

Police Station 7 Km

Grocery 2.5 Km

Market 7 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 14 Km

Source: Survey data

136

also pepper and cashew cultivation in the area. Ten Paniya families were allotted surplus land by the

government. But these lands are on the top of a barren hill where there is scarcity of water. The lands

allotted are not cultivable. Rice is the staple food. A male unskilled worker earns Rs. 100–120 for a day’s

work whereas a female worker is paid only Rs. 60 to Rs. 80. The mode of transport available is road,

with intermittent bus service. The Paniyas in Palarikunnu colony got surplus land from the government

fifteen years ago. Each family was allotted one acre of land. But in course of time the relatives of the

colony members from distant places came and settled in the colony. And now the colony has 82 members.

Three kilometres away from the colony is the colony of Kurichyas. There are sixteen families here. Most

Table 5.16Basic facilities in Mottakunnu Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 14 Km

Bus stop 2 Km

Foot path 20 m

Mud road 80 m

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 4 Km

Village Office 2 Km

Post Office 3 Km

Police Station 7 Km

Grocery 3 Km

Market 7 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 14 Km

Source: Survey data

137

of them have land and they do agriculture. The Paniyas are also employed in these fields as wage

labourers. The colony is located on the top of a hill. There is no concrete or metalled road to the colony.

The colony people are also faced with acute scarcity of drinking water.

Chooralmoola and Chalil Colonies

Thondernadu is a rural panchayat. The panchayat has reserve forest and vested forest. The forest

station is at Makkiad and range office is in Mananthavady. The panchayat is blessed with hills and wild

life. The hills are utilized for coffee, pepper, ginger and turmeric cultivation while plain lands are utlized

for paddy, banana, tapioca and vegetable cultivation. Chooralmoola and Chalil Colonies are located in

this panchayat. Chooralmoola colony has thirty Paniya families. The Paniyas here have only five to 10

cents of land. The youngsters perform Vattakali and Thudi during ceremonial occasions in this colony.

Along with them there are also non tribal families near the colony. Chalil colony is located in the 12th

ward. This is the ward with highest Paniya population in Thondernadu panchayat. Near the colony there

are paddy fields. The Paniya population here are largely wage labourers. Paddy fields are now being

converted to banana plantation as the farmers here say it is more profitable. A male unskilled worker

earns Rs. 100 to120 for a day’s work whereas a female worker is paid only Rs. 60 to Rs. 80. The mode

of transport available is road, with intermittent bus service. The Paniyas of Chalil colony have a sad story

to say. They claim that 10 of their families had two acres of land each. But one day the forest authorities

came and evicted them from the land. For example Piramoola Paniya Kuravan had two acres of land in

T.P. 1143 (Title deed No. 298/78). But in 1992 the forest officials took the land back. He gave a complaint

dated 8/3/95 to the Scheduled Tribe Welfare authorities. But no action has been taken so far to redress his

grievance. The Paniyas in this colony are working in tea estates too. Most of the colony members

complained about the use of pesticides in tea plantations. They have itching and skin allergy problems.

They are also doing animal husbandry. On the other side of the colony is the Banasura Mountain Range.

A water fall is located nearby. The colony members collect fuel wood and other resources from the

forest, have cows and poultry and even home gardens which include peas, bitter gourd, brinjal, ginger

and other vegetables. The standard of life was found to be better in this hamlet, vis-à-vis other colonies.

Pariyaram and Conventkunnu colonies

Mananthavady is an urbanising area. The settlements here are situated in close proximity to

Mananthavady town, the nerve centre of Wayanad. The colonies are situated on the fringes of agricultural

land owned by non-tribes. Agricultural crops consist of mainly paddy and banana. The Paniya households

of these colonies usually work as agricultural labourers. They work in and around their colony or

sometimes even migrate to Coorg in Karnataka for working in ginger fields. Pariyaram colony has fifty

eight families and Conventkunnu colony 60 families. The place is not located either inside or in the

138

Table 5.17Basic facilities in Chooralmoola Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 34 Km

Bus stop 4 Km

Foot path 1 Km

Mud road 1 Km

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 6 Km

Village Office 6.5 Km

Post Office 6.5 Km


Grocery 2 Km

Market 4 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 34 Km

Source: Survey data

fringes of forest. The houses are located too close. There is no drainage facility. Conventkunnu colony

has only one panchayat well for water supply that too 2 km away from the colony. During summer the

well usually runs dry and hence people face acute difficulty in accessing safe drinking water.

Pallikunnu and Naduvilveedu colonies

Panamaram is a rural panchayat. It is composed of 18 wards. The total area is 80.90 sq Km. It

consists of two villages. The inhabitants are mostly small and middle class farmers. Most of them are

engaged in cultivation of various crops like paddy, banana, coffee, arecanut and pepper. Paddy is the

139

Table 5.18Basic facilities in Chalil Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 30 Km

Bus stop 2.5 Km

Foot path 500 m

Mud road 800 m

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 2 Km

Village Office 2.5 Km

Post Office 2.5 Km


Grocery 2.5 Km

Market 2.5 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 30 Km

Source: Survey data

major crop here. There is considerable presence of tribal families in this panchayat. Majority of them are

Paniyas. The Paniyas here are agricultural labourers. Pallikunnu and Naduvilveedu colonies are located

in this panchayat. The terrain of the panchayat is largely plain. Naduvilveedu is the family name of a

landlord. This colony is known by the surname of this family. The aged people of the colony said that

their forefathers had worked as slaves for the landlords. The Paniyas of this colony were given 1.3 acre

of land each as tenancy. The Pallikunnu colony is located in the midst of fields. The colony has forty two

families. Agricultural land holdings mostly belong to Nair community. All the Paniyas in this colony

depend on agriculture for their livelihood. In this panchayat also farmers complained about loss in paddy

140

cultivation. They are converting paddy fields to banana plantations. A male unskilled worker earns Rs.

100 to120 for a day’s work whereas a female worker is paid only Rs. 60 to Rs. 80. The mode of transport

available is road, with bus service. Facilities available in these two colonies are given in tables 5.21 and

5.22.

Pirachal and Chembrankuzhi colonies

Vellamunda panchayat has an area of 64.54 sq km. This is an isolated and backward area located

amidst hill ranges. A public library is there in Vellamunda town. The town also has a medical shop,

Table 5.19Basic facilities in Conventkunnu Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 2 Km

Bus stop 2 Km

Foot path 200m

Mud road NA

Metalled road 500m


Service Centres

Ration Shop 1 Km

Village Office 1 Km

Post Office 1 Km

Police Station 1 Km

Grocery 1 Km

Market 1 Km






Community Hall 1 Km

Play Ground NA

Library 1.5 Km

Court 1 Km

Source: Survey data

141

Table 5.20Basic facilities in Pariyaram Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 4 Km

Bus stop 4 Km

Foot path 500 m

Mud road NA

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 4 Km

Village Office 4 Km

Post Office 4 Km

Police Station 4 Km

Grocery 4 Km

Market 4 Km






Community Hall 3 Km

Play Ground NA

Library 4 Km

Court 4 Km

Source: Survey data

paddy cooperative societies, banks, veterinary centre etc. The panchayat is predominantly Muslim. There

are also Christians and Nairs in this panchayat. A church was set up here in 1950. Pirachal and

Chembrankuzhi colonies are located in this panchayat. Pirachal has 30 families and Chembrankuzhi 21

families. Both these colonies are located on hill slopes in the fringes of forest. The Banasurasagar mountain

range is located near these two colonies. They are living amidst non tribals especially members of the

Nair community. During our visit to this colony, we found an upper caste household resisting the

construction of toilet in the colony, saying that the colony members will not keep the toilet clean. The

area surrounding these colonies has paddy, ginger and banana plantations.

142

Having discussed the characteristics of the Paniya community as a whole and also the methodology

of the study, we will now move on to the broad socio-economic and other differentials of our survey. Our

next chapter will focus on the livelihood of Paniyas in these colonies.

Table 5.21Basic facilities in Naduvilveedu Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 35 Km

Bus stop 4.5 Km

Foot path 2 Km

Mud road 3 Km

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 4 Km

Village Office 15 Km

Post Office 4.5 Km


Grocery 4.5 Km

Market 4.5 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 24 Km

Source: Survey data

143

Table 5.22Basic facilities in Pallikunnu Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 20 Km

Bus stop 1.5 Km

Foot path 200 m

Mud road NA

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 1.5 Km

Village Office 2 Km

Post Office 2 Km


Grocery 1.5 Km

Market 2 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library NA

Court 23 Km

Source: Survey data

144

Table 5.23Basic facilities in Pirachal Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 35 Km

Bus stop 5 Km

Foot path 1.5 Km

Mud road NA

Metalled road 2 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 5 Km

Village Office 5 Km

Post Office 5 Km

Police Station 5 Km

Grocery 5 Km

Market 5 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library 5 Km

Court 35 Km

Source: Survey data

145

References

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Gopalan, C.(2000), Wayanad, Its People and Traditions, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,pp.100-01.

Table 5.24Basic facilities in Chembrankuzhy Colony


from the colony




Taluk office 37 Km

Bus stop 7 Km

Foot path 1 Km

Mud road 0.5 Km

Metalled road 1 Km


Service Centres

Ration Shop 7 Km

Village Office 7 Km

Post Office 7 Km

Police Station 7 Km

Grocery 7 Km

Market 7 Km






Community Hall NA

Play Ground NA

Library 7 Km

Court 37 Km

Source: Survey data

146

Gopimony, R. (2004), Aagolavalkkaranavum Krishiyum (Malayalam), State Institute of Languages,Thiruvananthapuram, p.151.

Harigopal, S. (2006), ‘Politics of the Tribals: A Note on Muthanga Tribal Agitation’, Journal of Politics

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Krishnakumar, R. (2004), ‘Tribal Misery’, Frontline, 21(9), May 7, p.43.

Krishnakumar, R.(2003),’The Muthanga Misadventure’, Frontline, 20(6), March 15-28,p.41.

Kulrani,Francis, B. (year not mentioned), The shrinking livelihood Strategies of the Paniyar, http://

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Mathur, P.M.G. (1975), ‘Transfer and Alienation of Tribal Land and Indebtedness in Kerala’, Journal of

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Tribal Population-The Case of Wayanad District in Kerala (1992), Kerala Agricultural University,

Mannuthy, p.14.

Shailaja A.S.& Sauda P.P. (1995), ‘Oodappoyililai Paniyar’ in Mohan Das K. (ed.), Gothra Smrithi

Smaranika 95 (Malayalam), Kerala Sakshara Samithi, Thiruvananthapuram, p.196.

Shylendra, H.S. & Uma Rani, (2005), Diversification and Sustainable Rural Livelihood, Concept, New

Delhi.

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Saktheekarana Paripadi (Malayalam), KIRTADS, Govt. of Kerala, Kozhikode,p.12.

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147

i Among the Paniyas the bangles are called ‘Balae’ and necklaces are called ‘malae’ (Nair, Somasekharan, P. (1977).

ii The only reference to the Ippimala tradition now is the word “Ippi” which the Paniyas utter when frightened. Thenon-tribals and European planters of the East India Company believed that they descended from ancestors who wereshipwrecked on the Malabar Coast. The local landlords on the other hand say that when surprised or alarmed thePaniya calls out ‘ippi-ippi’ as he runs away and they believe this to have been the name of the country or hill fromwhere they came originally. See Thurston, Edgar (1975).

iii Urali Kurumba are a tribal community who speak dialects of Kannada and Goudar, a small group of Kannadaspeaking cultivators who are Jains by religion. They pioneered the colonization of Wayanad.

iv Under the system of Kundalpani the recruitment of the Paniyas as bonded labourers was done by advancing anamount at the Valliyurkavu Bhagavathy temple annual festival in March. They receive advances called ‘Nippupanam’(engagement money) and placed their thumb impressions on the agreements, the contents of which none of themcould read. The entire adivasi population of the area used to assemble here for the festival and the landlords toowould be on the scene looking over the adivasis like cattle in the market. They chose the workers they wanted, andfor a small amount of money, contracted them for the whole of the next year. This temple became the venue becausethe adivasis will not dare to displease their goddess and a contract made in front of the deities will never be brokenby them. The innocent and truthful adivasis were thus hoodwinked by using their own deities (Jacob, T.G., 2006).

Socio-economic Profile of Paniyas in...

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