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Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017 i | P a g e

ISSN: 2349-0519 Impact Factor: 2.3222

Social Vision Volume: 3 Issue: 4 January – March 2017

Social Vision ISSN: 2349-0519

ii | P a g e Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017

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ISSN: 2349-0519 Social Vision

Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017 iii | P a g e

Editorial Board

Prof. A.B.S.V. Rangarao, M.A., Ph. D Chairman (B.O.S), Department of Social Work Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Dr. Ch. Keerthi, M.A., Ph.D Technical Support Manager Vasavya Mahila Mandali Benz Circle, Vijayawada Andhra Pradesh, India

Prof. K. Visweswara Rao M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D

Department of Social Work Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Prof. T. V. Krishna, M.Sc., Ph. D Head, Department of Geography Dean, Press and Publications Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Prof. P. Arjun, M.A., LL.M., Ph. D Department of Social Work Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Dr. K. Ravinder, M.A., M.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D

Faculty, Dept. of Political Science Government Degree College Nirmal Adilabad, Telangana State, India

Prof. D.V.R. Murthy, MJMC, Ph.D Dept. of Journalism and Mass Communication Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Prof. R. Rama Krishna, M.A., Ph. D Department of Economics Honorary Director, Population Studies Center, Andhra University Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

Dr. P. Kishore Kumar, M.A. Ph.D Research Associate Gandhian Studies Centre Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Dr. Y. Israel, M.Sc., Ph.D Assistant Professor Department of Geo Physics Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India

Editor

Dr. M. Abraham, M.S.W., M.Phil., Ph.D Faculty, Department of Social Work Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Andhra Pradesh, India


iv | P a g e Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017

Editorial

Social Vision is a peer-reviewed academic journal published quarterly from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh to explore emerging issues and challenges in the contemporary society. Social Vision has completed its glorious third year with this issue and within a short period it has enlightened and impressed its consumers of different regions of India. It is the moral duty of the editorial board, writers and readers to rededicate themselves for the prosperity of this journal that stands for the intellectual’s progress of the readers. Social Vision is a podium for many professionals to share and learn about their experiences, solutions and best practices on social issues to build better society. This book has given room to 18 articles of multi-varities in nature. The present issue of the journal covered some of the burning problems, challenges in the society. The major areas discussed in the journal are coping with natural disasters, relationship between economic growth and employment, foreign direct investments in agricultural sector, Gandhi and conflict management, health challenges of coastal population and university as an institution. There are also discussed about the important issues like reproductive health among Tribal women, information Technology, Its Impact on Global Industrial Relations, knowledge and awareness on MGNREGS, Sustainable Development Concerns of Agrarian Jharkhand from Ecosystem Management Perspectives and healthy living of Senior Citizens and finally presented the health problems of people in Odisha. We did our best to bring this issue (January – March 2017) on different burning social issues of India to promote awareness and also showed ways to reduce the morbidity of social problems. Hopefully, it reaches the people, academicians, government and NGOs to promote awareness and also promote healthy and happy life among the people in struggle. In this occasion I thank all the authors, editorial committee members, well wishers, and printer of Social Vision Journal for their continuous help and encouragement to bring out this issue successfully.

Dr. Mutluri Abraham

Editor!!


Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017 v | P a g e

CONTENTS

A Study of Relationship between Economic Growth and Employment in India: An Empirical Analysis - Deepshikha Sonker & Prof. G.C.Tripathi

01-10

Foreign Direct Investments in Agricultural Sector Problems and Prospects - B. Indira Nainadevi

11-20

Gandhi and Conflict Management - `Love is invincible’; (Galtung,

`Gandhian Themes’, p.234) – Ms. Shobhana Smriti

21-38

Health Challenges of Coastal Population - M. Chitra

39-44

Leveraging Social Inclusion through e-Governance – Extension of hsCAPNIC Initiative to Implement Right to Education - Dr. Krishnam Raju and Dr. M. Ali Hussain

45-52

University as an Institution: Situating the Central University of Orissa - Dr. Aditya Keshari Mishra

53-64

Status of Reproductive Health among Tribal Women: A Study in Keonjhar District of Odisha. – Ms. Sasmita Ojha

65-82

Information Technology, Its Impact on Global Industrial Relations – A Study - Penta Sampoorna

83-94

Management of E-Resources and Print Substance in Libraries - Ravula Nageshwar

95-102

Economic Growth in India during the Post Reform Period: Challenges and the Way Ahead - Dr. Shyam Kartik Mishra

103-116

Speech Sounds in English – A Study with Reference to Speaking and Writing Skills - Narayana Reddy Bommineni

117-125

Knowledge and Awareness on MGNREGS: A Study in YSR Kadapa District of Andhra Pradesh - N. Rajesh Kumar Reddy

126-136


vi | P a g e Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017

Sustainable Development Concerns of Agrarian Jharkhand from Ecosystem Management Perspectives - Rajeev Kumar Ranjan & Dr. Nafisa Priti Sanga

137-146

Healthy Living of Senior Citizens - Service Models - Lakshmi Narayana N

147-162

Occupational Self Efficacy and Job Satisfaction of Teachers working at the Primary School - Ms. Bharati Jani

163-170

A Study on HSLC Social Science Examiner of Bosem - Dr. W. Jyotirmoy Singh

171-176

Multiple Intelligence Based Teaching Strategies and Academic Achievement of Children with Learning Disabilities - Prof. R.Ranganathan

177-186

Health Status of Odisha: A Multi-Comparative Analysis - Ms. Jyotirmayee Rout

187-199


Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017 vii | P a g e

List of Contributors

Deepshikha Sonker, Assistant professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India Prof. G.C.Tripathi, Vice Chancellor of Banarus Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. & Professor of Economics in Allahabad University, Uttar Pradesh, India B. Indira Nainadevi, Assistant Professor of Economics, Government Degree College [M], Adilabad District, Telangana State, India. Email: [email protected] Ms. Shobhana Smriti, Research Scholar [Ph.D], Gandhian Studies Centre, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected] M. Chitra, Department of Econometrics, School of Economics, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. Dr. Krishnam Raju, Head, Department of Public Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected] Dr. M. Ali Hussain, Associate Professor, Department of Public Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email:[email protected] Dr. Aditya Keshari Mishra, Faculty Member, Department of Sociology, Central University of Orissa, Koraput, Odisha, India Ms. Sasmita Ojha, ICSSR Doctoral Fellow at Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Penta Sampoorna, Faculty, Department of Commerce & Business Management, Brilliant Degree College, Siricilla, Rajanna (Siricilla) Dist, Telangana State, India. Ravula Nageshwar, Assistant Professor, Library and Information Science, Government Degree College Nirmal, Telangana State, India.



viii | P a g e Social Vision Volume:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017

Dr. Shyam Kartik Mishra, Associate Professor of Economics, LBS College, Mughalsarai, Chandauli, Uttar Pradesh, India & Founder General Secretary, Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand Economic Association Narayana Reddy Bommineni, Principal, Jayamukhi College of Education, Mugdumpuram, Chennaraopet Mandal, Warangal Rural District, Telangana State, India. N. Rajesh Kumar Reddy, Research Scholar, Department of Sociology, Off Campus, Dravidian University, Kuppam, Chittore District, Andhra Pradesh, India Rajeev Kumar Ranjan, Convergence – Consultant, MGNREGA Planning Cell, Rural Development Department, Government of Jharkhand, India. Dr. Nafisa Priti Sanga, Asst. Professor, College of Agriculture, Wolaita Sodo University, P.O. Box – 138, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia. Sri. Lakshmi Narayana N, Mentor, Geo Rehabilitation Centre, Hyderabad, India Ms. Bharati Jani, Teacher Educator, DIET Rayagada, Bissamcuttack, Odisha, India Dr. W. Jyotirmoy Singh, Associate Professor, D. M. College of Teacher Education, Imphal, Manipur, India. Emil: [email protected] Prof. R.Ranganathan, Principal, IASE, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India Ms. Jyotirmayee Rout, ICSSR Doctoral Fellow, Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Deepshikha Sonker & Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 Prof. G.C. Tripathi ISSN 2349-0519, Impact actor:2.3222

Social Vision Volume: 3 Issue: 4 January – March 2017 1 | P a g e

A Study of Relationship between Economic Growth

and Employment in India: An Empirical Analysis

1Deepshikha Sonker & 2Prof. G.C.Tripathi

1Assistant professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

2Vice Chancellor of Banarus Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

& Professor of Economics in Allahabad University, Uttar Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT

Jobs, rather than men, should wait…..

Employment is a significant feature for economic development of a country. The size of employment in a country depends to a great extent on the level of development, when a country makes progress and its production expands, the employment opportunities grow but the possibility of an increase in unemployment is not completely ruled out in a rapidly growing economy. India is the second most populous and seventh major country in the world but has beleaguered with major constant problem of unemployment. The purpose of this paper is to study the relationship between economic growth and employment in three sectors of the economy with its performances in aspects of eradicating unemployment in India. The study is based on secondary information and is concerned with a consideration of what is probably the central process in equitable growth – the generation of productive and remunerative employment. This is of course a concern that is as old as the study of economic growth itself, and underlies all the debates about the possibilities of “trickledown” of growth. But it has acquired particular resonance in India in the recent past because of the apparent transformation of the economy and increase in its growth potential, which has surprisingly (and unfortunately) not been accompanied by commensurate increases in remunerative employment. The study examines these aspects in the light of the prevailing trends and discusses the policy implications for growth and structural changes and special measures for generating work for the unemployed. Keywords: Employment, Unemployment, Economic Growth, India.

Deepshikha Sonker &Prof. G.C. Tripathi ISSN 2349-0519

2 | P a g e Social Vision Volume: 3 Issue: 4 January – March 2017

Introduction In every progressive economy, there has been a steady shift of employment and investment from the essential “primary activities” to secondary activities of all kinds and to a still greater extent into tertiary production. Agriculture, animal-husbandry, forestry, fishery, etc, are collectively known as primary activities or industries. They are primary because their productions are essential or vital for human existence. They are carried on with the help of nature. Manufacturing industries, both small and large scale, are known as “secondary activities”. Mining is sometimes included under secondary activities, but properly speaking it is primary activity. Transport, communications, banking and finance and services are “tertiary activities” in the country. In an economy like India with large surplus labour, importance of an employment oriented growth is obvious. ‘Jobless’ growth is certainly not the most desirable form of growth. At the regard to productivity and incomes of workers is also not desirable, particularly in an economy where productivity and income levels are generally low. Emphasis has to be on ‘productive’ and ‘remunerative’ employment: the new employment that is generated has to be at increasing levels of productivity in order that it does not assume poverty perpetuating or poverty‐generating nature. In other words, economic growth should result from a suitable combination of employment growth and productivity growth. It implies that employment‐oriented growth in a country like India would have, of necessity, to be at a high rate.

Economic development has been associated with structural changes in the national economies. On the path of its economic development, India has reached a level where there is predominance of service sector and it has become the mainstay of the growth process especially over the last ten years the well-known sequence of structural transformation from agrarian economy to a predominantly service economy en route industrial economy as noticed in the developed world has not been witnessed in India. Moreover in a three-sector economy consisting of agriculture, services and industry, demand for services is a function of the outputs generated by producing sectors of agriculture and industry. So, without the growth of agriculture and industry, this sector alone cannot sustain its growth for the long run due to the high backward and forward linkages of agricultural and industrial sector. The gap between income of agriculture and services will also keep on increasing unless growth is accompanied by an increase in employment share of services. The

ISSN 2349-0519 A Study of Relationship between Economic Growth….


fast-growing sub-sectors, such as, IT have already revealed differentials in earnings, with a few jobs in high-tech activities with very high salaries and benefits, on the one hand, a large mass of low earning jobs in the informal sector on the other. This pattern is attributed to the poor performance of the industrial sector. The present paper attempts an elaboration of the above story of growth‐employment linkages in India. It reviews the employment performance of the Indian economy and relates it with the growth of GDP using the concept of employment elasticity. It also reviews employment growth and its relationship with GDP growth in different sectors of the economy. Finally outline of an employment‐oriented growth strategy has been attempted. Review of Literature Starting from the pioneering work of Clark (1940), Kuznets (1957), and Chenrey (1960), evolution of sectoral shares in output, consumption and employment as economies grow have been studied for a long period. These studies attribute economic development as a three-stage process, wherein primary, secondary and services sector dominate the economic activity in that sequence. Analysis in terms of such stages of development, however, has been challenged in the recent literature, with the benefit of a richer a data than was available to Kuznets and Chenrey. Kongsamut, Rebelo and Xieiv (2001) have analyzed a sample of 123 countries for 1970-89 and found that rising per capita GDP in these economies is associated with an increase in services and as the economy matures, the sectoral share given up by the agricultural sector shifts more to the services sector and less to industry. In the (1967) suggested that it is the manufacturing sector, which plays the role of engine of growth, as the potential for productivity growth is highest in this sector.

Kuznets (1966) also suggested on the basis of the empirical evidences of the developed countries that the tertiary sector expands in relative terms only after the secondary sector has already acquired dominance both in terms of value added and work force in the process of rapid industrialization. When the relative size of industry predominates that of the other sectors, the tertiary sector then acquires significance in value added and work force composition.



This is because of the fact that after a considerable rise in per capita income originating from the commodity-producing sector the demand for services increases as the consumption demand for commodities gets saturated. But in the context of the developing countries the phenomenon of a relatively large tertiary sector could be evident even much before the secondary sector could acquire a reasonable size of at least one-third in terms of value added or work force. Sarkar and Mazumdar (2008) pointed out that the growth of the ICT sector has led to the emergence of a “New Economy” in India, which has been a generator of new jobs for technical persons, and has been helping to earn foreign exchange through exports and attracting foreign investment. Though it is predominantly an urban activity in rural areas, the telecommunication segment of ICT does provide employment, and further, the wage level of the ICT workers is found to be higher than non-ICT workers.

Bhattacharya and Mitra(1997) based on their cross country analysis noted that trade openness did not have any significant effect on the relative size of the service sector in total employment though at the disaggregate level of this sector showed some positive effect. Presumably increasing international trade shifted workers from activities with a high incidence of low productivity component to more specialized commercial activities. Though it is in general easy to analyze the shift in favour of the tertiary sector in the context of the developed countries as a standard transition of development theory (because following the rapid progress in industrialization the demand for several services grows faster, which in turn reduces the share of the secondary sector in the total product of the economy), but in the case of the developing countries the dominance of the service sector before the secondary sector’s relative size could outweigh that of other sectors did give rise to several concerns regarding this phenomena.

Dutta(2001) pointed out that the service sector’s contribution to GDP has increased steadily over time and it has established itself as the largest sector of the Indian economy. While he notes the importance of some of the subsectors like transport in the context of growth and thus includes it in the secondary sector, he also shares the view that the growth of other subsectors like public administration and defense is neither necessarily related to the demand of the development process, nor is it related to the need for improvement in overall



efficiency in a developing economy. However, after making price adjustments, his recalculations of the series did not really show that it expanded much faster than the GDP growth at constant prices. The rise in the share of this sub-sector in GDP reflected a rise in the cost of the services. Sub-sectors like transport, communication and banking did contribute significantly to the overall economic growth, and so also the IT enabled services (ITES), and business process outsourcing services (BPOs).

For the Indian context, the pattern of growth in the service sector have been analyzed in studies by Bhattacharya and Mitra, (1989, 1990, 1991 and 1997), and Dutta ( 2001) classified the services sector into four categories – bureaucratic services, distributive services, consumer services and producer services. Based on cross-country analysis, they found that the impact of per capita income on the percentage share of tertiary sector in total work force was positive, though it tended to stabilize at higher stages of development.

Research Problem From the above literature review we deduced the following research questions like- Ø To measure the relationship between growth and employment? Ø To measure the effect of the sectors like industry and services in the GDP

growth rate and employment growth rate? Ø To suggests the policy implications to improve the relationship between

GDP growth and Employment growth? Research Methodology and Data Source The present study is based on secondary data. Economic Growth is indicated by growth rate in GDP. And growth of employment, unemployment rate has been used as proxy. For more sophisticated results sectoral (agriculture, industry and services) growth rate and its share in GDP and employment growth has been also taken into account. The Regression Analysis has been adopted in the study to measure the uni and bi- directional impact of GDP growth rate and Employment growth rate. The study covers the time period during the first five year plan to the twelfth five year plans till 2016.

The secondary data on employment and unemployment, GDP, and its various indicators are collected from the various sources i.e. National Sample Survey



Organization (NSSO), Central Statistical Office (CSO), Ministry of Statistical Planning and Implementations, Ministry of Labour and Employment, Planning Commission, the Population Census, etc. The study covers the period from 1980’s to 2016 in Employment growth rate and GDP growth rate.

Table 1 Estimates of GDP/GVA by Industry of Origin- Percentage Distribution

Industry Share in GDP Share in GVA 2004-05prices 2011-12 prices 1950-51 1980-81 2000-01 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 I. Agriculture and Allied activities 53.1 36.1 22.3 13.9 13.9 17.2 16.1 1. Agriculture 42.8 30.1 18.8 11.8 N.A. N.A N.A. 2. Allied Activities 10.3 5.9 3.5 2.1 N.A. N.A. N.A.

II. Secondary Industry 16.6 25.9 27.3 27.3 26.2 31.7 31.4 3. Mining and Quarrying 1.9 2.6 3.0 2.0 1.9 3.0 2.9 2. Manufacturing 9.2 14.1 15.5 15.8 14.9 18.1 18.1 4. Electricity, gas & water supply 0.3 1.5 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.3 5. Constructions 5.2 7.7 6.6 7.6 7.4 8.3 8.1

III. Services 30.3 38.0 50.4 58.8 59.9 51.1 52.5 6. Trade, hotels, transport & communications 11.3 16.9 21.6 26.9 26.4 18.8 19.4 7. Financing, insurance, real estate & business services 8.5 8.2 14.1 19.1 20.6 19.7 20.5 8. Community, social & personal services 10.4 12.9 14.7 12.8 12.9 12.6 12.6 GDP at factor cost 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Note: Not Available Source: Computed from RBI of India, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy.

The above table shows the declining importance of agriculture in Indian economy and the rapid growth of the services sector. However, the continued dependence of about half of the labour force on agriculture for its livelihood should be sufficient to bring on the important role that agriculture continues to play. Moreover, any setbacks in agriculture production have serious repercussions on the whole of the economy. While industrial sector is indeed expanding, yet its growh is totally insufficient to absorb the increasing number of job-seekers that keep entering the labour force year after year. Given the technology intensive nature of many sub-sectors of the services sector, it is essential to pull up the growth of the industrial sector (particularly the manufacturing sector) if the problem of the unemployment has to be tackled. Regression Analysis The Regression Analysis has been performed by the researcher to find out the relationship between Growth of GDP and growth of Employment with Unemployment to draw some concrete results.



Table 2 Summary Statistics

Variables

GDP G Agri.

G Ind. G Serv. Emp Agri.

Emp Ind.

Emp Serv.

UnEmp.

Effective number of observations

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Minimum 13.36 7.1 20.2 16.23

48.9

11.3 14.78 1.96

Maximum 28.69 36.1 32.5 68.3

73.92 24.4 26.7 8.1

Sum 193.85 192.1 241.52 433.5

559.16

151.07

189.76 49.66

Sample mean

21.53889 21.34444 26.83556

48.16667

62.12889 16.78556

21.08444 5.51778

Sample variance

27.76486 82.76528 11.11188 225.69197

74.94689

18.76458

20.61065 3.60234

Sample standard error

5.26924 9.09754 3.33345 15.02305 8.65719 4.33181 4.5399 1.89798

Source: Researcher’s Calculation.

This is the descriptive statistics of variables named GDP (Gross Domestic Product), Agriculture, Industry, Services and Unemployment which shows the analysis of GDP growth and Employment growth with its relation to unemployment in the various sectors of the economy.

Table 3 Regression Result- Dependent Variable: GDP

Variables Parameter Estimates

t-value p-value Result

L1 GDP -0.33783 -1.103 0.27020 Insignificant Unemployment -2.83806 -3.151 0.00163 Significant Constant 44.14531 4.356 0.00001 Significant


Effect of GDP Growth Rate on Unemployment The above table shows that there is significant relation between GDP and unemployment rates. Trend in unemployment has significant impact on GDP as the p value of is - 0.00163, the t value is negative which means that the increase in unemployment rate adversely effects the GDP and the beta value is also negative indicating that when the GDP is increasing Unemployment decreasing or employment growth is increasing. This is because unemployment trend is used as a proxy of employment growth rate in the economy.



Table 4 Regression Result- Dependent Variable: Unemployment

Variables Parameter Estimates

t-value p-value Result

L1 Unemployment

0.03146 0.103 0.91822 Insignificant

GDP -0.25401 -2.648 0.00810 Significant Constant 10.62950 3.686 0.00023 Significant


Effect of GDP Growth Rate on Employment The above table shows that there is significant relation between Unemployment rates and GDP. Trend in GDP has significant impact on Unemployment as the p value of is -0.00810 at 5% level of significance, the beta value is negative indicating that when the GDP is increasing Unemployment decreasing or employment growth is increasing. This is because unemployment trend is used as a proxy of employment growth. Overall it is found that GDP growth and employment growth is happening in the same direction. This is also clear from the fact that in the period of 2009 to2016 (period of global economic crisis), GDP growth rate is declining and same is happening with the Employment growth rate. Thus the finding suggests that higher growth rate is required for higher employment. Now, the question arises that how the growth rate should be increased, for this we have to look out the share of percentage of various economic sectors in the GDP that which sector is performing positively for the growth aspects.

By analyzing the roles of various economic sectors we can easily observe the growing share of services in India. Thus it would be suggested to improve the service sector‘s growth for promoting employment growth and eradicating the unemployment in India. Because the dynamic service sector has the capacity to compensate poor agricultural sector and industrial growth in the future as well and would thus play a crucial role in maintaining the growth momentum of the economy. So, the policy makers should focus on this dynamic sector of the economy to promote the growth of Indian economy in each and every aspect as it’s the demand of today’s world. Suggestions India’s services sector is burgeoning: a sign of an economy on the high growth path. It has become the mainstay of the growth process and has emerged as the



most dynamic sector of the Indian economy, particularly since last one and half decade. “If India is to transition to a modern economy in less than two decades, it cannot escape the industrialization stage. This is not to suggest that the modern services sector, including software and telecommunications should not be a centerpiece of the transition strategy .Given the strengths acquired recently in this sector and its importance to rapid industrialization; it will be nonsensical for anyone to advocate a transition in which this sector is relegated to the backseat. Instead, India must walk on two legs as it transitions to a modern economy: traditional industry, especially unskilled labour intensive manufacturing, and modern services such as software and communications. Each leg needs to be strengthened through a set of policy initiatives.”

Conclusions India’s growth story since its independence has been both fascinating and intriguing at the same time, attracting not only research scholars and economists, but also political leaders world over to take note. Understanding the dynamics of the Indian society successive governments have made efforts in reaching out to the people to make them aware about the programmes and schemes for their upliftment. The growth trajectory with which India has made its mark on the global scenario is truly laudable but at the same time it has also challenges in maintaining the upward shift to keep the economy steady. It is a known phenomenon that a country which has a consistent economic growth can keep a check on the rate of inflation, thereby assuring its people all necessary services at the doorstep without much hiccups. Lastly, it can be said that ensuring that every person at the lowest strata of the society gets benefitted from the government schemes, will put nation on the path of faster inclusive economic growth. No country can progress on the path of development unless its last man comes into the mainstream.

REFERENCES

Banga, Rashmi and B. N. Goldar (2004). Contribution of Services to

Output Growth Productivity in Indian Manufacturing: Pre and Post Reform. ICRIER Working Paper, 139, August.

Bhagwati, J. N. (1958). Immiserising Growth - A Geometrical Note. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 25, 201-05.



Bhattacharya, B. B. and A. Mitra (1990). Excess Growth of the Tertiary Sector in Indian Economy: Issues and Implications. Economic and Political Economy, November 3, 2445-2450.

Bhattacharya, B. B. and Arup Mitra (1989). Agriculture-Industry Growth Rates: Widening Disparity: An Explanation. Economic and Political Weekly, August 26.

Bhattacharya, B. B. and Arup Mitra (1990), “Excess Growth of the Tertiary Sector: Issues and Implications, Economic and Political Weekly, November 3.

Bhattacharya, B. B. and Arup Mitra (1991). Excess Growth of the Tertiary Sector. Economic and Political Weekly, June 1-8.

Bhattacharya, B. B. and Arup Mitra (1997). Changing Composition of Employment in Tertiary Sector: A Cross-Country Analysis. Economic and Political Weekly, March 15.

Goldar, B.N. (2003): Trade Liberalization and Manufacturing Employment: The Case of India, Employment Paper 2002/3, 4, Geneva, International Labour Office.

Papola, T.S. (1992): ‘The Question of Unemployment’, in Bimal Jalan (ed.) The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects, New Delhi, Viking, Penguin Books India (P) Ltd.

Planning Commission (1956): Second Five Year Plan, New Delhi, Government of India.

Planning Commission (2002): Report of the Special Group on Targeting Ten Million Employment Opportunities, New Delhi, Government of India.

B. Indira Nainadevi Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Foreign Direct Investments in Agricultural Sector

Problems and Prospects

B. Indira Nainadevi Assistant Professor of Economics, Government Degree College [M], Adilabad

District, Telangana State, India. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Government of India is projecting FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in agriculture as a magic wand for economic prosperity amongst the agricultural population in India, especially farmers. FDI has been shown to play an important role in promoting agricultural growth by expanding markets, reducing transaction and transformation costs of business. In order to boost financial conditions of Indian economy a section of policy makers, believe foreign direct investment in agriculture would help farmers and consumers by lowering consumer prices and bring about improvements in farmers income & agricultural growth. The main theme of the objective of present research article is to analyse FDI in agricultural marketing; to evaluate the opportunities and threats of FDI in agricultural retailing; to brief evaluation of the FDI in relation to Indian social structure. The present paper is based on descriptive arguments, comparative study and analytical logical method developed through the understanding from various research papers, reports, journals, newspapers and online data bases. Keywords: FD, Agricultural retailing, MNC’s, Farmers, Opportunities

and Threats, Impact Introduction

The largest 100 corporations hold 25 percent of the worldwide productive assets, which in turn control 75 percent of international trade and 98 percent of all foreign direct investment. The multinational corporation...puts the economic decision beyond the effective reach of the political process and its decision-makers, national governments.

Prof. Peter Drucker, USA Economist


B. Indira Nainadevi ISSN 2349-0519


FDI in agriculture has been viewed as one stop solution for problems associated with Indian agricultural marketing. Indian farmers, especially the small and medium farmers are expected to earn more money because of the entry of multinational companies in retail market and these companies create a win-win situation for the farmers. Indian economy has been growing at a fast pace over the last two decades, and is expected to grow many folds in near future. The growing Indian market has attracted a number of foreign retailers and domestic corporate to invest in retail market. Being encouraged by India’s

growing retail boom many multinational companies also started making beeline to enter India’s agricultural retail market. Since the globalization and liberalization in 1991 the purchasing power of Indian middle class has been increased. Hence the retail sector in India is expanding and modernizing rapidly in line with India’s economic growth. Prior to liberalization the Indian retail market was traditional consisted of small privately owned stores and the concept of branding was limited. After the announcement of retail reforms by the government of India in January, 2012 for both multi-brand stores and single brand stores boosted the investment climate in Indian retail space. Overview on FDI In 1991, the government of India has thrown open the doors to foreign investors to integrate the Indian economy with the global economy. It is believed that poor investment in agriculture is one of the main causes of slow growth in agriculture. In this connection, National Agriculture Policy, 2000 envisaged to encourage private sector investment in agriculture particularly in the areas like agricultural research, human resource development, post harvest management and marketing (Misra and Puri, 2010). Foreign investment in Indian retail sector will inject competition and efficiencies, create new jobs across the country and reduce the difference in farm gate, wholesale and retail prices. Many studies and surveys were conducted to analyze the impact of FDI in agricultural retailing market. These studies tried to analyze the benefits and threats of FDI in agricultural retailing by assuming whether it would be a”

boon or bane” for agriculture sector. Critics of FDI feel that FDI in agriculture

would adversely affect the small retailers, farmers and consumers give rise to monopolies of large corporate houses which can adversely affect the pricing and availability of goods. ). In spite of the restrictions of FDI a number of studies such as Abhishek Rao et.al (2016), A.T. Kearney (2011), and M. Roy

ISSN 2349-0519 Foreign Direct Investments in Agricultural….


and S. Kumar (2012) forecast that modern retail will continue to see massive progress in India and FDI in agricultural retailing has the potential of sustaining agricultural growth.

In addition to this it is believed that by allowing FDI in retail trade, India will significantly flourish in terms of quality standards and consumer expectations (Deep Ray 2014). On other hand, the government of India has a strong belief that FDI would help farmers’ by eliminating exploitative middlemen, provide

huge gainful employment in agro-processing, marketing and logistics and also create a multiplier effect for employment and technology up gradation (Rajib Bhattacharya, 2012). A number of large farm lobbies have backed the governments’ decision to allow the entry of foreign supermarkets in the

country. They are of the opinion that it would shorten the supply chain and get farmers a larger share of the final selling price. The other view is that the MNC’s will bring goods at very low prices from abroad undercutting the

farmers throwing them out of business. Another fear that has been raised is that MNC’s will regulate the supply chain and in monopolistic situation, offer very low rates to farmers, as a result of which farmers will end up selling their products at a loss. It has been further argued that predatory pricing which in long runs removes economically weaker participant from market.

Present Scenario in Agricultural Marketing. India’s economic security continues to be predicated upon the agriculture

sector, and the situation is not likely to change in the foreseeable future. Even now, agriculture supports 58% of the population, as against about 75% at the time of independence. In the same period, the contribution of agriculture and allied sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has fallen from 61 to 19%. As of today, India supports 16.8% of world’s population on 4.2% of world’s

water resources and 2.3% of global land. And per caput availability of resources is about 4 to 6 times less as compared to world average. This will decrease further due to increasing demographic pressure and consequent diversion of the land for non-agricultural uses. Around 51% of India’s

geographical area is already under cultivation as compared to 11% of the world average. The present cropping intensity of 136% has registered an increase of only 25% since independence. Further, rainfed dry lands constitute 65% of the total net sown area. There is also an unprecedented degradation of land (107 million ha) and groundwater resource, and also fall in the rate of growth of total factor productivity. This deceleration needs to be arrested and agricultural productivity has to be doubled to meet growing demands of the



population by 2050. Efficiency-mediated improvement in productivity is the most viable option to raise production. The country recorded impressive achievements in agriculture during three decades since the onset of green revolution in late sixties. This enabled the country to overcome widespread hunger and starvation; achieve self-sufficiency in food; reduce poverty and bring economic transformation in millions of rural families. The situation, however, started turning adverse for the sector around mid-nineties, with slowdown in growth rate of output, which then resulted in stagnation or even decline in farmers, income leading to agrarian distress, which is spreading and turning more and more serious. Natural resource base of agriculture, which provides for sustainable production, is shrinking and degrading, and is adversely affecting production capacity of the ecosystem. However, demand for agriculture is rising rapidly with increase in population and per caput income and growing demand from industry sector. There is, thus, an urgent need to identify severity of problem confronting agriculture sector to restore its vitality and put it back on higher growth trajectory. The problems, however, are surmountable, particularly when new tools of science and technology have started offering tremendous opportunities for application in agriculture. The projected production requirements of various agricultural commodities by 2014-15 and growth rates needed to meet those requirements are as follows:

Statement showing the Agricultural growth of commodities

Commodity Required production (million tonnes)

Required growth rates (%)

Rice 105.0 2.06 Wheat 79.0 0.95 Total cereals 232.0 2.21 Coarse cereals 48.0 5.15 Pulses 20.0 2.35 Total food grains 252.0 2.21 Milk and milk products 113.0 3.18 Egg 62.0 6.09 Meat 8.6 5. Fish 8.6 4.39 Edible oilseeds 40% dependence 31.8 2.87 Vegetables 109.0 2.51 Fresh fruits 67.0 3.46 Sugar and gur 35.5 3.87 Source: Business Review reports 2016



These projections include exports in the same ratio as in the base year (2014-15). India is required to raise food grains production by more than 2% per year to keep pace with the growth in demand. Growth rate required in milk and milk products towards the end of year 2015. It is 3.18%.Even with 40% dependence on IMPORTS, oilseeds production needs to be increased by 2.87% Achieving 4% growth in agriculture in vis-a-vis the present level of about 2% has become critical to avert any crisis in agrarian sector and to fulfill needs of growing economy. The higher growth can very well be realized through adoption of available technologies that minimize yield gaps between experimental farms and farmers fields. The Government is keen on devising ways and means to facilitate states in adopting these technologies that promise tangible yield gains of 40-100% Management of Natural Resources Continued degradation of natural resources under intensive agriculture to attain goals of food sufficiency is one of the reasons for the declining factor productivity and stagnation in food grains production in the country. The health of our soils has been impaired due to emergence of multi-nutrient deficiencies and falling of organic carbon levels. The soils are, generally, not replenished adequately with nutrients removed by crops, particularly micro and secondary nutrients. The wider fertilizer consumption ratios for many states corroborate nutrient imbalance in soils. The soils are, presently, operating on a negative nutrient balance of about 10 million tonnes per annum. Limiting nutrients, not allowing full expression of other nutrients, obviously, lower overall fertilizer-use efficiency and crop productivity. Farmers are resorting to addition of more and more fertilizers to obtain yields similar to previous years, especially in rice-wheat belt of Indo-Gangetic plains and the increased inputs are thus adding to the production cost; marginalizing net returns to farmers Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. It is the main resource of livelihood/occupation for over 75 per cent of the rural population in India. Although, it employs about 52 per cent of the labor force, it contributes to only 14.4 per cent of GDP and 10.23 per cent of all exports. But agricultural retail market of India is highly patchy, fragmented and unorganized. Today, an Indian farmer gets only a third of what the end-consumer pays for his produce. If production is good then there is glut and prices fall. When there is crop failure farmers hardly get any compensation in

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terms of higher price. One cannot deny than Indian agriculture marketing is characterized by intermediaries. The number of intermediaries and middle men between the farmers and the final consumer is very large. Consequently, Indian farmers are denied of getting reasonable prices for their products. In addition to that the small farmer faces significant losses due to lack of adequate infrastructure facilities and lack of proper storage facilities. In the absence of proper grading facilities, storage facilities and transport facilities farmers in our country are not in a position to get higher prices for their products, sometimes cannot even cover their cost of production. In addition to this forced sales are made to clear the debts immediately. Hence the defective agricultural marketing system in our country is adversely affecting the marketing efficiency of the farmers. FDI in Indian Agricultural Sectors – Problems and Prospects In India FDI in retail sector is limited. Even though FDI in agricultural retailing is viewed as a magic wand it is prohibited in the retail sector due to the threats arisen by the global experiences and strong opposition from local retail market. The government reduced retail policy for the first time in the year 2006 permitting 51 % FDI in single brand retail. Subsequently, a stable increase in FDI in the retail sector was observed. Hence many foreign companies entered Indian retail sector to cash the opportunity. Retail reforms announced by the central government in 2011 and 2012 for both and single brand multi-brand stores created an environment for retail innovation and competition in Indian organized retail market. In order to make the agriculture sector profitable the rules and regulations regarding FDI are liberalized. FDI up to 100% is allowed in pisciculture, floriculture, horticulture, apiculture, cultivation of vegetables, mushrooms, and animal husbandry under controlled conditions. 100% FDI is also permitted in services related to agro and allied sectors. With prior permission from government up to 100% FDI is permitted in tea plantation. Besides the above, FDI is not allowed in any other agricultural sector/activity (Consolidated FDI Policy2013). This move has boosted the investment climates in the Indian retail space which has very significant implications in economic development of a densely populated country like India.



Opportunities It is believed that FDI in agricultural retailing will change rural economy and adequate flow of foreign capital will promote the welfare of farmers and consumers by raising the income of the farmers and by lowering the consumer price inflation. From 2006 onwards there has been a steady increase in FDI in the retail sector, when the government lifted the restrictions and opened doors for foreign investors. The revolutionary measures taken by the government also reveals that it has the strong opinion about the positive effects of FDI. The concern about FDI has been visualized in these reforms. These reforms have been backed by the large farm lobbies as the original producers will get a higher price and the improved standards in agricultural marketing help the farmers in securing reasonable prices for their products. It is believed that foreign investment in agricultural retailing would help the farmers to adopt new technology in marketing in the sphere of processing, grading, handling and packing of goods. The FDI in agriculture also create many employment opportunities by expanding the markets for agro-products. Though the cultivation of fruits and vegetables in India is very high the integrated cold-chain infrastructure facilities are limited. Hence the defective agricultural marketing system can be cured by FDI as it will provide marketing facilities to the farmers. It is believed that foreign investment in agricultural retailing would help the farmers to adopt new technology in marketing. The advocates of FDI also believe that FDI in food based retailing will help in improving supply chain and provide infrastructure. Farmers will receive credit and technological support from the industries with whom they have sale contracts. The uncertainty of prices in the farm sector can be minimized and the farmers can be assured of remunerative prices for the products. Agriculture occupied a prominent place in Indian economy. The economic and social life of the Indians is closely associated with agriculture. Introduction of FDI in agricultural retailing has created an anxiety among the people. No of questions is being raised about its positive and negative effects on agriculture. The advocates of FDI believe that FDI in agricultural retailing will help in improving supply chain, infrastructure and ensure economic security for farmers through the elimination of middle in the country. On the other hand



several eminent personalities and experts have raised concern and cautioned against the introduction of FDI in retail in India. According to Prof.M.S. Swaminathan (2013), FDI in agriculture should be discussed carefully as it influences the larger section of the people who barely depend on it. According to the Report of CAIT (2012), FDI in retail will lead to unfair economic competition and foreign retail chains will not benefit Indian farmers. It is also argued that foreign companies in initial years offer low prices and attractive methods are used to increase their revenue. Lower price will always be good for any customer, but at the same time it hurts the primary producers. This practice has been known as Predatory pricing which in long run wipeout economically weaker competitor from market. Gradually this practice makes the farmer to quit the agriculture. Conclusion Majority of people in our country depends on agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture is the main source of supplying raw material to all agro-based industries like Textiles, Jute, Sugar, Edible Oils, fruits and vegetables etc. Moreover, small scale industries like handlooms, coir, paper and rice mills are also dependent on farm sector. So the development of agricultural sector directly influences the growth of all these industries. Permitting foreign investment in food-based retailing will help the farmer to minimize wastages caused by improper storage facilities. The entries of foreign companies into Indian agricultural retailing not only create employment opportunities but also enhance the supply chain efficiencies. Intensive competition among the firms is bound to pull up quality standards and cost competitiveness. Now the consumer is in a position to choose many varieties with reduced prices. FDI in agro-retailing will provide economic security for farmers through the elimination of middle men and integrate the Indian agricultural retail market with that of the global retail market. FDI in agricultural retailing must be dealt with cautiously as it has direct impact on the economy. The majority view is that FDI in retail will have an adverse effect on farmers. It has been argued that big retail chains will squeeze out the profits of the farmers. In the process of cost cutting, the farmers have been forced to quit the agriculture. The growing concern for foreign investment in agricultural retailing particularly developing countries where more than two third of population depends on agriculture sector, led to experimenting with FDI for the development of the



poor. Some global experiences were proved to be very effective. Economic growth with social justice is primary concern of our Five year plans. From the above discussion it is clear that the Government is making all efforts to liberalize the regulations for FDI. Hence the government should choose an ideal or optimum solution which not only protect the interests of the small agro-retailers but also avoid conflict between economic growth and social justice. Steps should be taken to strengthen the current policies and support the small scale agricultural retailing. However, FDI in agricultural retailing will strengthen organized retail in the country. There is a fear that the existing companies may not be able to compete with big global giants and the position of the Indian farmers will become more worsen by the entry of the MNCs. Hence the government of India must be cautious about the objections raised by the critics and adequate safe guards and corrective measures must be taken to protect the economically weaker competitors.

REFERENCES Misra and Puri, (2010) Indian Economy, Himalaya Publishing House, 2010, P

239.

Abhishek Rao et.al, (2016) FDI in Retail and its influence on Indian Agriculture, IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) e-ISSN: 2278-487X, p-ISSN: 2319-7668 PP 58-63 www.iosrjournals.org, 2016.

Global Retail Development Index, AT Kearney, 2011. M. Roy and S. Kumar (2012), Foreign Direct Investment in Agricultural

Retailing in India, P.224. http://psrcentre.org /images/extraimages/312120.pdf.

Rajib Bhattacharya (2012), The Opportunities and Challenges of FDI in Retail in India, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (JHSS), Volume 5, Issue5 (Nov-Dec, 2012 ), P.107

Deep Ray, Impact of FDI in Retail on Indian Agriculture. http://ssrn.com /abstract=2417205.

MS. Swaminathan, MS. Swaminathan wary of FDI in Retail, Nov.30.2011, http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channel/cities/chennai/ma-swaminathan-wary-fdi-retail-305, (May8, 2013).

http://www.iosrjournals.org/

http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channel/cities/chennai/ma-swaminathan-wary-fdi-retail-305

http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channel/cities/chennai/ma-swaminathan-wary-fdi-retail-305



Implications of Foreign Direct Investment in Retail on Indian Farmers (2012), Published by Confederation of All India Traders (CAIT), P. 5. www.cait.in (e books –English pdf).

What is inclusive growth, www.worldbank.org – 2008. S.Mahendra dev: (2008) Inclusive growth in India – Agriculture poverty and

Human Development Oxford University press New Delhi. Vijay Kelkar (2008) : Financial inclusion for Inclusive growth N.P Sen

Memorial lecture at ASCI Hyd. January 13, 2008 L.K. Advani: Good Governance is key to Inclusive growth address to Annual

conference of CII April 30, 2008.

Archana G. Gulati: Ensuring Inclusive growth kurukhestra June 2008.

Subir Gokarn : Inclusive growth in India Is a dream or reality excerpted from 8th Dr.R.L.Sangvi Annual memorial address endowment lecture ahamadabad December 6, 2007.

Inclusive growth Consultation: New Delhi August 29, 2007.

Bebek Debrai and Laveesh Bandari: Inclusive growth - Inclusive inequality inaugural address at RBI Mumbai June 29, 2007

Dr.Manmohan Singh : Inclusive growth – Challenges for Corporate India address at CII annual general meeting at New Delhi May 24, 2007.

Economic Survey 2006 – 07 Government of India. Aug. 2013. Raddar Dutt & K.P.Sundaram : Indian Economy Chand Publications, Aug.

2013

http://www.cait.in/

Ms. Shobhana Smriti Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Gandhi and Conflict Management

`Love is invincible’ (Galtung, `Gandhian Themes’, p.234)

Ms. Shobhana Smriti

Research Scholar [Ph.D], Gandhian Studies Centre, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The paper is an attempt to analyse the Gandhian praxis of resolving disputes vis-a-vis modern day conflict management. Though Gandhian satyagraha and modern literature on conflict management developed as mutually exclusive categories, one can reasonably argue that Gandhi’s writings on the technique did lead to a surge of publications on conflict resolution. In management jargon, the concept/terminology of reaching a ``win-win situation’’ or ``problem solving’’ are more acceptable approaches to resolve disputes as compared to coercive and power based modes. The aim is to contemporize Gandhi, understand the nuances of the technique and see whether his approach can be applied to resolve modern day conflict situations. Keywords: Gandhian praxis, conflict management, problem solving, win-win situation

Introduction Conflict is inevitable in any environment. Every conflict that is confronted requires a novel approach to resolve it. As no two conflict situations are similar, so are the modes to deal with them. Unresolved or poorly managed conflicts can lead to loss of trust and hence could affect productivity. Therefore, conflict management is an essential skill required in an organizational/ professional set up, the goal of conflict management is to enhance group performance, increase productivity, encourage group learning. It is virtually impossible for people with diverse background and skill to work together, make decisions, meet goals and objectives without conflict. The discipline is therefore increasingly becoming part of the academic curriculum to equip future leaders with the requisite knowledge, attitude and behaviour for conflict management.

Ms. Shobhana Smriti ISSN 2349-0519


A conflict situation has often been described as any sort of a disagreement between two individuals, groups of persons, social and religious communities and nations. It is a situation resulting from a clash of ideas, beliefs, values or goals. At the macro level, conflicts can be social, political, religious and economic in nature. Such conflicts involve nations, institutions, political leaders, activists who need to have the competency for conflict management. Conflict within groups and teams is inevitable. However, the challenge is to effectively resolve them resulting in a mutually win-win situation. This would negate the possibility of conflicts getting escalated, leading to undesirable or unproductive consequences. Conflict management involves acquiring the skills related to self-awareness about conflict modes, requisite communication skills, and establishing a structure to resolve the conflict in our environment. Conflicts can be of broadly four types – Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Intergroup and Intragroup. Research shows that unresolved conflicts lead to aggression. Most of us pick up the skills that we observed during our growing up years, or as we say during socialization. But in a professional environment one is expected to achieve the performance goals, add to the company’s

bottom-line, work in teams, communicate with stakeholders, negotiate and so on and so forth. To do all this we need to learn about the different conflict styles, modes of intervention and strategies for effective conflict resolution. In any conflict situation, our natural physiological response is to either confront the situation or to get away from the conflict situation. But by consciously choosing a response mode, we are likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at hand.

Needless to say, Gandhi’s philosophy and ideas have had a global impact. Many Nobel Laureates have acknowledged their intellectual debt to Gandhi. His approach to dealing with people and problems has influenced social activists, peace research, environmental philosophies etc. His technique of non violent resistance or Satyagraha was probably one of the most practical and sustainable approach to conflict management. It was a non retaliatory tool of conflict management which believed in the power of love, persuasion and the innate goodness of man. However, the probability of an association between Gandhian practice of non violence and Satyagraha and the recent conflict resolution literature have received comparatively little academic attention.

ISSN 2349-0519 Gandhi and Conflict Management...


For Gandhi, conflict provided an opportunity to improvise on inter personal relations and turn foes into friends. Gandhi throughout his life was involved in major public conflicts and can arguably be called a conflict resolution theorist. He was constantly communicating, negotiating his way through conflicts with his own people and also with the British. But he stood his ground as far as the techniques to manage conflicts were concerned e.g. the moment any movement turned violent, he would call it off, in keeping with the principles of non violence.

As Thomas Weber says, `while there seems to be no direct causal link between the two bodies of knowledge (i.e. Gandhian philosophy of non violent resistance and the recent conflict resolution/negotiation literature), it did set the tone for the phenomenal growth of conflict resolution literature in the guise of modern problem solving and win win (as opposed to power based and zero sum) approaches leading to integrative conflict resolution’’(Weber,

2006). He argues that Gandhian Satyagraha should be viewed from within the discourses on conflict resolution rather than as being distinct from it. Gandhi ruled out the probability of exerting power over others. He aimed at conquering the self. This creates fearlessness and self reliance – virtues that were so cherished by Gandhi.

Galtung expanded the view of violence as a means of conflict in society. Structural violence for him meant an indirect form of violence built into the social, political and economic structures of the state, giving rise to inequality in society. This in turn breeds exploitation, oppression, poverty, marginalization etc. This exists when basic needs of food, shelter, security, welfare are not met. Therefore while death can be caused by deliberate direct violence, it can also be caused by an absence of these basic needs of human beings in society.

However, positive peace, for him meant not only ending wars but also freedom from want, the attainment of justice, the protection of human rights and an absence of exploitation. Conflict consists of three components: incompatibility, action and actors. It is a situation in which a minimum of two actors strive to acquire at the same moment in time an available set of scarce resources. Examples of extreme conflicts are war, systematic repression, sexual and domestic violence, totalitarianism and genocide. In conflict both the parties want to win but that often is not possible or does not resolve the conflict completely and permanently.



Galtung described Gandhi as a `structuralist’ in the sense that he saw conflict in the deeper sense as something that was built into social structures, not into the persons...Colonialism was a structure and caste was a structure; both of them filled with persons performing their duties according to their roles or statuses....The evil was in the structure, not in the person who carried out his obligations. ’For Gandhi, poverty was the worst form of exploitation but it is

quite clear that Gandhi saw it as a structural relation more than an evil inflicted intentionally upon victims. Gandhi made a sharp distinction between conflict and its manifestations and that Gandhi’s bid to fight the sin and not

the sinner should be seen in this context. Gandhi’s views about combating evil rather than the people involved presupposes the norm that `conflicts are to be solved’. (Johan Galtung, 1992). This could also mean that Gandhi seems to prefer a disharmonious relationship to no relationship at all. Since Gandhi was concerned more with the change of structure it was easier for him to focus on patterns of conflict behaviour. However Gandhi not just wanted to create a new social structure. He also wanted his opponent to take part in creating it. For Gandhi anything which hampers the individual goal of self realization, is violence because it hampers individual progress and maintains a moral status quo. The main goal of the process of conflict was not merely to reach a resolution but self realization. The fundamental principle that he is referring to here is that of the unity of existence. Conflict should be seen as an opportunity to realize a higher self. If the whole process of resolving a conflict did not bring about a corresponding change in the people/parties involved, it was no success at all. Naess too while studying Gandhian philosophy and teachings on group conflict was influenced by the concept of self realization, Truth and unity of human and non human life. He always admired Gandhi’s non violent direct

action since 1930. He quotes Gandhi as, ` I believe in advaita, I believe in the essential unity of man and, for that matter, of all lives. Therefore I believe that if one man gains spiritually, the whole world gains with him and, if one man fails, the whole world fails to that extent’.(Young India, 4 December 1924). In fact one can draw parallels between self realization and Naess’ deep

ecology when he discusses the connection between non violence and self realization. He starts with the basic proposition when dissecting Gandhi’s

teachings on group conflict: Seek complete self realization’ (the manifestation



of one’s potential to the greatest possible degree’). He argued that the `self to

be realized is not the ego, but the larger Self created when we identify with all living creatures and ultimately with the whole universe’. (Naess, `How My Philosophy Seemed to Develop’, p. 225). He summarized this connection as : 1. Self realization presupposes a search for truth. 2. In the last analysis all living beings are one. 3. Himsa(violence) against oneself makes complete self realization impossible. 4. Himsa against a living being is himsa against oneself. 5. Himsa against a, living being makes complete self realization impossible.

Naess provided various systematisations of Gandhi’s teachings on group

struggle where self realization is the top norm and which contains the critical hypothesis that all living beings are ultimately one, such as `Systematisation’ `F’, in Figure 1. Gandhi’s satyagraha was a non retaliatory technique of

resolving conflicts, which believed in the power of love and persuasion. It was a principal based method of non violence which aimed at reaching the truth. It sought to convert the opponent through self suffering on the part of the satyagrahi, which would in turn cause a change of heart in the opponent. Gandhi had immense faith in the innate goodness of man. The assumption here is that the opponent has a conscience and would be open to reason. This would make them likely to `respond to any noble and friendly action’ (Young India, 4 August, 1920).

Joan Bondurant says that the role of self suffering is to break a stalemate, to `cut through the rationalized defences of the opponent’ (Joan Bondurant, 1976). According to Gandhi, the purpose is to bring about a change of heart in the opponent `by sheer force of character and suffering’ (Young India, 18 September, 1924). However, Miller, a Christian writer on violence, in the context of the black rights demonstrators in the United States South, argued that the opponents in this case could not be won over only by virtue of voluntary self suffering or Christian love on the part of demonstrators. Rather it was economic pressure and the compulsions of reinstating order and normalcy which played an important role in successfully ending the movement. The underlying moral senses which got stirred belonged to `white students, liberals and churchmen’,

not to the racial supremacists.(William Robert Miller, Nonviolence: A Christian Interpretation (New York: Association Press, 1964), P. 313.



As Weber says that `in order to touch the heart of the opponent it appears that some form of feeling of identification with the victim is necessary, the social distance must not be too great’.( Weber, Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor, p. 215, 2007). He further says that in cases of direct violence where the degree of social distance is very high, there is a lack of identification with situations of self suffering. Consequently, under such circumstances chances of conversion seem unlikely.

Gandhi’s Conflict norms Gandhi’s struggle for human rights, independence, against economic

exploitation can be summarized as: Fight against racism, in South Africa Fight for independence, Swaraj Fight against the caste system , for the harijans Fight against economic exploitation, for a new economic order, Sarvodaya Fight for a non violent way of fighting, Satyagraha Fight against communal strife, between Hindus and Muslims Fight against sexism, for liberation of women

The above struggles demanded personal attention, time and energy of Gandhi. But not all the struggles were equally successful. The struggle in South Africa was unknown to most. The struggle for self rule or Swaraj was successful and not only for India. As for the caste system, Gandhi was not against it. He wanted to make the caste system horizontal, not vertical in which case it breeds exploitation and inequality. Therefore, for Gandhi a holistic approach was required to resolve conflicts in society. Galtung summarizes Gandhi’s conflict norms as firstly relating to the goals

and conflicts and states that one should act in conflicts (now, here, for your own group, out of identity and out of conviction); define the conflict well (state your goals clearly, try to understand the opponent’s goals, focus on the

common goals; and have a positive approach to conflict (seeing it as an opportunity to reach a higher self). The second norm relates to conflict struggle and enjoins one to act non violently in conflicts(do not harm or hurt with words, deeds or thoughts, do not damage property, prefer violence to cowardice, do good even to the evil doer; to act in a goal consistent manner (by including constructive elements, using goal revealing forms of struggle, acting openly rather than secretly, and by aiming the struggle at the correct



point); not to cooperate with evil structures, status, action or with those who cooperate with evil; to be willing to sacrifice; not to polarize the situation; not to incite the opponent, by not humiliating or allowing oneself to be humiliated, by not expanding the goals of the conflict and by using the mildest forms of conflict behaviour) The final norm relates to conflict resolution, and it directs that conflicts should be solved (do not prolong the conflict, always seek negotiation, seek positive social transformation and seek transformation of both the self and the opponent);that one should insist on essentials rather than non essentials; that on should see oneself as fallible (be aware that you may be wrong and admit your mistakes); that one should be generous with opponents(do not exploit their weaknesses, do not judge them harder than yourself, trust them); and finally aim for conversion rather than coercion (rather than coercing the opponent, convert the opponent into a believer of the cause, or be ready to get converted yourself)

Gandhi’s own statement reflects these principles: `A satyagrahi must never

forget the distinction between evil and the evil doer’(Young India, 8 August 1929). `The essence of non violent technique is that it seeks to liquidate antagonisms but not antagonists themselves’.(Harijan, 29 April 1939); it is often forgotten that it is never the intention of a Satyagrahi to embarrass the wrong doer’; `The Satyagrahi’s object is to convert, not to coerce, the wrong doer’(Haijan, 25 March, 1939); it is the acid test of non violence that, in a non violent conflict, there is no rancour left behind, and in the end the enemies are converted into friends’ (Harijan 12 November 1938). For Gandhi, in any conflict situation, one must be non violent not only in action but even in their thoughts and words. The goal should be to reach the Truth. There should not be any threat, coercion or punishment. The purpose is to undergo `self suffering’ so that the opponent can be converted to seeing the truth enter into a dialogue with the opponent so that the opponent can see a clearer version of the truth by touching their conscience. Impact of Gandhian thoughts on the Conflict Resolution Theory& Negotiation practice Bondurant’s book `The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict’(1965) has been considered to be a good attempt at studying the link between Conflict



resolution and the Gandhian philosophy. It analyses Gandhi’s campaigns and

also provides a theoretical background which is similar, in some aspects, to the conflict resolution literature which followed it. He pointed out:

`The objective is not to assert propositions, but to create possibilities. In opening up new choices and in confronting an opponent with the demand that he make a choice, the satyagrahi involves himself in acts of `ethical existence’. The process forces a continuing examination of one’s own motives, an

examination undertaken within the context of relationships as they are changed towards a new, restructured and reintegrated pattern’’(Bondurant, Conquest of Violence, 1965, p vii). The whole process of discourse she argues is rather creative and inherently useful. The whole process leads to a `` restructuring of the opposing elements to achieve a situation which is satisfactory to both the original opposing antagonists but in such a way as to present an entirely new total circumstance...through the operation of non violent action the truth is judged by the fulfilment of human needs will emerge in the form of a mutually satisfactory and agreed upon solution’’(Ibid., p. 195). This line of thought reverberates in some modern writings on conflict resolution. For example, Burton (1997) sees conflict as inextricably linked with unfulfilled human needs and Mitchell (1993) sees the aim of problem solving exercises as a re analysis of the conflict as a shared problem, as providing alternatives to coercion and `new options for a generally acceptable and self sustaining resolution, involving agreement and a new relationship between erstwhile. As far as Indian books are concerned Dhawan’s major study on Gandhi’s

political philosophy contains sections on social conflicts, religious conflicts and economic conflicts and is a detailed study of satyagraha and was written while the Mahatma was still alive, well before the advent of modern conflict resolution literature. According to Gandhi, the battlefield of nonviolence is in the human heart, and the goal is not to defeat human beings but to defeat the evil that corrupts their minds. Gandhi believed that nonviolence is the law of the human race, and violence is the law of the brute. Gandhi taught people that we have to liberate ourselves before we can liberate others and in doing so self-control and daily self-discipline become imperative.



In India, Gandhi developed strategies to deal with four kinds of conflict: political, social, economic, and religious. He started combating social injustice and political oppression there through nonviolent means. During the freedom struggle he realized that India would be free from the British only through returning to its own moral roots and traditions. He formed a tactical alliance with the Indian Muslims and launched a program of non-cooperation that included economic boycott of foreign products and civil disobedience. He advocated for the rights of the Untouchables and urged the Indian people to gain economic freedom and self sufficiency through basic activities like spinning thread, weaving cloth, and refining salt. By gaining the support of the masses, going on long hunger strikes, and using his sheer force of character. Gandhi made the British acknowledge the immorality and vulnerability of their position as colonial oppressors, and they withdrew voluntarily. To deal with the burgeoning socio economic inequality and foreseeing class conflicts in society Gandhi developed the concept of Trusteeship. It was a non violent way of tackling socio economic issues in society. He believed that whosoever had property and wealth in society in excess of his needs should consider himself as a trustee or a ``custodian’’ of the property which would be

used for the common good. This concept adhered to Non violence and Satyagraha. Gandhi’s concern is reflected in the following lines: ``The contrast between the rich and the poor exploited by the foreign government and also by their countrymen- the city dwellers. They produce the food and go hungry. They produce milk and their children have to go without it. It is disgraceful. Everyone must have a balanced diet, a decent house to live in, facilities for the education of one’s children and medical relief.’’(Harijan,

March, 1946). The concept was criticized by many and even considered Utopian. But this was Gandhi’s way of addressing class conflicts in society in a non violent way. Gandhi regarded conflict as an opportunity for oppressed people to gain empowerment. He was committed to discovering truth and keeping an open flow of information. Gandhi always sought to develop personal relationships with his opponents, because he considered them to be potential partners in a search for fair and truthful solutions. For Gandhi, the goal was to further the process of self-realization for both the British and the Indians. Gandhi throughout his life worked incessantly to resolve deep-seated political, social,



economic, and religions conflicts. Gandhi taught that if people adopted the strategy of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,” (lex talion is) the whole world would become blind and toothless. Ironically, he was unable to prevent the bloody partition between India and Pakistan and was assassinated by a Hindu extremist.

The Resource Manual for a Living Revolution (Virginia Coover, Ellen Deacon, Charles Esser and Christopher Moore, Philadelphia: New Society, 1981.)was widely used by those conducting non violence training workshops for several years before it was published. The books deals with living in supportive communities, the techniques of personal growth and consciousness raising. In the chapter on conflict resolution he lists Gandhian non violence as one of the important social change theories.

The Journal of Conflict Resolution (JCR), 1957,in its various volumes did publish articles which dealt with Gandhi and his non violent activism. They were incorporated in books on Gandhi and conflict. Galtung’s article stated

that the antagonist should be separated from the antagonism – a theme common to Gandhian and the `win-win’ conflict resolution literature. In another article Lipsitz and Kritzer suggests that non violence should be examined more closely as a form of unconventional political action which is good for a democracy. It however, does not link non violence and conflict resolution.

Pontara, in an early examination of Gandhi’s attitude to violence in extreme

group conflict, points out that he makes no attempt to work out the philosophy of conflict which is implicit in Gandhi's writings. He admits that he does not see satyagraha as a substitute for violent methods of resolving social conflicts. Klitgaard notes that satyagraha as a hard headed zero sum bargaining tactics may provide valuable payoffs, but possibly because its underlying principles were compromised or its contradictions glossed over. He also says that for Gandhi it mattered as to how the game was played and how the opponent felt about his antagonist after the game was over. This was seen as one of the main links between satyagraha and negotiation practice as detailed in the recent problem solving literature. Like Klitgaard, Chatterjee attempts to place Gandhian satyagraha in a game theory framework. However, he concludes that satyagraha belongs to a class of games `with threat- vulnerable equilibria’, that is, `where one or the other

player is in a position to induce the other player to shift but not to force him to shift’.



As far as the conflict resolution practice is concerned, developments in the 1960s favoured a new approach to solving conflicts. This approach focussed on meeting the intrinsic human needs. Two parties were brought together to meet and analyse the deep rooted sources of conflict. This process was thought to possibly remove the sources of conflict rather than merely solving the dispute at hand. This model showed a leaning towards the Gandhian approach to resolving conflicts, where conflicts were not just seen as problems to be solved but rather as opportunities for moral growth. Modern conflict resolution literature has scholars like Deutsch talking about the constructive process of conflict resolution. In this process the focus is on good communication, the perception of similarity in beliefs and values; full acceptance of another’s legitimacy; mutual trust and confidence; information

sharing and so forth. Weiss- Wikhas written about the integrative approach to conflict resolution He too has spoken about the desirability of achieving win-win situation by separating the antagonist from the antagonism. These writings do not mention Gandhi but anyone familiar with Gandhi’s thoughts on non

violence and interpersonal conflicts can discern the Gandhian ``flavour’.

However, some studies in the conflict resolution literature, for example Shure argued that pacifist strategies do not work. This is despite the fact that the pacifist tries to show the opponent, the immorality of their actions and gives assurance that they will be acting in good faith. Many others believed that a `turn the other cheek’ strategy more than being successful is likely to get exploited. Nevertheless, some other studies like that of Braver and Rohrer and Reychler have supported a pacifist strategy, the quintessential Gandhian model, saying that a martyrdom approach does evoke a kind and benevolent attitude amongst the opponents.

In the Gandhian approach, an attempt should be made to resolve all conflicts and convert all foes into friends. Secondly, the main aim of resolving conflicts is the total transformation of the parties involved. This goes beyond just winning or losing. Thirdly, the values which pervade conflict resolution, such as, non violence, fairness, individual choice, support for human rights etc were very much part of the Gandhian philosophy as well. Therefore one can argue that some of these values have a universal appeal.

For anyone who wishes to resolve conflicts the Gandhian way, there are some `ground rules’ and known facts which must be abided by. First, violence is invited from the antagonists if they feel provoked or humiliated.



Second, if they would be satyagrahi makes the purpose of the conflict and the basic facts of the same clear, the chances of the opponent developing a violent attitude becomes less.

Third, in keeping with the true essence of non violence, opponents must be provided a complete understanding of one’s case, without hiding information,

any bias or prejudice.

Fourth, the opponents must try to empathise with each other’s problems. This helps get rid of any misunderstandings between parties involved.

Fifth, one should not judge the opponent very harshly. Love and tolerance should be the guiding principles when dealing with antagonists.

Sixth, opponents should be trusted. There is always a chance of getting exploited. But the larger picture should always be kept in mind, in that the societal benefits of following our values are much higher.

Seventh, as Gandhi said, ``A satyagrahi never misses, can never miss, a chance of compromise on honourable terms.’(An Englishman’s Dilemma,

Young India, 16 April, 1931)l.

Eighth, the conversion of an opponent gets speeded up by personal sincerity. Ninth, the best way of convincing an opponent is to make sacrifices for the given cause.

Tenth, whenever the opponent is in a weak position, it should not be taken advantage of. This would make the opponent trust the satyagrahi and would create an amicable atmosphere for a compromise. The above key points do get reflected in some of the self help manuals on negotiation and achieving a win win solution. But the Gandhian process of conflict resolution went far beyond just solving the problem at hand. It was meant for a much deeper self-transformation of the parties involved or as he said, the achievement of self-realization. This stemmed from the fact that he believed in the universality of all beings and saw conflict as an opportunity to realize a higher self through self-purification and the creation of a new social order. Therefore one can argue that the Gandhian methodology of resolving conflicts does not only have ostensible advantages/value but it may also affect some deep rooted behavioural changes in the opponents.



Satyagraha, the Gandhian philosophy and technique of Conflict Resolution Satyagraha was Gandhi’s technique of non violent activism. It has often been

translated as `passive resistance’ or non violent resistance’. Satya means truth, which is equivalent to love and agraha stands for insistence or firmness. Gandhi also called it the truth-force or soul-force. However, for Gandhi it was not only a strategy to solve conflict in society, it was rather a way of life. Though Gandhi himself claims to have been inspired by Thoreau all his life, he says that the Civil Disobedience launched in South Africa at the Empire Theatre in Johannesburg in 1906, to protest against the Indian Registration Bill, which was his first Satyagraha in action, happened much before he read Thoreau’s essay on Civil Disobedience. Gandhi says he only borrowed the term `Civil Disobedience’ after having read Thoreau, so that the British could

comprehend his movement better. It basically meant soul force where the suffering would not be inflicted upon the opponent but upon oneself. It was a peaceful way of converting the adversary, through love and patience rather than through acts of violence. The rationale behind the principle being that it also contains the feeling of any bitterness or hatred in the opponent. Conflict resolution through coercive means use of obvious and tangible strategies and weapons; based on denial of Truth "because man is not capable of knowing absolute truth and therefore is not competent to punish"; opponents react with fear and mindless reflex action; self-perpetuating through retaliation; 'destructive'. Conflict resolution through nonviolent means involves accommodation and conversion of the opponent. Even an element of nonviolent 'coercion' may be present but this too may lead to changes in attitudes in the long run. Through 'conversion', the opponent , the opponent changes inwardly through the conscience and thus tends to reconcile with the nonviolent activist, leaving no aftermath of resentment or changes inwardly through the conscience and thus tends to conciliate with the nonviolent activist, leaving no aftermath of resentment or revenge. Gandhi evolved Satyagraha as the most pragmatic and potent technique of conflict resolution and as the morally correct way of life, based on the contention/reasoning of 'conversion' through which alone can Truth, human life's ultimate mission, be approached. Through Satyagraha, Gandhi used his favourite weapons, that of love and truth. Truth to him meant “God”. It meant resisting any sort of injustice and



holding on to the truth under any circumstance. In Hind Swaraj, Gandhi quoted Tulsidas, ``of religion, pity, or love is the root, as egotism of the body. Therefore we should not abandon pity so long as we are alive’’. For Gandhi,

Swaraj or Home Rule could be attained only through Satyagraha or soul force which rests on the active forces of love, faith and sacrifice. It is the reverse of resistance by arms. When I refuse to do a thing which is repugnant to my conscience, I use soul force. For instance, the Govt of the day has passed a law which is applicable to me. I do not like it. If by using violence I, force the govt to repeal the law, I am employing what may be termed body force. If I do not obey the law and accept the penalty for its breach, I use soul force. It involves sacrifice of self.

Everybody admits that sacrifice of self is, infinitely superior to sacrifice of others. Moreover, if this kind of force is used in a cause that is unjust, only the person using it suffers, he does not make others suffer for his mistakes. Men have before now done many things which are subsequently found to have been wrong. No man can claim that he is absolutely in the right or that particular thing is wrong because he thinks so. But it is wrong for him so long as that is his deliberate judgement. Therefore he should not do that which he knows to be wrong and suffer the consequences whatever it may be. This is the key to the use of soul force’’. (reference). For Gandhi it was unmanly to obey unjust laws. This belief according to him was the key to self rule or home rule. As long as men continued to obey unjust laws their slavery would continue. For Gandhi such a belief could be countered only through passive resistance.

Gene Sharp (1960) in his study on non violence as a political method to resolve conflicts in society summarized satyagraha as, `` The satyagrahi, a believer in satyagraha, constantly seeks to live a life of truth and love. He always seeks to `turn the searchlight inward’ and to so live that he does no wrong to his fellow men through exploitation, oppression, violence or other means. Satyagraha is a peaceful mode of conflict resolution. If the opponent does not get convinced by words, he would probably get convinced by purity, humility and honesty. The opponent must be ` weaned from error by patience and sympathy’, weaned and not crushed; converted, not destroyed through acts of violence. Satyagraha is the opposite of the policy of `an eye-for-an-eye-a-tooth-for-a-tooth’(lex talion is). It is a law of retaliation which means that a punishment inflicted should correspond in degree and kind to the offense of the wrongdoer, as an eye-for-an-eye-tooth-for-a-tooth. The fundamental idea



behind this is that acts of violence create bitterness in survivors and brutality in destroyers; Satyagraha aims to exalt both sides. Gandhi's satyagrahi is an altruistic but a practical idealist, and an irrepressible optimist, "grows from truth to truth", and believes that "The true source of right is duty." Ideally he is like Gandhi: what he "thinks, what he feels and what he says and what he does are all the same thing." Satyagraha is ethical: "The Satyagrahi's object is to convert, not to coerce, the wrongdoer." It aims at "a restructuring of the opposing elements to achieve a situation which is satisfactory to both the original opposing antagonists"; "it seeks to liquidate antagonisms but not the antagonists themselves." According to Bondurant, "In Satyagraha dogma gives way to open exploration of context.

Gandhi proposed the setting up of the Shanti Sena/ Dals (unarmed peacekeeping brigades)to be employed during phases of political unrest, riots and communal disharmony.(in 1921 and 1938). These forces would avert violence under any circumstance. Gandhi needed to project a united India in its fight for Poorna Swaraj, against British imperialism. Therefore keeping the larger picture in mind he was deeply concerned during violent outbreaks of Hindu Muslim clashes. He saw the Shanti Sena as a positive approach towards a non violent alternative to the army.

Conclusion Conflict must be accepted as a basic social reality which requires positivity, and ingenuity in terms of finding newer forms of no coercive methods of conflict management. The ultimate goal for Gandhi was not to just find effective resolution to conflicts but also to reach a higher level of self purification, which he termed as realizing the Truth. And everyone involved in this excercise should be a peace educator, peace activist and a truth seeker as Gandhi himself was we need to look back into history to find long term solutions to modern day problems. Gandhi provided us a deep insight into how conflicts create antagonists, and how we need to resolve conflicts to turn foes into friends. This would probably hold ground at an interpersonal and an intrapersonal level.

Atomic, chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction have developed to such an extent that it appears that the process has reached a dead end, and further development in weaponry is not possible. But history bears proof to the fact that such a belief is a fallacy. Therefore, we need to



a) develop credible alternatives to war for effective conflict resolution b) move towards complete and total disarmament

And to accomplish the above we need to understand the causes behind war and conflict. For Gandhi the long term solution lies in abandoning greed and desire to establish control over other nations. He followed the central message of Gita, which was to develop an attitude of non possession, non attachment and purity of means. Gandhi’s mode of conflict resolution makes him relevant

to the contemporary world. As long as the world exists, conflicts too would exist. Wherever there are differences of opinions, of self interests and personalities, there would be conflict. Life itself is a process of conflict resolution and we must pay close attention to the way we resolve these conflicts. As per Gandhi these methods have to be in harmony with the nature, individual and society. Gandhi’s method of conflict resolution has its roots in the sense of absolute oneness of the universe. Conflict management requires a combination of analytical and human skills. Any conflict management strategy which aims to achieve a positive outcome must look at win-win situation, use effective negotiation and communication, proactive conflict management strategies and an appreciation of the cultural differences of the stakeholders. Gandhi in his writings on managing conflicts always spoke of addressing more important existential realities. His approach was not just to solve the problem at hand but to strive for a spiritual and moral quest, a bigger transformation; realization of a higher self. The world since decades has been learning and unlearning the teachings of the Mahatma. Gandhi contributed immensely to non-violent activism. It was a revolutionary nonviolence. He left behind a colossal legacy which has impacted generations to come, regardless of cultural, national, religious and linguistic boundaries. Today India may not practice Satyagraha to the extent Gandhi desired but Internationally the doctrine of conflict resolution theory, new environmentalism, peace research, deep ecology and Buddhist economics have been undeniably inspired by Gandhian principle of non violent activism. These doctrines/ philosophies have reinstated our belief in his teachings for our times. Gandhi’s non-violence continues to intrigue us since violence failed to resolve conflicts wherever adopted e.g. Kashmir, Palestine, Srilanka. Gandhi created a radical style of politics. He was deeply aware of the human



frailties but at the same time believed that there was always the scope for dialogue between opponents.

In Gandhi's vision of satyagraha was not only a useful technique for the resolution of conflicts, and the satyagrahi was far more than a mere practitioner of a certain skill. The satya-grahi was the embodiment of an ideal, and the satyagrahi lifestyle was the lifestyle worth living. In claiming that a person's 'highest duty in life is to serve mankind and take his share in bettering its condition', Gandhi was making the point that the ultimate congruence of the self and the other means that the 'highest form of morality' is the practice of altruism. While self-suffering was quite likely to be a consequence of altruism, Gandhi was firmly convinced that to suffer wrongs was less degrading than to inflict them.

Figure 1

Source: Naess, Gandhi and Group Conflict, p. 55

Realize Truth

Realize God

Realize Yourself

Act upon ‘all beings are

Ultimately one’

Seek Truth

Refrain from Violence against

Yourself

Help others realize

themselves Truth

Refrain from Violence against

others

Reduce violence in general



REFERENCES Mahatma Gandhi. (1927). An Autobiography – The Story of My Experiments

with Truth Navjivan Trust, 1927. Louis Fischer. (2006). The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, Harper Collins, 2006.

Narayan Desai – My Life Is My Message, Svarpan, 1940-1948, Volume IV David Haridiman (2003). Gandhi in his time and Ours, Permanent Black

Hind Swaraj– Mahatma Gandhi, 1910. Thomas Weber (2007). Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor, Cambridge

University Press, 2007. Johan Galtung (1992). The Way Is The Goal: Gandhi Today, Ahmedabad:

Gujarat Vidyapith Peace Research Centre, 1992. Case Study of Conflict Resolution: Mahatma Gandhi. Written by UPF

(Universal Peace Foundation, 2005) Peter Wallensteen (2007). Understanding Conflict Resolution, Sage

Publication, London, pp- 3- 51. Selected works of Mahatma Gandhi- Vol III – Satyagraha in South Africa,

Navjivan, 1968 Thomas Weber (2006). Gandhi, Gandhism and the Gandhians, Lotus

Collection. Mahatma Gandhi (1968). The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. III,

Satyagraha in South Africa, Navjivan Trust.

M. Chitra Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Health Challenges of Coastal Population

M. Chitra

Department of Econometrics, School of Economics, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

This paper tried to bring out the issues in coastal areas in order to make the Indian Coastal Society should aware what is going around them, and awake to react the present situation for to protect their health status and thereby give sustained health output to the future generation by face the growing technological change and expansion of Indian Economy. The approach of the paper is simple descriptive research method which will be very useful to explore the unknown economic phenomena and made an attempt to find the solution to solve the environmental threats and thereby suggest some policy making to practical user. Keywords: Coastal Areas, Health Status, Indian Economy

Introduction The natural environment plays an important role in supporting economic activity. Both directly, by providing resources and raw materials such as water , timber and minerals that are required as inputs for the production of goods and services, and indirectly through services provided by ecosystems including carbon sequestration, water purification, managing flood risks, and nutrient cycling. Natural resources are therefore, vital for securing economic growth and development not just today but for future generations.1 Aquatic ecosystem are among the most precious, dynamic and diverse ecosystems of the world. The biodiversity of the aquatic ecosystems are so diverse and these species have evolved and adapted to the aquatic habitats over millions of years. However the indiscriminate mixing of effluents, sewage and other contaminants with aquatic organisms such crustaceans, mollusks and fish are preferred food sources for human beings.2 Water and sediment quality is a vital aspect for the survival and well being of the living resources, especially

M. Chitra ISSN 2349-0519


in the coastal and estuarine areas. Some of these areas are now under the direct threat from the increasing load of various pollutants. Among them, the heavy metal needs special mention as they are indications of the impact of industrialization. Several water bodies in the country are in mortal changes of pollution caused by excessive sewage, industrial effluents, fertilizer and pesticide run-off. The seas around India have several hot spots with regard to thermal wastes, nuclear wastes and oil pollution3. Pollution is the introduction of pollutant (chemical substances, noise, heat, light, energy and others) into the environment which results in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and ecosystem4. Cadmium (Cede) is a toxic heavy metal which can be accumulated in human body and environment long-term. The health risks of environmental Cd pollution have caused the concern all over the world since the “itai-itai” disease caused by chronic Cd poisoning appearing in Japan in 1950’s. Series of criteria and guidelines have been developed in many countries and international organizations to guide the study on health effect of Cd pollution. Cd has been ranked at the sixth of toxic substances for significant human health hazard by U.S Poison and Disease Registry5. Some of the pollutants like lead, Arsenic, Mercury, chromium specially hexavalent chromium, nickel, barium and cadmium, oils and grease, pesticides etc are very harmful toxic and poisonous even in parts per billion (ppb) range. There are some minerals which are useful for human and animal health in small doses beyond which these are toxic Zinc, Copper, Iron etc fall into the category. There are some compounds like cyanides, thiocyanides, phenol compounds, fluorides, and radioactive substances etc which are harmful for humans as well as animals. With this brief role of chemicals in marine ecosystem, the researcher interested to find the answer for the question how far the coastal communities are healthy and to examine their living environment where the waste is produced as a byproduct from every economic activity. Review of Literature P.Kaladharan and et.al (2005) examined the “trends in heavy metal concentrations in sediment, finfishes and shellfishes in inshore waters of Cochin, southwest coast of India”. In that study the authors explained about the profile of cadmium, zinc, copper and Lead in sediment and tissues from

ISSN 2349-0519 Health Challenges of Coastal Population


four species of finfishes and shellfishes from estuarine and inshore regions of Cochin. The authors took the monthly data collected for ten years since 1990. Annual mean levels of Zinc in Nemipterus Japonicus registered a gradual decreasing trend towards 1998 with peak 35ppm during 1992. Similar trend was also observed in Metapenaeus dobsoni and sunetta scripta. However an increasing trend was noticed in otolithus ruber registering a peak 9ppm during 1995. Lead concentrations were higher in M. dobsoni followed by N.Japonicus with an increasing trend. On the other hand Cadmium and copper levels showed a decreasing trend with peak levels in nemiptrus than the mollusks and the croker species. The profile of metals in tissues and sediment samples were correlated in relation to the state of health of these resources and ecosystem in the light of increasing port and anthropogenic activities. Falcon (2002)reported that pregnant women exposed to environmental Cd might have an adverse effect in perinatal period, example fetal growth retardation, low birth weight, birth deformities and premature. Nishjio and etal (2006) reported that there were dose response relationships between Cd exposure and mortality risks in both male and female in the Cd contaminated areas. Chronic exposure to Cd could increase popular mortality and shorten life expectancy. Jose G.B Derraik (2002) depicted “the Pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: The author has analysed that, a large number of marine species is known to be harmed or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine mammals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Author has concluded that it is harmful for the marine life as well as to the human. Michael Waldichulc (1974) revealed in a study about “Coastal Marine Pollution and Fish Ocean Management”. The author has observed that, the world wide problems of marine pollution and other perturbations of the marine environment caused by man, as they affect the fishery resources, can be classified into four major categories. A) Distribution or unfavorable modification of estuaries. B).Adverse alteration of the sea water characteristics, e.g., reduction of dissolved oxygen. C). Acute and Sub-Lethal toxity to marine organisms and D). Bio accumulation of, metals, organic substances, or pathogenic organisms, breading in the seafood unacceptable.



Methodology This paper tried to bring out the issues in coastal areas in order to make the Indian Coastal Society should aware what is going around them, and awake to react the present situation for to protect their health status and thereby give sustained health output to the future generation with growing innovation and expansion of Indian Economy. These economic aspects of effect of environment depletion in the coastal area cannot measure directly as well as quantifying the negative externality in human population is also very hard. Hence this paper tried in a descriptive way to reach the objective of this paper. Historical Issue: 1 Eating fish protect us against variety of diseases and illness in adults, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression, psoriasis, prostate cancer, stroke and autoimmune disease. Mercury poisoning in fish is of particular concern because fish accumulate the methyl mercury in their tissue where it becomes strongly bonded. Long-lived larger fish that feed on other fish accumulate the highest levels of methyl mercury and pose the greatest risk to people who eat them regularly. Methyl mercury is not removed from fish tissues by any practical cooking method. In the year 1950, the fishermen and their families in the minamata Bay area of Kyushu inland, Japan were stricken with a mysterious neurological illness. Only then people were aware of the toxin mercury in the water. Practical Issue: 2 Certain types of gears such as karaivalai are abandoned in most areas. But still, fishermen apply this gear in order to get more catch. But this gear scrapes the sea floor along with fish, the coral reefs, juvenile fish, eggs and other resources in the sea. Coral reef is very essential for laying eggs and also for the breeding of fish. When this gear is applied, the coral reefs are damaged and scraped off from the sea bed. This affects the process of fish growth and reproduction which in turn influence the economics of coastal population. This remains the story of taking golden egg by cutting the dove Economic Activity Based Issue: 3 Alang is a favored port of call for ships that have sailed their last. The ship breaking yard in Gujarat is the largest in Asia, and knocks down hundreds of vessels every year. Environmentalists say the toxic waste management

ISSN 2349-0519 Health Challenges of Coastal Population


facilities at Alang are not good enough to cope with such environmentally hazardous ships. The paint on the hull of ships contaminate the sea water and question the Gujarat Pollution Control Board’s slack monitoring and pollution- control measures. Alang does not have a hospital, given its size of work force. Fatal accidents are common at ship breaking units in the latest accident six workers were killed on october6, 2012.

Monopoly Power Based Issue: 4 The mini-port is being built at Aronda Jetty in Terekhol creek, Maharastra by White Orchid Estate Private Limited. According to the state environment department, White Orchid has constructed three jetties and is carrying out construction without the department’s consent and with on environmental clearance. Development of mini Port without Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) clearance has destroyed mangroves over hundreds of acres. This remains selling the eyes and getting the drawing.

Municipal Solid Waste Management Issue: 5 Coastal sewage discharges have increased dramatically in the past three decades. In the developing world, with growing population, the provision of basic sanitation, as well as urban sewer systems and sewage treatment, has not kept pace. Recent study suggests that bathing in water well within current micro biological standard still poses significant risk of gastrointestinal disease, and that sewage contamination of marine water is a health problem of global performance. The maltreated sewage is discharged in a wrong manner; besides there being leakages too put the inhabitant near the area into high health risk. In addition, Sea is a comfortable place to dump their waste material into. These wastes contain toxic substances and also include elements like lead, mercury, nitrates and sulfates. They are quite harmful for humans as well as aquatic animals. Industrial wastes result in global warming and acid rain. High risk of skin diseases and eye irritation will be result of this untreated, contaminated sea water bathing.

Sea Transport Issue: 7 Oil spills have become one of the major causes of water pollution. Big tanker ships spilling millions of gallons of oil into the sea. Sometimes, it is an accidental spill, but most of the time, wastes which are in form of oil are deliberately released into the sea. The spilled oil spreads to huge areas to form



oil slicks, making it impossible for marine life and plants of the aqua to get proper sunlight and air. This causes a lot of deaths, and increases the possibility of extinction of some of the already endangered species. Because oil does not dissolve, it stays on the water surface and suffocates fish. Oil also gets caught in the feathers of sea birds stopping them from flying results of Risk of Ecosystem.

Conclusion This paper depicted few issues but too many issues are invisible need to be addressed by the researchers in forth coming years. The environmental risks and coastal population health status are interlinked with one another which need to be tested by the researcher for suggesting an apt policy to them. It is very important to explore the risk factor for ITAI-ITAI disease exposed to environmental Cd. There is need of follow-up study on health damage due to environmental hazards specifically in coastal population. The government intervene is needed in preventing and protecting the coastal population and mitigate the negative externality in coastal area.

REFFERENCES

P.Kaladharan, D.Prema, K.K Valsala,K.S. Leelabhai and M.Rajagopalan” Trends in heavy metal concentrations in sediment, finfishes and shellfishes in inshore waters of Cochin, Southwest coast of India”, Journal of Marine Biological Association India,47 (1):1-7, Jan-June,2005

T.E.Haribabu and P.N.Sudha “Effect of Heavy metals copper and cadmium exposure on the antioxidant properties of the plant cleome Gynandra” International journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Science, Volume-1, Issue-2: 2001(ISSN-2231-4490)

Jing-Xiu-Han, Qi Shang,Yu Du “Review: effect of environmental cadmium pollution on human health” Journal of Health Vol.1, No.3,159-166, 2009

Sullivan, K. and Bustamante, G (1999) setting Geographic priorities for marine conservation in Latin American and the Carribean, Arlington, United States., the nature conservancy.

Gesamp (2001a) Protecting the ocean from Land based activities Gesamp report and Studies no.71 Nairob, United National environment programme.

Blumer, M. (1971) Scientific aspects of the oil spill problem environ affairs, 1 (1). 5473

Jose G.B. Derraick Marine pollution bulletin 44 pp no.842 – 852

The Week issue of P-18 Feb-23, 2013 and P-20 Mar 3, 2013

Dr. Krishnam Raju & Dr. M. Ali Hussain Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222

Social Vision, Voulme:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017 45 | P a g e

Leveraging Social Inclusion through e-Governance – Extension of hsCAPNIC Initiative to Implement Right

to Education

1Dr. Krishnam Raju and 2Dr. M. Ali Hussain

1Head, Department of Public Management, Ethiopian Civil Service

University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

2Associate Professor, Department of Public Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Leveraging social inclusion of the hitherto socially excluded groups has always been the concern of government. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (Right to Education / RTE Act) is landmark legislation in this direction. Section 12 of the RTE Act provides for 25% reservation in admissions in private schools at the entry level for weaker sections and disadvantaged groups. However, implementation of rights demand sacrifices from capable persons which are not coming voluntarily. A strong, centralized, accessible and transparent mechanism is therefore necessary. Drawing inspiration from the success of hsCAPNIC, an e-governance initiative of Kerala, which facilitates centralized online admission in high schools in a transparent manner, the authors suggest extension of hsCAPNIC to implement Right to Education.

Keywords: Social Inclusion, Right to Education, hsCAPNIC

Introduction According to Laski, “Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best.” 1 Rights are means to extract equal opportunities from the state. On the rights of the child, UN Convention1989, attempt was made to empower children with rights of development, protection and participation amidst competing demand for resources, legal intervention and institutional support. John Rawls’ second

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46 | P a g e Social Vision, Voulme:3 Issue:4 January – March 2017

principle of justice stipulates complete institutional rearrangement on the basis of justice so that all social primary goods are distributed to the utmost advantage of the disadvantaged. Economist Amartya Sen, the Nobel Laureate, agrees with Rawls on the principle and method of institutional rearrangement and adds, “I think rightly, that more important than distribution of social goods is the need to expand capabilities of such persons to earn a decent living through dynamic state intervention.” 2 Capability building is a prerequisite of social inclusion. It is prior to all other principles of justice because implementation of rights demands sacrifices from capable persons, and sacrifices do not come voluntarily in favour of persons lacking capabilities. Statutory provisions complimented by accessible and transparent mechanism are therefore necessary. RTE Act and Social Inclusion Access to education is one of a range of social citizenship rights that are intended to afford members of a society an opportunity to share in a basic level of social, economic and cultural well-being and to mitigate societal inequalities.3 The idea that every individual has right to education is deeply embedded in the international discourse on educational opportunity and social exclusion. Since long, global initiatives such as the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights,4 Education for All,5 and the Millennium Development Goals6 have been seeking to expand access to education for marginalized populations. They have always affirmed equal access to education as a basic children’s right. Over the period, the international discourse of access to education has extended beyond its initial focus on increasing enrollment to increasing access to quality education. In India too, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009 (Right to Education / RTE Act) was enacted. The RTE Act came into force from 1st April, 2010 under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution. Important Features 1. Provision of Free and Compulsory Education to all the Children from 6 to

14 years of age.

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2. No segregation of children of downtrodden communities admitted in schools from other children in the classroom nor should the classes be held at places and timings different from the classes held for other children.

3. Not to conduct any entrance tests, year end, public examination up to VIII standard.

The scope of the RTE Act extends beyond enrollment to access to quality education offered by the private schools in general and the elite / reputed private schools in particular. This is reflected in Section 12 of the RTE Act which makes it compulsory for every private unaided school to admit at least 25% students at its entry level class from children belonging to weaker sections and disadvantaged groups. For this category of students the state government shall reimburse schools an amount equal to either the fees charged by the school or the per child expenditure in state schools, whichever is lower. However, the provision pertaining to 25% reservation was challenged in Honourable Supreme Court of India. Subsequently, the Honourable Supreme Court in its three member bench verdict delivered on 13th April, 2012 upheld the validity of Section 12 of the RTE Act. The bench said that 25 percent reservation for students from weaker sections of the society would apply uniformly to all government and unaided private schools except unaided private minority schools and boarding schools.7 This is a landmark judgment in the context of social inclusion.

E-Governance for Social Inclusion Good governance goes beyond efficient governance into the spheres of developmental, economic and politico-social philosophies to include support systems for the poor, the disadvantaged and the old and infirm, a wise and harmonious relationship to nature, and the prevalence of a spirit of pluralism and harmony in society. Good governance is a function of addition of positive virtues of administration and elimination of vices of dysfunctionalities.

E-Governance in simple words is the application of information and communication technologies in the sphere of governance. E-governance promotes good governance in three basic ways:8 1. by increasing transparency, information and accountability, 2. by facilitating accurate decision-making and public participation; and 3. by enhancing the efficiency of delivery of public goods and services.



The features of good governance given by United Nations Development Programme and equally emphasised by the Second Administrative Reforms Commission include Rule of law, Transparency and Equity and Inclusiveness which are prerequisites for social inclusion. E-Governance has thus, emerged as an indispensable tool for social inclusion.

hsCAPNIC CAPNIC is a project for Commissioner of Entrance Examination (CEE) to conduct the online counseling for the allotment of seats for the Professional Courses in Kerala. After successful implementation of Centralised Allotment Process for the Professional Course Admissions (CAPNIC), a similar scheme for admissions in high schools was launched. . The initiative was first introduced in the capital district during the academic year 2007-2008 and in 2008-09 it was expanded throughout the state.9 Admission process relating to students in the government and aided higher secondary schools in the state had been managed by school authorities since time immemorial. Although the government gives necessary instructions, guidelines and orders for the conduct of admission, there were many complaints of non compliance. It is in these circumstances that the government decided to introduce the online system of admission. hsCAPNIC – the Single Window System for the centralized allotment of admissions in higher secondary schools to make the process of admission to be effective, transparent and in strict adherence to the rules formulated for the purpose. Admissions for the Government schools (100% seats) and Government aided schools (50% seats) are done by Higher Secondary Education Department. In 2008-09 there were 2,10,516 seats in 1260 schools. 4, 25,345 applications were received. Socially weaker sections and economically poor students mostly depend on these seats. Under the previous manual system 1. Candidates were forced to purchase one application from each school in

which he/she wishes to apply. 2. Re-opening of schools for the new academic year and new admissions

processing were around the same dates. 3. Confusion and anxiety to the candidates and to their parents results in

knocking the doors of all schools to which application was given.



4. Seats of deserving candidates were grabbed by candidates with influence 5. The reservation seats were not filled in transparent way.

Solution to all the above problems is achieved by implementing hsCAPNIC, the single window system for admissions in higher secondary.

Features 1. Only one application need to be submitted for admission in any school in

the district (against one application per school in the conventional system). 2. Any number of options can be given on the single application for any

“School – Course combination” in order of priority. 3. The students can approach any nearby higher secondary school for

application and for help. 4. Complete transparency in processing/allotment. 5. Preparation of accurate seat matrix based on the reservation guidelines. 6. Admissions finalised on the basis of allotment list to schools.

Benefits to Parents 1. No need to knock the doors of different schools. 2. There is no need to play tricks to appear for interviews in multiple schools

at the same time. 3. No need to work out “how to influence” strategies.

Benefits to Schools 1. Freedom from the difficult jobs of handling the admission process. 2. Admissions finalized on the basis of allotment list. 3. Freedom from pressures of influential person.

Benefits to Department / Government 1. Preparation of accurate seat matrix based on the reservation guidelines 2. Maintenance of transparency in the admission process 3. Enablement of better government to citizen service.

Time Saving for Students and Parents Under the previous manual practice each student applied to 5 schools. Under hsCAPNIC the students need to procure only one application for all the schools in the entire district from any of the nearby school and submit it back in any of the nearby school.



It was observed that in the conventional system, a candidate and the parent spent approximately 125 hours for getting an admission where as in the single window system this time came down to 15 hours. Average time saved per candidate was about 100 hours. Considering 3 lakh as the serious applicants from 4.25 lakh applicants, the approximate time saved was 3 crore man hours or 12.5 lakh man days.

Time Saving for the School In the conventional method, a student on an average applied in 5 Schools, a school received 5 times more the number of applications received before hsCAPNIC. All these applications need to be entered into the local system for preparing the rank list. Data entry time was reduced by 5:1 ratio.

Cost Savings for Parent Based on time spent by parent in the conventional method and the wage loss (4 days X Rs.300 X 3 lakh serious applicants) the amount saved was Rs. 36 crore.

Technology Open source solution on LAMP was implemented by National Informatics Centre (NlC), who meets all the technology requirements. Disaster recovery concerns are taken care of with big backup servers available in the data centre with replication features. Daily data base backup is enabled. Change Management Following steps were taken to make effective the change from conventional system to hsCAPNIC : 1. Appropriate GO was issued to legalise the new method, 2. EDUSAT network was used to give awareness to students, and 3. Capacity building programs and workshops conducted for the teachers. Evaluation Transparency is the highlight of the Centralised Admission Process which is maintained at all stages. The percentage of admissions for the socially most backward students doubled after the introduction of the system. This system provides an indicator to the quality of the institution. Public can assess the standard of the institution from the grade point of the last ranks of the allotted student.



Extension of hsCAPNIC hsCAPNIC is a project developed by National Informatics Centre, Kerala. NIC has presence in all Indian States. As such technical knowhow is not a problem. Projects similar to CAPNIC for admissions in Professional courses are common in almost all the states. hsCAPNIC is unique to Kerala wherein data bases for each district are created separately. The programme takes care of all the seat reservations and priorities as outlined by the government. Section 12 of the RTE Act provides 25% of reservation in admissions of children belonging to weaker sections and disadvantaged groups. However, the managements of the private schools are resisting, complying with the reservation for obvious reasons. It is in this contextual background that the seat allotment has to be administered by the Government on a centralised basis. This is possible through a project similar to that of hsCAPNIC, extended to all parts of India which are under the scope of the RTE Act.

Conclusion Quality of education in private schools is generally better than the government schools. Therefore, children belonging to weaker sections and disadvantaged groups should also have access to the private schools in order to build up their capabilities and facilitate social inclusion. Moreover, private schools are not meeting their social obligation towards the socially excluded members of the society. As discussed in the introductory part, sacrifices are not coming from capable persons (managements of private schools) voluntarily, in favour of persons lacking capabilities (weaker sections and disadvantaged groups). It is in this contextual background that the RTE Act, beyond enrolment, provides for 25% reservation for weaker sections and disadvantaged groups. Provisions of the RTE Act compel the managements of private schools to contribute for the promotion of spirit of pluralism and harmony in society. However, RTE Act by itself cannot leverage social inclusion. The statute needs to be supported by a strong, centralised, accessible and transparent mechanism. Extension of hsCAPNIC, e-governance initiative of Kerala, is the answer.

REFERENCES / ENDNOTES

1 Johari, J.S. Contemporary Political Theory: New Dimensions, Basic Concepts and Major Trends, ebook on Google, 1987



2 Sen, Amartya, Inequality Re-examined, Harvard University Press, 1992. 3Marshall T.H, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays, Cambridge University Press, 1950 4 United Nations 1948 5 United Nations Educations Scientific and Cultural Organisations,1990 6 United Nations 2000 7 http://righttoeducation.in/25-reservation-private-schools-resources 8Pardhasaradhi, Y, Information technology for Governance and Efficiency, Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. L No.1 January-March, 2004, p.269 9Edwin, Asir, M., in Fostering e-Governance Compendium of Selected Indian Initiatives,

Editors Gupta, Piyush; Bagga, R.K. and Sridevi, Ayaluri, ICFAI University Press, Hyderabad, 2009( based on Impact Study conducted by State Institute of Education Management and Training)

Dr. Aditya Keshari Mishra Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


University as an Institution:

Situating the Central University of Orissa

Dr. Aditya Keshari Mishra Department of Sociology, Central University of Orissa, Koraput, Odisha, India

ABSTRACT

The current paper seeks to unravel the trajectory of the Central University of Orissa (CUO) as an institution: the way it has emerged and unfolded over time. The term ‘university’ originates from the Latin word ‘universitas’: simply meaning ‘a whole’, thereby signifying that the role of universities is to pursue balanced knowledge about virtually everything. An institution is a social arrangement that has not only a certain form and function but also certain legitimacy and meaning for its individual members; university as an institution is not an exception. Institutionalization of a university system is a long process. The process of institutionalization of the Central University of Orissa has started soon after the enactment of Central Universities Act 2009 of Parliament; the act that received the consent of the President of India on the 20th March 2009. Located in the picturesque valley of Koraput, the university is envisioned to engage, engender and excel in the process of production and dissemination of knowledge. In spite of its growing excellence, the university still needs to address a series of other challenges both in the academic and administrative levels. The alacrity and briskness with which the institution marches, as a founding faculty of this historic university, I am sure, the challenges will soon disappear and Central University of Orissa will certainly emerge as the ‘hub of academics’ in eastern India.

Keywords: Institution, Academic, Dissemination, Leadership, Research University as an Institution The present article seeks to unravel the trajectory of the Central University of Orissa (CUO) as an institution: the way it has emerged and unfolded over time. An institution is a social arrangement that has not only a certain form and function but also certain legitimacy and meaning for its individual members; university as an institution is not an exception. The life of a university, if the metaphor be permitted, is in a significant sense the life of its

Dr. Aditya Keshari Mishra ISSN 2349-0519


engagement in teaching, research and extension activities. In short, the ultimate goal of the establishment of a university is its role in the production and dissemination of knowledge in the society in which it exists.

The term ‘university’ originates from the Latin word ‘universitas’: simply meaning ‘a whole’, thereby signifying that the role of universities is to pursue balanced knowledge about virtually everything. In more prosaic terms, it is said, a university is supposed to address the following eight concerns: One, it must act as a repository of the knowledge of mankind; universities must act as ‘knowledge enclaves’, maintaining and securing crucial knowledge for present and future generations. Two, it must engage in the generation of new knowledge. This explains as to why teachers in a university undertake the activity that we call research and produce what we call knowledge. Three, it transfers knowledge to the next generation, i.e. what we call education. Four, it also transmits knowledge to the society at large, i.e. what we call dissemination. Five, it must show the path to economic development: that is, it should play an integral role in furthering economic growth and nation-building. Six, it must provide requisite training to members of the present generation to take care of their needs. Seven, a university must speak the language of the universe. Eight, a university should promote universal values. Ideas about the importance of knowledge in modern societies and the role of universities in producing and transmitting it can be found in countless statements from government ministries and international organizations. Jawaharlal Nehru rightly avers, ‘a university stands for humanism, for peace, for reason, for progress, for the adventure of ideas and for the search for truth. It stands for the onward march of the human race towards ever higher objectives. If the universities discharge their duty adequately, then it is well with the nation and the people’ (Nehru 1949). It is in this backdrop, the establishment of a Central University in the state of Odisha assumes its paramount importance. As Prof. Sachidananda Mohanty, the Vice Chancellor of Central University of Orissa, Koraput aptly puts it, the making of a central university in a backward state like Odisha, that too, in one of its most backward regions carries greater possibilities ‘for the region and for the nation’. Central University of Orissa: Genesis and Journey Institutionalization of a university system is a long process. The process of institutionalization of the Central University of Orissa has started soon after

ISSN 2349-0519 University as an institution ….


the enactment of Central Universities Act 2009 of Parliament; the act that received the consent of the President of India on the 20th March 2009. This university is considered as one of new central universities that have established by the Government of India during the UGC XI Plan in order to cater the concerns of ‘equity and access’ in higher education especially among the underprivileged sections of the society. The formal functioning of the university started instantaneously after the appointment of its first and founding Vice Chancellor Prof. Surabhi Banerjee on 28th February 2009. Koraput that comes under the world famous KBK (Koraput, Balangir and Kalahandi) region of the state of Odisha has been selected for the site for the establishment of this university. The permanent campus of the university is located in a ‘flamboyant valley’ that spreads over covering an area of 450.09 acres of land at Sunabeda, Koraput. The permanent campus of the university is adjacent to the Hindustan Aeronautic Limited (HAL) and the Naval Armament Depot (NAD), the two most significant institutions established by the Government of India located at Sunabeda.

As a new university, the Central University of Orissa initially started functioning from a temporary rent building that belonged to the Council of Analytical Tribal Studies (COATS) located at Koraput district headquarter in the year 2009 along with a transit camp office at the state capital i.e. Bhubaneswar for better official communication and connection. The university laid its foundation stone in its permanent campus on 29th August 2009 by the then Union Human Resource Development (HRD) Minister namely Kapil Sibal and the Chief Minister of Odisha Naveen Patnaik. Later on, the functioning of the university was shifted from COATS campus to the old central silk board building located at Landiguda, Koraput in the year 2010. However within four years of its establishment, the university especially two of its departments namely Department of Sociology and Department of Teacher Education began functioning in its permanent campus in the year 2013. Currently, there are eleven departments, which are functioning in its permanent campus; and other three departments along with the administration have been functioning in old central silk board building, Landiguda, Koraput. Goals and Objectives Located in the picturesque valley of Koraput, the university is envisioned to engage, engender and excel in the process of production and dissemination of



knowledge. As envisaged in the Act, the dominant objectives of the university are ‘to disseminate and advance knowledge by providing instructional and research facilities in such branches of learning as it may deem fit; to make special provisions for integrated courses in humanities, social sciences, science and technology in its educational programmes; to take appropriate measures for promoting innovations in teaching–learning process and inter-disciplinary studies and research; to educate and train manpower for the development of the country; to establish linkages with industries for the promotion of science and technology; and to pay special attention to the improvement of the social and economic conditions and welfare of the people, their intellectual, academic and cultural development’ (Ministry of Law and Justice 2009).

In line with the objectives as mentioned in the Act, the university is committed to ‘foster the diversified society and culture of India and establish such departments or institutions along with need-based disciplines of study as may be required for the overall societal development; endeavour to facilitate students and teachers from all over India and abroad to join the University and participate in its academic programmes; promote and facilitate students and teachers in understanding the social needs of the country and prepare them for fulfilling such needs; make provisions for integrated courses in Humanities, Science and Technology, Computer and Information Technology, Legal Studies, Biodiversity and Medical Sciences related educational programmes of the University; establish such departments or institutions as may be necessary for the study of languages and literature, culture and life of the people, bio-diversity in the region, with a view to inculcate in the students broader perspectives of national and international understanding about the neglected areas of the study; and take appropriate steps for promoting inter-disciplinary studies in the University’ (CUO 2016). Teaching, research and extension/dissemination of ideas constitute the hallmark of the university. As an emerging central university, the CUO strives to fulfill its visions. The dominant visions of CUO are: ‘the excellence of its faculty and the balance they strike between teaching and research; students’ engagement in scholarship, leadership, and economically relevant education; extensive network of partnerships; diverse and inclusive campus; and commitment to address tribal society’s educational, economic, and cultural challenges’ (CUO 2016).



Academics and Actions One cannot speak of a university as an institution without the practice of academics. While campus and buildings may be considered as necessary to give the university an institutional look, they are not contemplated as the sufficient feature of any leading university. The initiation and the invigoration of any university depend on its involvement in the practice of academics. The university is undoubtedly considered as a place for the venture of ideas and the search for truth. Therefore, it is in this context, I would like to explain the practice of academics of this emerging university in three major sub-headings: practice of teaching, practice of research, and practice of extension/ dissemination activities.

Practice of Teaching The academic standard of any university largely depends upon its practice of teaching. The CUO has initiated its practice of teaching right from its inception. Initially, it introduced post-graduate teaching programmes in five disciplines: Odia, English, Sociology, Anthropology, and Journalism and Mass Communication in the year 2009. Later on, the university has added three academic disciplines such as Biodiversity and Conservation of Natural Resources, Economics, and Mathematics (integrated programme) in the year 2011. Keeping in view of the educational backwardness of the region, the university has started introducing a professional course in teacher education (in the form of B.Ed. programme) in the year 2013. Thereafter, it has toted up its academic feather by inserting several academic disciplines as well as professional courses like master programmes in the disciples of Hindi, Sanskrit, and Statistics; and professional courses in Computer Science and Business Management in the year 2015. Currently these fourteen academic programmes and professional courses shape the texture of ‘practice of teaching’ in the university in order to cater the academic as well as market needs.

Practice of Research The practice of research stands at the pinnacle of any university worldwide. It is central to nation’s capacity and prosperity both in terms of development of education as well as economy. Therefore ‘research and development’ (R&D) is contemplated as an indispensable aspect that fuels the process of innovation and national development leading to economic growth. Emphasizing the significance of research and innovation in economic development, Schumpeter (1983) aptly states, ‘the introduction of new or improved products, production



techniques and organization structures as well as the discovery of new markets and the use of new input factors are important considerations’. Realizing the importance of research in regional and national development, CUO has begun research programmes in the form of M.Phil and Ph.D. in 2013 in five departments namely Odia, Sociology, Anthropology, Journalism and Mass Communication, and Biodiversity and Conservation of Natural Resources. The faculties as well as the scholars are conducting rigorous research on cutting edge areas that belong to the domain of science, social sciences and human sciences with an aim of advancing innovation and knowledge in the university.

Practice of Extension The practice of extension of a university provides a link between the university and the community. No university is away from the community. The university is always under the gaze of the surrounding village communities. Therefore, it is often argued that divide between university and community is porous. The extension practices of the university instill certain values relating to civic sense, commitment to nation-building, nationalism, patriotism, democratic spirit, secularism, scientific temperament etc. among its students and scholars. The practices also promote certain skills among the students and research scholars such as practical knowledge, hands on experience, communication skill, soft skills, adaptability to socio-environmental conditions, organizational skill, community involvement, leadership, decision-making skills so on and so forth. Our education/research/extension are based upon the basic human values to help individuals/families and community as a whole and to lead a successful life in changing our neighborhood community, which is also the surviving strength of CUO. The academic landscape of the university further moves beyond teaching-research boundary to reach out to its peripheral areas in the larger mission of remaining rooted to the ground. The university is surrounded by the poor tribal communities. Therefore, as a part of its extension activity and university social responsibility (USR), the CUO has adopted five adjacent villages – Chikapar, Chakarliput, Rajpalama, Balda and Nuaguda – with a vision to work for educating and bringing alterations in matters relating to livelihood, education, and healthcare of people of these villages. The university in general and the students and faculty members of the departments of teacher education, sociology and anthropology in particular are organizing several community awareness campaigns, community surveys, and village



studies relating to the community’s social, economic, and health developments. They are continuously trying to educate and create awareness among the members of the surrounding tribal village communities by using different techniques such as dialogues, folk media, recreational activities, interactive and participatory programmes, group working and group discussions. The fundamental reason is that a healthy community always helps in establishing the development of a healthy university.

Dialogues, Discourses and Discussions Dialogues, discourses and discussions are fundamental necessities for human growth that unite humanity amidst differences. While this is expected at every corner of our society, universities are best positioned to provide fertile grounds for such dialogue and discourse. Indeed, universities share a common legacy and vocation. We challenge not only the status quo of scientific knowledge and reshape it with new discovery, we also challenge society to move forward culturally, with openness. Thus, generation of ‘academic dialogue and discourse’ based on reason is rightly viewed as an integral constituent of any university. The CUO does not lag behind. Persistently, it keeps promoting the culture of ‘dialogues, debates and discussions’, by organizing national seminars, symposiums, special/distinguished lectures etc in its campus from time to time. Distinguished scholars of national and international repute including Kaushik Basu, M S Swaminathan, Rajen G Harshe, Malaya Mishra, P Sainath, Malashri Lal, Makarand R Paranjape, Geeta K Vemuganti, Pratibha Ray, Anup Dash, Swadhin Patnaik, and Noorjahan Begum have visited the university and interacted with students on various forums.

Infrastructure and Development John Axtell once opines, ‘Great universities are made, not born’ (cited in Nanda 2011). It is widely acknowledged and accepted that infrastructure is indispensable to achieve academic standard of any university. Well furnished classrooms, library, internet and computer lab, hostel, guest house, medical, playground, road and transport, electricity, and drinking water facilities are regarded as the crucial elements in the process of development of any university. In order to achieve its ambition of being an outstanding education provider, CUO is committed to significant enhancement of its facilities and buildings, which are essential for path-breaking research and teaching and all-round development of students and scholars. The university has an extremely modern and state of the art infrastructure that goes a long way in facilitating a



number of services for the students as well as the staff members. From the very beginning, CUO has made consistent efforts in developing state of the art infrastructures – class rooms, library, boys’ hostel, girls’ hostel, computer centre, guest house, road and transport, electricity, drinking water, playground etc. – towards the making of this promising university. The establishment and consequent possession and habitation of both boys’ and girls’ hostels with all amenities is a remarkable infrastructural development of CUO. The development of two computer labs and Wi-Fi enabled and air conditioned central library is quite reminiscent. The central library in its short journey has stored 29,250 books, around 100 print journals and more than 9000 e-journals [accessible through E-Shodh Sindhu (UGC-INFLIBNET)] in its iron-wooden and virtual shelves. The central library has also developed online public access catalogue (OPAC) facility to all its users.

University-Industry Interface University and industry interface (UII) is highly crucial in contemporary knowledge driven economy. The UII presents numerous opportunities as well as potential benefits to both the university and industry. In fact, both university and industry can derive benefits from their mutual partnership. The interface can provide new opportunities for universities to reconfigure the way instruction gets funded, developed, marketed, delivered, and supported. The interface can also present new knowledge systems in deciphering the needs and requirements of the current generation. For universities, these partnerships provide financial support for the educational, research, and service missions; broaden the experience of students and faculty; identify significant, interesting, and relevant problems; enhance regional economic development; and increase employment opportunities for students. For industry, such partnerships provide access to expertise they did not have; aid in the renewal and expansion of technology; improve access to students as potential employees; expand precompetitive research; and leverage internal research capabilities. In recognition of the dire need for industry-academic partnership for mutual benefit, the CUO has made strenuous efforts in establishing partnership with its neighbouring industry i.e. Hindustan Aeronautical Limited (HAL) located at Sunabeda, Koraput. The institutionalization of CUO-HAL Distinguished Lecture Series (CHDLS) in the year 2016 is regarded as an initial outcome of such collaboration. The CHDLS has already completed four editions in the form of intellectual deliberations, which have been delivered by several eminent scholars. The CHDLS has been not only attended by the



intellectuals from the university and the technocrats from the HAL but also by the common individuals from the peripheral areas. Thus this creative collaboration between intellectuals and technocrats has benefited CUO, HAL and society at large.

Leadership and Direction The making of a university depends much upon its academic leadership. Leadership is about responsibility. It requires acceptance of the importance of one’s self, coupled with appreciation for the greater importance of others over oneself; leadership entails responsibility for those whom one leads. True, the Central University of Orissa, Koraput has made fast progress in almost all respects including academic programmes, administration, infrastructure (including road, building, water and electricity), library, computers, hostel and healthcare that too, in a very short span of time. Visible changes in every sense have started appearing as one approaches the university. These vibrating changes have occurred because of the presence of its current transformational leadership. The monumental efforts of Prof. Sachidananda Mohanty (CUO’s current Vice Chancellor), the visionary leader who is working from dawn to dusk for the ‘institution-building’ of CUO in its infancy is indeed commendable.

Prospects and Possibilities The institutionalization of any university obviously brings manifold benefits for multiple sections of the society; the CUO is not an exception. The establishment as well as the gradual march of the Central University of Orissa has indubitably brought about series of phenomenal prospects and possibilities both in the domain of education and in the domain of region. The phenomenal prospects and possibilities can be rightly outlined in five major segments. First, the establishment of CUO champions the cause of higher education in the state of Odisha. Odisha often suffering from lack of a central university, the CUO undoubtedly opens up new prospects and possibilities in the horizon of higher education in the state of Odisha. Second, the CUO balances the regional imbalances especially in the domain of higher education. The establishment of CUO at Koraput, which is considered as one of the educationally backward districts of the state of Odisha will certainly bring about series of educational opportunities. It is undoubtedly minimizing the state of regional educational imbalances, which have persistently existed since long time. Third, the institutionalization of CUO at Koraput also fights from



the front the plights of tribal sorrows and sufferings. Education often considered as the foundation of development, the CUO through its academic outreach initiatives will be without doubt changing the long persistent backwardness of the poor tribals. Four, the CUO has its own locational advantage. Although critics often have their own criticism about the locational decision of the establishment of CUO at Koraput because of lack of appropriate communication; I, however, always admire the decision of the government regarding the development of CUO at Koraput. I would always argue that the CUO has its own locational advantages. Koraput could be rightly considered as the natural capital of the state of Odisha. The picturesque Koraput is often known for its rich clean air, splendid scenic beauty and incredible cultural practices. Taking into account its locational advantage, the current Vice Chancellor Prof. Sachidananda Mohanty often considers Koraput as ‘the Switzerland of East’. Five, the CUO in Koraput finds a fabulous ‘social laboratory’. Koraput, often considered as the ‘paradise of tribals’, is rightly considered as a social laboratory which will certainly attract many scholars to this university in order to develop their scholarship. Thus, the prospects and possibilities, I am sure, will definitely make the CUO a ‘university with a difference’. Concluding remarks In spite of its growing excellence, the university still needs to address a series of other challenges both in the academic and administrative levels. In contemporary times, every central university is facing its own share of challenges. This university is no exception. It is preposterous to judge this university through the prism of its challenges. Rather, the institution should be seen in light of the spectacular progress it has made in the course of its journey since its genesis. The alacrity and briskness with which the institution marches, as a founding faculty of this historic university, I am sure, the challenges will soon disappear and Central University of Orissa will certainly emerge as the ‘hub of academics’ in eastern India. REFERENCES Altbach, P. G. 2008. ‘The Complex Roles of Universities in the Period of

Globalization’ in Global University Network for Innovation Report Higher Education in the World 3: New Challenges and Emerging Roles for Human and Social Development. London: Palgrave MacMillan.



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Central University of Orissa (CUO). 2016. Prospectus – Academic Session 2016-2017. Koraput: Central University of Orissa.

Chatterton, P. 2000. ‘The Cultural Role of Universities in the Community: Revisiting the University-Community Debate’, Environment and Planning, Vol. 32.

Cloete, N. and Maassen, P. 2015. ‘Roles of Universities and the African Context’ in N. Cloete, P. Maassen and T. Bailey (eds.) Knowledge Production and Contradictory Functions in African Higher Education. Cape Town: African Minds.

Ernst and Young. 2012. University of the Future. Australia: Ernst and Young. Available at: www.ey.com.

Etzkowitz, H and Leydesdorff, L. 2000. ‘The Dynamics of Innovation: from National Systems and “Mode 2” to a Triple Helix of University-Industry-Government Relations’, Research Policy, Vol 29.

Hornidge, A. K. 2007). Knowledge Society. Vision and Social Construction of Reality in Germany and Singapore. Münster: Lit-Verlag.

Lane, R. E. 1966. ‘The Decline of Politics and Ideology in a Knowledgeable society’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 5, No. 31.

Ma, W. 2007. ‘The Flagship University and China’s Economic Reform’ in Altbach, P. and Balán, J. (eds) World Class Worldwide: Transforming Research Universities in Asia and Latin America. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ministry of Law and Justice. 2009. The Central Universities Act, 2009. No. 25 of 2009. New Delhi: Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India.

Nanda, C. P. 2011. ‘Reinventing Ravenshaw’, The Ravenshaw Times, Vol. 01, No. 01.



Nehru, J. 1949. Speeches, 1946-49. New Delhi: Government of India, Vol. 1.

Newman, J.H. 1852. The Idea of the University. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.

Schumpeter, J.A., 1983. The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Capital, Credit, Interest and the Business Cycle, New Brunswick (U.S.A) and London (U.K.): Transaction Publishers.

Seidel, H. 1991. ‘Keynote Address: The Social Significance of Higher Education’ in The Role of Higher Education in Society Quality and Pertinence. UNESCO - Non-Governmental Organizations 2nd Collective Consultation on Higher Education, Paris, 8-11 April 1991.

Vasilescu, R., Barna, C., Epure, M., & Baicu, C. 2010. ‘Developing University Social Responsibility: A Model for the Challenges of the New Civil Society, Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 2.

Ms. Sasmita Ojha Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Status of Reproductive Health among Tribal Women:

A Study in Keonjhar District of Odisha.

Ms. Sasmita Ojha ICSSR Doctoral Fellow at Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development

Studies, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

ABSTRACT Reproductive health is a crucial element of health and a determinant factor of human development. In recent decades the government has been taken a lot of preventive interventions particularly for women and children, but the accessibility of these interventions among tribal women seems to very low. However, reproductive health among tribal women is a neglected subject which has adverse risks for both women and children. It substantially contributes to national maternal and child mortality rate. The poor tribal women are more vulnerable to the reproductive health problems such as pregnancy, delivery, post-delivery complication and other reproductive health problems. In this scenario, the paper focuses on the reproductive health status of tribal women in Odisha. This study was carried out in Keonjhar, a tribal dominated district of Odisha. Data have been collected from 100 married tribal women of the reproductive age group (15-49 years) during 2013. The current study revealed that there was prevalence of early age of marriage, early pregnancy, superstition, low level of literacy, poverty, and poor maternal care, denial of decision-making power etc. found to adverse and serious impact on the reproductive health status of tribal women in study area. The current study strongly recommended for educational attainment and proper communication facilities in the study area. It also further suggested by the author that awareness programmes must be conducted to spread reproductive health consciousness among the tribals and attract them to avail the modern health care facilities.

Keywords: Reproductive health, women and Tribal

Introduction Health is a pre-requisite component of wellbeing and development of any individual as well as society. It is a multifunctional concept which not only

Ms. Sasmita Ojha ISSN 2349-0519


meant for medical care but also relating to Socio-cultural, educational, economic and political development of society. Hence good society always depends upon good health and both go together (Basu 1992). According to World Health Organization (WHO), Health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases and infirmity”. In every society irrespective of simplicity and complexity have its own beliefs and practices concerning diseases. No culture works in a meaningless manner in its treatment of diseases. Thus, treatment pattern of diseases may vary from group to group. However for a better understanding health and health-related problems in a proper perspective, it is very important to consider the socio-cultural, economic and environmental dimensions of a particular society. Further, it is more relevant in the context of tribal people particularly living in the rural and backward areas (Chaudhuri 2012). In tribal society, religious rituals occupy a prominent place in the treatment of diseases, which are associated with supernatural causes. In the tribal societies, there are the numbers of folklores which are related to health (Rath 2004). The perspective of health, sickness, diagnosis and diseases of tribals are totally different from the other group of population (Basu 1992). Needless to say, due to isolated living tribal groups are outreach groups. No proper and appropriate health services are available to them in any of the tribal areas of different zones of the country. Most of their socio-cultural activities revolve around gods a spirits. They have also special gods for their health and diseases (Choudhuri 1990).

Reproductive health is an essential component of health which determines development of society. In the developing country like India reproductive health has been a most of the recent thrust issue and in globally level India also recognized for its neglected attitude towards reproductive health, particularly among women (Jejeebhoy 1999). World Health Organization (WHO 1995) estimated that of the 150 to 200 million pregnancies that occur worldwide every year, out of that 23 million pregnancy cases lead to serious complications and half of a million of these lead to maternal death. More so, almost 99 percent of those deaths take place in the developing countries. According to World Health Organisation (WHO), 2012 report 19 percent of the 287,000 maternal deaths estimated worldwide took place in India. (Joe et al 2015, GOI 2011, WHO 2012, World Bank 2012).Thus number of Indian women and their newborns lose their live due to pregnancy related mortality and morbidity. Therefore, maternal mortality reduction is a national and

ISSN 2349-0519 Status of Reproductive Health among tribal Women…..


international concern. Further it also pointed out by many scholars that there is the higher burden of maternal deaths among tribal communities with a large number of intra and inter-state disparities. (Joe et al 2015; Montgomery et al. 2014; Gupta et al. 2010; Subha Sri and Khanna 2014); Kolandaswamy et al. 2010; Banerjee et al. 2013).

Out of 29 states in the country, Odisha is an underdeveloped and backward state. Due to poverty majority of the state’s population suffer from the problems of malnutrition and anaemia which lead to the underweight babies, stunted and retarded growth of children, increasing Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), child mortality and premature deaths etc. The morbidity rate of population in the state is found to be higher than all India level. In 2014 Infant Mortality Rate was 39 at the all-India level whereas this was 49 in the case of Odisha. Similarly the maternal mortality ratio in 2011-13 was 167 at the all India level which was 222 in Odisha. The death rate per 1000 population was also 7.9 in the state as against 6.7 at the all-India level in 2014 (SRS 2014). The state of Odisha is comprised with about 40 percent of the depressed category population comprising scheduled tribes (22%) and the scheduled castes (18%), who are not only underdeveloped, but also they are marginalised and excluded from the mainstream development process (Meher 2007). Most of the tribals inhabited areas in the state have relatively less access to the basic form of healthcare services. Tragically, they are the people who really need healthcare facilities because of their vulnerability to diseases and having high degree of morbidity and malnutrition (Ali 1983). Mostly the poor tribal women are more vulnerable in the society; those are more prone to the reproductive health problems such as pregnancy, delivery and post-delivery complications etc. Reproductive health problems of different tribal communities at the various stages of development are full of obscurities (Michel and Gilim 1992). 'Maternal depletion' is the result of early mating, continuous cycles of pregnancy and lactation with low calories of food intake. The inadequate diet and uninterrupted overwork lead to cumulative disorders such as anemia, general malnutrition, premature aging and early death (Reddy 2008; Basu, 1990) Despite of remarkable worldwide progress in the field of reproductive health in the county, still the tribal health is lacked behind particularly among the



tribal women. A number of preventive interventions have been introduced by the government for women and children, the effectiveness of these interventions in a tribal setup seems to be very low. Empirical studies conducted on the specific tribes of Odisha in different periods reveals that tribal women have high infant mortality rate, high maternal mortality rate and high fertility rate much higher than the state as well as the national average. (Khan 1987, Basu & Jindal 1990, Basu & Kshatriya 1992, Satish 1993, Gupta & Rao 2009, Goswami 2010, Sahoo and Naidu 2013).

Further National Family and Health Survey (NFHS) III (2005-06) revealed that 11.7 percent of scheduled tribe women delivered in a health facility whereas 60.4 percent in the case of general category population. The prevalence of any anemia in the age group of 15-49 of the different social categories of women are; STs (73.8), SCs (64.2), OBCs (58.6), general category (53.4). It is also further found that among the scheduled tribes of Odisha neonatal (54.0), post neonatal, (24.7), infant (78.7), child (62.5) and under five mortality (136.3) rates per 1000 live births are much more higher than the general category population whereas general category population the mortality rates under these categories are: neonatal – 31.7, postneonatal – 21.4, infant – 53.1, child –11.7 and under five child – 64.2 respectively (IIPS 2008:57). So it is clear that the reproductive health status of tribal women is much worse than other category population in the state of Odisha.

In this context, the researcher makes an attempt to examine socio-economic factors affecting reproductive health among tribal women, Problems of tribal maternal health, problems of adopting family planning and the accessibility to government reproductive health services in the study area.

Objectives of the Study The present study examines the status of reproductive health among tribal women with the following objectives: (1) To study the socio-economic background of the respondents (2) To examine the reproductive health problems of respondents related to maternity. (3) To investigate the problems of respondents in adopting family planning methods (4) To what extent government reproductive health services are accessible to the area of the people.

Study Area and Methodology The tribal population of India constitutes 8.6 percent of the total population of the country. In Odisha, the ST population of the state constitutes 22.1% of the



total population and 9.7% of the total tribal population of the country comprising 62 sub- tribes. It also further found that out of 62 notified tribes in Odisha, 13 are identified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG). In fact Odisha has the third highest tribal population in the country. Keonjhar is one of the most tribally dominate district of the northern part of Odisha having 45.5% of the tribal population to the total population of this district (Census, 2011). The study is based on primary data on the response of 100 households of 11 villages of one Gram Panchayat of Keonjhar District of Odisha in the year 2013. Multistage stratified Simple random sampling procedure was adopted. The data were collected from eleven villages of Nuagaon Gram Panchayat (Nuagaon, Hatikucha, Poipani, Kadagada, Narsingpur, kendupasi, Dimirdiha, Birakesharpur, Karatkhaman, Bistapal and Ratanpur) of Keonjhar district. The selection of Keonjhar district was known for its backwardness in respect to Human Development Index (HDI) 24, Gender Development Index (GDI) 20 and Infrastructure Development Index (IDI) 24 among the 30 districts in Odisha (Economic Survey of Odisha, 2011-12). The data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected by interviewing the chosen tribal women from whom first-hand information is abstracted. The primary data have been collected through the method of interview, observation and case study. The secondary data have been gathered from research articles, books, edited books, Newspaper clipping, reports and information from different websites. In this study, Interview schedule has been used by the researcher to collect first-hand information through a structured interview schedule. The interview scheduled explored the Socio-economic status of the respondent, Reproductive and Maternal Health status of tribal women and family planning practices etc. the researcher also elicited the views of health practitioners including doctors, nurse and traditional healers through informal level interaction held with them.

Results and Discussion Socio-Economic Profile of the study area To pursue knowledge about the socio-economic conditions of respondent household play a vital role in research. It gives prior data regarding socio-economic condition of respondent household which have a strong co-relation with reproductive health of women. In this light, the present study made an attempt to analyze the socio-economic background of the respondent household in terms of their sub tribe, family status, education, occupation,



income, economic category, house structure etc. The study covers mainly three sub tribal groups namely Munda, Bhuinya and Sabara. The present study found that 68 percent household was living in the nuclear family. Household family size of the respondents consists, 54 percent have 5 to 7 members followed by 34 % and 12 % having 1 to 4 and 8 to 10 members respectively. Among all the households 72 % were belonging from below poverty line (BPL) and 28 % were covered under above poverty line (APL). In fact due to exclusion error about 8 to 10 percent of the poorer category households are excluded from the BPL list. The house structure of households is categorized under Kutcha (64%), Semi Pucca (23%) and Pucca (13 %). Among all the respondents, 42% were in the age group of 20-25 years, 28% were in the 26-30 years, 20% were in the 31-35 years, 4% were in the 36-40 years and 6% were belong to 41-45 age groups.

Table 01 Educational Qualification of Respondent and Her Spouse

Regarding the socio economic status with reference to the education of the respondents and their husbands, the table 01 revealed that 58 % of the respondents and 28 % of respondents spouse were found illiterate. Further above table shows that 42% of the respondents and 72% of respondent’s spouse were found literate. Among them, 24% respondents and 51% of the respondent’s spouses have attained education up to primary level. However, in the study area no one of the respondents has join graduation, whereas only 4% of respondents spouse have education up to graduation. The existing primary occupation structure of the respondents and spouse of respondents are described in the table no 02. The table reveals that in the study area primary occupations of respondents were agriculture (12 %), wage labour

Response Category Respondents Respondent Spouse

Illiterate 58 (58%) 28 (28%)

Up to primary 24 (24%) 51 (51%)

Up to secondary 12 (12%) 9 (9%)

Up to intermediate 6 (6%) 8 (8%)

Graduation 0 (0%) 4 (4%)

Total 100 (100%) 100 (100%)



(54%), agricultural labour (20%), Petty-business (3%) and housewife (11%). Similarly the table also describes primary occupations of the respondents spouse were agriculture (27 %), wage labour (61%), agricultural labour (7%) and Petty-business (5%). However, it must be pointed out that the respondents doing multiple functions such as bearing children and performing household chores and at the same time be engaged in different types of manual works which directly and indirectly affect their reproductive health.

Table 02 Respondent and her Spouse Primary Occupation

Table 03 Household Income

In the study area, income of the households varies on the basis of the nature of occupation that the household performs. With reference to income structure the income level of the households divided into six categories, which shown in table no 03. The table revealed that 32 % of household’s monthly income is Rs 700-1500, 11 % of the household earn monthly income Rs 3500-5000 and only a few respondents (6%) whose monthly income is found above Rs 5000. It may be pointed out here that basing on 68th round NSS (National Sample Survey) and Tendulker Committee Methodology, the poverty level expenditure in rural Odisha was 695 per month in 2011-12. That means a

Response Category Respondents Occupation

Spouse Respondents Occupation

Agriculture 12 (12%) 27 (27%) Wage labour 54 (54%) 61 (61%) Agricultural labour 20 (20%) 7 (7%) Petty-business 3 (3%) 5 (5%) Housewife 11 (11%) NA Total 100 (100%) 100 (100%)

Monthly Income Number of Household

0-700 4 (4%) 700-1500 32 (32%) 1500-2500 28 (28%)

2500-3500 19 (19%)

3500-5000 11 (11%)

5000 above 6 (6%) Total 100 (100%)



household consisting of five persons on an average in rural Odisha earning less than Rs 3475 per month was placed below the poverty line in the year 2011-12. The above table pointed out that except 6 household monthly incomes of RS 5000 and above, 11 household’s monthly income Rs 3500-5000 and rest 83 households were living in poverty.

Table 04 Ownership of Land Holding

The ownership of landholding structures of households have been described in the table no 04. The table shows that among all the households landless (21%), less than one acres (27%), between 1 to 3 acres (36%), 3 to 5 acres (10%) and 6 % of households have more than 5 acres land.

Sanitation and Hygienic The state of Health and wellbeing has an important correlation with the availability of safe drinking and cooking water. Drinking contaminated water and eating unsafe food were caused of most of the illness. In the present study it is found that 72% of the respondents have uses government tube well and 28 % of the respondents are using well water for drinking and cooking purposes. The table no 5 has revealed the status of toilet facility among the household as high percent (89%) have no toilet facility and only 11 % having toilet facility at their homes. Out of 11 of households only 7 use it and 4 households do not use it, because of not feeling comfortable.

Table 05 Availability of Toilet Facility

Latrine Facility If Yes, Use it or not Yes No Use Not Use

Number of respondents 11 89 7 4 Percentage 11% 89% 63.6 % 36.4%

Response Category Number of respondents

Landless 21 (21%) Less than 1 acres 27 (27%) 1-3 acres 36 (36%) 3-5 acres 10 (10%) 5 acres and above 6 (6%) Total 100 (100%)



Nutritional Status Health and nutrition are strongly related aspects and nutrition contributes important role to the maintenance of health status of the individual. Health status of different communities, particularly the tribal groups is influenced by nutrition and dietary habits (Sharma, 2004). They have no or very little knowledge regarding dietary habits. Malnutrition is a common prevalent phenomenon which affects the health status of tribals. The nutritional status plays a tremendous role which directly influences the reproductive status of women in general and tribal women in particular. The tribal women have the lack of information on dietary habits during pregnancy and tribal women had a heavy workload which leads malnutrition problem among tribal women and their children. Many research scholars pointed out that maternal and child malnutrition common among tribal women which leads a serious health problems for them. (Rao et al 2005, Baranwal 2008, Goswami 2010, Meshram 2012, Dash 2014). Considering the status of nutritional food the respondents in the study, it is found that rice is a staple food in the study area, it also found that majority of the respondents were not taking proper nutritious foods during pregnancy. Among the respondents, 82% of respondents were taking non-vegetarian food during pregnancy and 46.3% of respondents’ intake non-vegetarian food once in a week. But the frequency of intake fish and meat was low. It also found that 82 % of respondents were not taking fruits during pregnancy while only 18 % of respondents’ intake fruits occasionally during pregnancy. It would seem that there were restrictions on taking food during and after pregnancy in the study area. Under the study area, pregnant women only eaten hot rice, garlic, red grams, dal’s water and salt up to six months to one year after their delivery period and 78% of the respondents were found consume alcohol during pregnancy.

Reproductive Health and Maternity Reproductive health is a vital component of health. World Health Organisation (WHO) defines “Reproductive health as a state of complete physical, mental and social-well being and not merely the absence of reproductive diseases or infirmity”. This definition implies that people are able to have a safe and satisfying sex life and that they have the ability to reproduce and the freedom to choose if, when and how often to do so. Men and women have the right to be informed and to have access to effective, safe, affordable and acceptable technique of family planning of their selection that are not against the law. Furthermore, men and women should have access to appropriate health care



services that will permit women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth, as well as to provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant. The most important period in the life span of women is the reproductive period and the intervening period are marriage, pregnancy, childbirth and contraception. However, these conditions are determined by socio-economic and cultural factors (Shivaprasa 2011).Reproductive health includes the age at marriage, reproductive performance and fertility regulation, care during prenatal, natal and postnatal period, breastfeeding and infant care practices etc. In Indian context tribal adolescent girls enter into reproductive life with the early marriages, pregnancies and childbearing which affect their general and reproductive health. It leads serious health problems for mothers and their off springs.

Table 06 Age and time interval related to initiation of reproductive life

The table no 6 revealed that the data regarding age of marriage, age at first pregnancy and time interval between consummation of marriage and first pregnancy. It is clear from above table that 70 % of respondents are married before they reached legal age of marriage and among the 70 percent respondents nearly 80 percent of respondents found experiences first pregnancy before the age of 18 which is 58 percent from total respondents and also the table shows that 62 % of respondents became pregnant within the one year of consummation of marriage. So it is clear that in the study area there was prevalence of early marriage. The reason for early marriage before the girl reached in the legal age was the belief in the custom and tradition of child marriage and their parents think that their daughter is ready to start their reproductive life as soon as she attains menarche.

Sl No Age at Marriage

Age at First pregnancy

Time interval between consummation of marriage

and first pregnancy 1 Age Frequency Age Frequency Age Frequency

2 10-15 29 (29%) 15-18 58 (58%) Within six months

35 (35%)

3 15-18 41 (41%) 18-20 22 (22%) 6 months to1 year

27 (27%)

4 18-25 26 (26%) 20-25 16 (16%) 1 to 2 year 38 (38%)

5 Above 25

04 (04%) Above 25

04 (04%) ------ -----

Total ----- 100 ----- 100 ------ 100



Table 07 Cross tabulation of child wastage and educational qualification of the

respondents Educational Qualification of Respondents

Illiterate Up to

primary Up to

secondary Up to

Intermediate Total

Experience of Child Wastage

Yes 44 12 4 0 60

No 14 12 8 6 40

Total 58 24 12 6 100

The table 07 revealed that 60% of the respondents experienced child wastage and 40% of the respondents not experienced child wastage. Out of 60 respondents those who experienced child wastage, 44 are illiterate and 12 attained education up to primary and 4 of the respondents attained education up to secondary level. It is clear that high percentage of the respondents experienced child wastage those are illiterate and the table further shows that child wastage reduced as the level of education of the respondents increased. So, it is clear that education plays a vital role in determine the reproductive status of tribal women.

Supernatural beliefs occupy essential part in tribal society as well as in their culture. Superstition plays a tremendous role towards tribal health including maternal and child health. In the study area, the researcher found that the tribal peoples perform some rituals and scarifying some animal for village deities for easy delivery and protect mother and child from influence of evil spirit. It could seem that most of the respondents who had problem during pregnancy and delivery period first of all they went to witchcraft man and perform some rituals, if the witchcraft man allowed the pregnant women to took the medical assistance then she went to medical or hospital. So, it pointed out that in the study area pregnant women had neglected to seek medical assistance till becoming highly complicated and dangerous to their life.

Family Planning Family planning method and reproductive health are positively associated to each other. Family planning is a method which not only considers as regulation of a number of children but also a way that the women conceive with minimum risk to herself as well as to her off spring’s health. The lower use of contraceptive methods by tribal women is a serious concern.



Table 08 Distribution of respondents by prevalence of contraceptive methods

In the present study knowledge about the contraceptive method the table no, 08 shows that 69% of the respondents have knowledge about contraceptive method but only 29 % of the respondents have adopted as practices. Among the 20 respondents, 30 % have followed traditional method against 70 % modern method. Further, it is found that 14 respondents discontinued the use of contraceptive methods whereas only 6 respondents continued this method.

Among the 14 respondents those who discontinued the use of the contraceptive method, 8 respondents reported that due to work lord they are not using this method and 6 respondents reported that scolding of husband after knowing as a reason for discontinued this method. It can be clear that more than one-third of the respondents not using any kind of contraceptive method. So from the present study it may be noticed that the knowledge of contraceptive method among respondents is high, but the practices are too low among the respondents. Regarding the practices of sterilization as a family planning method, 8 respondents were sterilized from government sources through convince of ASHA and ANM. And the reason for non-adapting sterilization as a family planning method 92 respondents were not sterilized, out of them 34 of the respondents reported they were waiting for male baby, 42 respondents reported that they were not sterilized due to workload and 16

Sl. No

No. of respondents

Percentage

1 Knowledge about Contraceptive Methods among Respondents Have Knowledge 69 69% No Knowledge 31 31%

2 Prevalence of Contraceptive Method among Respondents Adopters 20 29 % Non Adopters 49 71%

3 Types of Contraceptive Method Traditional Method 6 30 % Modern Method 14 70 %

4 Discontinuation Method Number of respondents discontinue the contraceptive method

14 70%

Number of respondents continue the contraceptive method

6 30%



respondents are not sterilized because of their husband denied them reason for not sterilized. It may be clear from the present study that majority of the respondents are not sterilized due to workload and it also clear that those respondents who are denied by their husbands to be sterilized they have no autonomy on their reproductive health.

Accessibility of Reproductive Health Services: The government has been implementing a number of programmes for rendering health services to women and children. But the accessibility of these health care services by tribal women is a question mark forever. Thus accessibility of reproductive health care services is considered as a key vital role in determining the reproductive health status of tribal women.

Table no 09 shows that in the study area 62 respondents received immunization completely and among them 56 respondents are immunized from government sources whereas only 6 respondents immunized from private sources and further the table reveals that 38 % respondents were not immunized completely. In the study area 88 % respondents received IFA tablets during their pregnancy period from government sources and among them only 10.2 % of respondents regularly consumed the tablets against 89.8% of respondents were irregularly consumed the tablets though they receive it and only 12 % of the respondents does not receive the tablet during that period.

Those who have not consumed IFA tablets regularly reported, as the beliefs of a fetus growing too big (68.36%) for not taking IFA tablets followed by who had lack of knowledge (17.72%) and 13.92 % reported by those who had the belief as adverse effect on health as they did not take tablets. During the pregnancy period, only 32 % of the respondents received health checkup facility from government sources. 68 % respondents did not received the health check up during pregnancy, among them 61.76 % of respondents reported that due to workload they have no time to access health check up whereas 38.24 % of respondents reported that health check up during pregnancy is not necessary for them.



Table 09 Accessibility of Government Reproductive Health Services

However, though the number of respondents received immunization during pregnancy period is moderately high but at the same time it is found that the mode of utilization of IFA table and health checkup by the pregnant women is found very low. In the present study, it is clear that high percentage of respondents have the lack of knowledge about the benefits of consumption of IFA tablets and health check up during pregnancy.

Though there are a number of government programmes to provide free health services for maternal and child health care but due to lack of knowledge tribal women were not conscious about receiving these facilities.

Sl. No

No. of respondents

Percentage

1 Receive Immunization during pregnancy Immunized Completed 62 62% Immunization Incomplete 38 38%

2 Sources of Immunization those who completely immunized Government 56 90.3 % Private 6 9.7 %

3 Receive Iron and Folic Acid (IFA ) tablet during pregnancy Received 88 88% Not Received 12 12%

4 Mode of Utilization of IFA tablets Regular consumption of IFA tablets 9 10.2 % Non-consumption of IFA tablets regularly

79 89.8 %

5 Reason for Non-consumption of IFA tablets regularly Beliefs of fetus growing too big 54 68.36 % Lack of Knowledge 14 17.72 % Adverse effect on health 11 13.92 %

6 Health Checkup During Pregnancy Received 32 32 % Not- Received 68 68 %

7 Reason for Not seeking health Checkup during pregnancy Due to Work lord they have no time 42 61.76 % Not Necessary 26 38. 24 %



Table 10 Place of delivery and the person assistant received during the last birth. Sl. No Frequency Percentage

Place of Delivery 1 Home 52 52% 2 Government Hospital 44 44% 3 Private Hospital 4 4% Person Assisted During Delivery 1 Doctor 19 19 % 2 Nurse 29 29% 3 Mother 11 11% 4 Mother-In-Law 8 8% 5 Relatives/Neighbor 18 18% 6 No Body(Self) 15 15%

The table no 10 shows the data regarding the place of delivery and person assisted during pregnancy in the study area. Among all the respondents the place of delivery at home (52%), Govt. Hospital (44%) and in private hospital it was only 4 percent. Regarding the person who assisted during last delivery, 19 % of the last delivery assisted by doctors, 29 % by nurse, 11% by their mother, 08% by their mother-in-law, 18 % by relatives and neighbors and 15% of the last delivery of the respondents occurred when nobody was present in that period of time. From the above table it may be noted that majority of the respondents were delivered at home with the assistance of those persons were not able to identify the high-risk deliveries. Due to these reasons, many of them were unaware of their danger of complication during pregnancy. In this present study AWWs, ANMs and ASHAs complained about the respondents in general that it was very difficult to motivate the respondents to use all the reproductive health services. Further they also pointed out that restrictions were created by the husband and mother-in-law in the family of the respondents. Concluding Remarks The reproductive health is a most of the striking aspect among the tribal women in the study area and the issues related to their reproductive health status are always a developmental concern. The government and non- government organization are implementing various programmes for the improvement of reproductive health status of tribals. Ironically, the present



study reveals that the reproductive health status among tribal women in the study area is not satisfactory. The present study reveals that the government reproductive health care facilities were reachable to the study area but the accessibility of these facilities found to be very low due to lack of awareness and low educational attainment among the respondents. It was also found that among all the respondents’ 70 respondents married before they reached the legal age of marriage, whereas out of those 70 respondents 80 percent were experienced first pregnancy before the age of 18 years. This finding indicates that in the study area there was the prevalence of early marriage as well as early pregnancy which leads to risk towards maternal and child health. The findings of the study further reveal that high percentage of child wastage experienced by illiterate tribal women (44%). Regarding knowledge about the contraceptive method in and around one-third of the respondents have knowledge about this method, but only 20 respondents have adopted. Out of them, 14 respondents discontinued this practice due to lack of autonomy on reproductive health and workload. Regarding the accessibility of reproductive health services from government source in the study area it was found that 62 respondents immunized and 88 respondents received IFA tablets where very negligible portion (10%) consumed it regularly.

The reasons for non-consumption lack of knowledge, adverse effect on health and the beliefs of the fetus growing big reported by respondents. It also further found that 26 respondents reported health check up during pregnancy not necessary for them as against 42 respondents have no time due to workload. In the present study, it is found that despite a lot of efforts by government 52 % respondents delivered at home with the assistance of the untrained person. The study also further explore that 15 % respondents delivered when nobody was present in the period of delivery. The reproductive status of tribal women deteriorates with the low socio-economic status such as high poverty, low income, less educational attainment, low intake of nutritious food, unhygienic living condition etc in the study area. The current paper strongly recommended for educational attainment in the study area for the improvement of reproductive health status among the tribal women. Awareness programmes must be conducted to spread reproductive health consciousness among the tribals and attract them to avail the modern health care facilities. The full participation and partnership of both women and men are required in reproductive life. It is necessary to improve capabilities of the existing health centers including the hospital by providing them with more



manpower, medicines and equipment. In addition, proper communication facilities should be reached to tribal areas to access the public health services in general and in particular reproductive health. Acknowledgment (The authors are thankful to Prof R.K Meher, Faculty member Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies, Bhubaneswar and Dr .Pabitra Mohan Nayak, faculty member at Dept. of Sociology, Fakir Mohan University, Odisha for their unconditional support, valuable suggestions and comments. The authors are thankful to surveyed household, Health Practioner i.e doctor, nurse, ANMs, AWWs, ASHAs their participation, co-operation and views during the field survey. The author also thankful to Manas Sahoo and Bishnuprasad Mohapatra for their suggestions) REFERENCES Ali, Almas. (1983) `Health Problems of Primitive Tribal Communities’,

ADIBASI- A Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. XXIII (2), pp. 44-49.

Baranwal, D. (2008) ‘Medical and Health Practice in Rural Rajasthan: A case study of Wali( Udayapur District). In S.K Chaudhury & S.M Patnaik (eds.) Indian Tribes & The Mainstreams. pp. 158-75, New Delhi: Rawat Publication.

Basu and Jindal (1990) ‘Genetics and Socio-cultural Determinants of Tribal Health: A Primitive Kuttiya Kondhs Tribal Group of Phulbani, Odisha’ in ICMR Final Report. New Delhi: NIHFW

Basu, S. and G. K. Kshatriya (1997) ‘Fertility and Mortality in Dudh Kharia Tribal of Odisha, Social Change, Vol.27(1&2), pp.114-28.

Basu, Salil. (1992) ‘Health and Culture among the Underprivileged Groups in India’ in Voluntary Health Association of India (ed.) State of India’s Health, New Delhi: Voluntary Health, Association of India. pp. 154-86.

Census of India 2011, Office of the Registrar General & census commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.

Chaudhury, Buddhadeb. (1990) `Health, Culture and Environment: The Tribal Situation of India’, in Mrinal Miri (eds.) Continuity and Change in Tribal Society, pp. 250-257. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study

Choudhuri, Buddhadeb. (2012) ‘Tribal Health, Traditional Wisdom and Knowledge: Challenges and Opportunities’, in S.N Chaudhury (eds.) ‘Tribal Health and Nutrition’ pp. 16-36, Jaipur: Rawat Publication.



Dash, et al. (2014) ‘Health Care Management & Nutritional Status of the Lodha Tribe of Odisha’, Tribal Studies: A journal of COATS, Vol 2(1), pp. 18-26.

Goswami, Monali (2010) ‘Prevalence of Under nutrition among the Junags: a study on a particularly vulnerable tribal group of Odisha’, Antrocom Online Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 9, pp. 61-66.

Goswami, Monali. (2010) ‘Nutritional Status of the Bhumij of Balasore, Orissa, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 40 (1), pp. 55-70.

Government of Odisha (2012) Economic Survey 2011-12, Bhubaneswar: Planning and Coordination Department.

International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and Macro International (2008) National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), India 2005-06: Odisha, Mumbai: IIPS.

Jejeebhoy, j. Shireen (1999) ‘Reproductive Health Information in India: what are the Gaps?’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 34 (42-43), pp. 3075-3080.

Meher, Rajkishore. (2007) ` Livelihood, poverty and morbidity: A study on health and socio-economic status of the tribal population in Odisha’, Journal of Health Management, Vol. 9(3), pp. 343-369.

Mesram, et al. (2012) ‘Prevalence and Determinants of under-nutrition and its Trends among Pre-school Tribal Children of Maharashtra state, India’, Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, Vol. 58 (2), pp. 125-31.

Michael A Koenig and Gillam HC, F. (1992), Patriarchy women’s status and reproductive behaviour in rural north India, Demography India, Vol.21 (2): 145-150.

Rao, et al. (2006) ‘Malnutrition and High Childhood Mortality among the Onge Tribe of the Andaman and Nicobar Island’. Public Health Nutrition, Vol 9 (1), pp.19-25.

Rath , S. S. (2004)` Indian Tribes and their urgent and Emerging Health Status: An Over View. In Tribal health and medicines’. In A.K. Kall & P.C Joshi (eds.) Tribal Health and Medicine, pp. 46-71, New Delhi :Concept Publishing Company.

Reddy, Sunita (2008) ‘Health of Tribal Women and Children: An Interdisciplinary Approach”. Indian Anthropologist, Vol.38(2), pp. 61-74

Sahoo, Mdhusmita & Naidu S. (2013) ‘Influence on the modern medical practices and cultural factor on the health of Juang tribe in Odisha’, International Journal of Research in Sociology and Social Anthropology, Vol. 1 (3), pp. 38-46.

Sample Registration System 2014, Office of the Registrar General & Census commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.

Shivaprasad (2011) ` Health awareness among Indian tribal women’, The Journal of World Life Science and Medical Research , Vol.5, pp. 99-103

Penta Sampoorna Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Information Technology, Its Impact on Global

Industrial Relations – A Study

Penta Sampoorna Faculty, Department of Commerce & Business Management, Brilliant Degree

College, Siricilla, Rajanna (Siricilla) Dist, Telangana State, India.

ABSTRACT The technological change occurs has altered in recent years so far as its effect on workers is concerned. The industrial sector have adopted a more humane approach to the worker who is affected by a change. In terms of technology some countries cannot enhance development at the same pace is others since access to new technologies is not free. Therefore, the impact and the pace of change vary from country to country. The participative democratic governments is more reluctant towards taking any initiatives for proper global Industrial relations. The main objective of this research study is to study the impact of change in technology on Global Industrial Relations; it is to be discuss the consequences of technology change on employment relationships globally and in particular to India. In this regard an attempt has been made in this article to study the impact of change in technology on Global Industrial Relations, to discuss the consequences of technology change on employment relationships globally and in particular to Indian democratic country. Keywords: Technological Changes, Work practices, Global Development, Human Relations, Collective Process.

Introduction

The industrial revolution has tended to produce everywhere great urban masses that seems to be increasingly careless of ethical standards.”

Irving Babbbitt American Business Critic

Penta Sampoorna ISSN 2349-0519


Technical change and industrial relations are becoming inextricably linked together. There is a need for a clear sighted understanding of all the effects of technical change at the workplace. This would entail a conceptual framework in which the interaction between social and technical factors could be properly identified. At establishment level the innovation process typically involves a balancing of the social, economic and technological vectors of change. The issues of work practices and labour productivity which are to the forefront of workplace industrial relations exert a significant impact on the economic consequences of technical change. Where technological innovation involves significant change in work practices, such change will be facilitated when the forms of cooperation it demands and the costs and benefits it creates are congruent with the respective power and policies management and unions. The technological change occurs has altered in recent years so far as its effect on workers are concerned. All parties have adopted a more human approach to the worker who is affected by a change. Many employers have agreed to include provisions in collective agreements which cushion the impact of change. Trade unions have become increasingly aware of the problems associated with changes and have in many cases succeeded in negotiating appropriate provisions. Government has also contributed a great deal to the amelioration of the adverse effects of technological change. In addition to such concepts as unemployment, insurance and social welfare payments, government has provided training and retraining programs, manpower placement services, mobility grants and similar programs.

All of the countries are at a similar stage of development and obvious inequalities among countries and continents emerge. In terms of technology, some countries cannot enhance development at the same pace as others since access to new technologies is not free. These countries depend on the willingness of those countries which have the technology to provide them with access. As a result, some countries remain excluded from the technological developments that globalization can bring about. At the same time, economically advanced countries of which the markets are saturated seek to access the emerging markets of developing and transition economies to sell their products. On the other hand, developing countries face many barriers in terms of accessing the markets of the most developed countries for their products and services. Therefore, the impact and the pace of change vary from country to country.

ISSN 2349-0519 Information Technology, Its Impact on Global Industrial....


Need for the Study Impact of globalization on Indian Labour is one of the major impacts of globalization is number of public organizations is decreasing and private-players are coming out. The role of government has decreased, as the economy is no more controlled and regulated. As a result of this competition in market increases which leads to more changes in technologies and technical know how. As a result mindset of the people is changing. Before globalization when there was no competition there was assured market for the product. However, with the advent of globalization the monopoly of business started to decline. Thus, it I comes difficult to facilitate the demand of trade unions as well as customers. In this scenario, the government should be playing the role of mediators, but due to vested political interests, they are not playing their role and the number of industrial disputes has arisen. The action of MNCs can easily be regulated through government policies but it is very disheartening to see that our government is more reluctant towards taking any initiatives for proper industrial relations in this regard the need for the study has arisen. Increasing international economic interdependence has disturbed traditional IR arrangements in several broadways. Firstly, such arrangements have normally been confined to the circumstances created by national markets; but globalization has fundamentally changed, and considerably expanded, the boundaries of the market place. In this respect the extent of information flows made possible by new technology is building inter-enterprise networks around the world, is calling into question the traditional boundaries of the enterprise and is eroding current IR arrangements.

MNC’s are the primary driving force for change. They are organizations that

engage in FDI and own or control productive assets in more than one country They are creating very complex international production networks which distinguish globalization from the simpler 6 forms of international business integration in earlier periods. As producers of global goods and services (notably, in the area of mass communications), centers of networks and large employers, MNC’s have an impact extending far beyonds urban centre’s in the

countries in which they are located. In addition to the activities of MNC’s,

many locally-based enterprises, of varying, sizes, in many countries are using information technology to focus on the demands of international “niche”

markets in a way which is contributing to a growing individualization and collectivism of work. Secondly, globalization has disturbed the status quo between “capital” and “labour” in each country, in the sense that capital is



significantly more mobile in an open international environment, while labour remains relatively immobile (here it should be noted that, under globalization, International labour migration is continuing, but, proportionately to the rate in the 1970’s, has not increased. This can place “labour” at a relative

disadvantage, in that capital can now employ labour in different countries, at lower cost and on a basis which can prejudice the continuing employment of workers in the originating country.

Thirdly, globalization is having a contradictory impact on IR. It is accelerating economic interdependence between countries on an intra-and inter-regional basis and encouraging similarities in approach by individual enterprises in competitive markets. This may lead to some convergence in industrial relations arrangements around the world. At the same time, there is clear evidence of resistance towards convergence, based on particular national and regional circumstances (eg, in Europe and Asia).This aspect will be considered later in the paper, in relation to Asia the Pacific. Information Technology on Global Market The impact of changes in information technology on the organization of production and work at enterprise level – the IR heartland-provides a specific example of the forces encouraging and supporting globalization. The discussion which follows reflects the situation – currently or developing – in many western industrialized countries and in the more advantage Asian countries. It is a trend which is likely to spread more generally across the Asia and Pacific region with increasing industrialization and the impact of globalization. Increased competition in global (and in many domestic) markets has created demand for more specialized better quality items. This has lead to higher volatility in product markets and shorter product life cycles. These circumstances require enterprises to respond flexibility and quickly to charge in market demand. In terms of the organization of production, new technologies are increasing the scope for greater flexibility in production processes, and are resolving information/ coordination difficulties which previously limited the capacity for production by enterprises at different locations around the world. Where enterprises are servicing more specialised markets, smaller and more limited production processes are now involved. New technology has also made it possible to produce the same level of output with fewer workers. In both situations, there is increased emphasis on workers having higher value capacities and skills to perform a variety of jobs. This has



blurred the distinctions (both functional and hierarchial) between different kinds of jobs and between labour and management generally. In addition, efforts to improve products (through innovation, quality, availability and pricing) have lead enterprises to establish cross-functional development teams, transcending traditional boundaries between engineering, manufacturing and marketing. These developments have been accompanied by the erosion of the standardized, segmented, stable production process (of the “Ford” type) which

had facilitated collective IR. In many industries and enterprises there are also fewer workers available to be organized in trade unions. Another area of enterprise activity to be affected by globalization concerns the organisation of work. To achieve the flexibility and productive efficiency required to respond quickly and effectively to market changes, narrow worker job description, are having to be re-written. This is resulting in work tasks based on broader groupings of activities, emphasizing the undertaking of “whole” tasks. In the

interests of greater efficiency, work is also being re-organized, giving greater emphasis to team based activities, and reintegrated with a view to improving linkages across units and departments within an enterprise. Related changes have seen a “flattening” of management hierarchies and devolution of greater

operational responsibility and authority to lower level managers, supervisors and work teams. In this process of adaptation, many enterprises have been increasingly relying on internal and external “benchmarking” to establish and

maintain “best practice”, and to emphasize “organisational learning” (i.e.,

applying lessons related to superior performance to the work of individual managers and workers). All of these changes are directed to achieving stronger commitment by workers to the enterprise and its objectives and closer relations between managers and workers, based on consultation and cooperation.

The technological progress over the last century has undergone a slow but definite transformation. This can be categorized into three different stages viz., craftsmanship, mechanization and automation. Each of the stages had an influence on the nature of work and the skill level required to perform a job. The early craftsmanship was characterized by the worker/craftsman having control over the entire production process, from procuring the raw materials to the finished goods. This required end-to-end knowledge, where the worker got involved got involved in activities right from pitching to potential customers to delivering the final produce/service. Each product/service could be characteristically unique as each reflected the skills of the employee. This



model of operation can still be found in some of the present day service firms, what are termed as Service Complexes and Service Shops. The second stage of mechanization was brought about by the application of principles of scientific management where tasks were broken and methods of estimating Globalization has a contradictory impact on industrial relations. On the one hand, it is accelerating economic interdependence between countries on an intraregional and interregional basis and encouraging similar business approaches of individual companies in competitive markets. This may lead to some convergence in industrial relations arrangements worldwide. On the other, hand, evidence exists that industrial relations in some countries resist the convergence trend; such resistance from industrial relations actors is based on particular national and regional circumstances, such as in Europe and Asia. The effect of globalization on industrial relations.

Impact of Technology on Indian Industrial Relations The Republic of India with a population of just over a billion is the second most populous state in the world after China. It has a population growth rate of 1.4% and literacy rate of 60%. Ethnically the Indian is dominated by Indo-Aryan race that is 72% of the total population. On religious lines the population is dominated by Hindus who are 81.3%. The Indian labour force is 406 million, with 60% in agriculture 17% industry and 23% services. Like most of the countries with colonial origin, India based most of its laws on the colonial structure left by the British. Industrial law was no exception, the Indian government built on colonial labour institutions and regulations to fashion and industrial relation system that sought to control industrial conflict through a plethora of protective labour legislation, influenced by the strong ties between the major political parties and labor forged in the struggle of independence These laws covered a wide range of aspects of workplace industrial relations; including detailed laws on safety and health, dismissals and layoffs and industrial disputes. The basic purposes of these laws, like under the British colonial rule, were to contain industrial disputes within the framework provided by the laws and maintain continuity of production. One example of this strategy was the Industrial Disputes Act. This act allowed employers to lay off employees only temporarily, with compensation up to 180 days and employer was also required to get permission from the government which was rarely given because of the close ties of the unions with the political parties. On the other hand the right to strike existed but all



strikes could be brought to an end with either party requesting for a third party intervention through government conciliation offices. If conciliation failed the government had the right to refer the dispute to compulsory arbitration or a labour court or industrial tribunal for a final decision In addition to the above policy, the Indian Industrial relations were also tilted more towards the workers. In the absence of social security legislation the burden of social policy like retirement, medical care and even child care was left on the employers. During this period the economic policy emphasized on the growth and long-term development of heavy industries in the public sector with largely indigenous technology, coupled with the policy of industrial licensing, import controls, and restrictions of foreign ownership that protected public and private sector firms from international competition These protectionist policies created an atmosphere that led to increased inefficiency in the firms, over employment – especially in public sector in ability to introduce efficient and labour saving methods of production. These problems were enhanced by the fact that there was a relatively high incidence of labour strikes and also competition among various unions as there was no sole-bargaining agent legislation. The unions themselves were not united and at the same time there was not much of a spirit of cooperation between the employees and the employers. There was diversity not only in unions but also in industrial relations laws, each state had the right to enact its own labor laws. This feature produced a variety of local colors of unions with varying orientations to labour relations and for the most part kept the labour movement from become national. Union density was about 38% in the formal sector workers. As can be ascertained from above, the unions had an influential voice due to their link with political parties, in fact all political partied had their union wings. Unions were mostly structured on enterprise, industrial, political or regional lines. Bargaining structure during this period was industrial or enterprise based, although there was provision in the law for tripartite structures and works council type institutions but these were not followed in practice. There was interunion rivalry and adversarial relationship with the employers. Although the employers were protected by the state policies of protectionism, still they faced the problem of high costs and rigid systems of production. As long as the protectionist policies were in place the higher cost and the relative lack of flexibility imposed by the industrial relations systems



regulations did not pose a serious problem because Indian manufacturers did not have to complete in the international market. With the coming of globalization, the 40 years old policy of protectionism proved inadequate for Indian industry to remain competitive. Therefore, in 1992 the process of liberalization started. The balance of power shifted in the favour of the employers. Apart from the pressure from the international market, international bodies like IMF also exerted pressures to change labour policies in India. Employers pushed for workforce reduction, given their inability to retrench employers, they introduced policies of voluntary retirement schemes. There has been an increase in the demand for functional and numerical flexibility in the workplace by the employers. Globalization has also brought in the beginning of a government-employer coalition. This coalition is quite obvious keeping in view the enthusiastic support of the government for economic liberalization. In Maharashtra for example for the first time the government has declared several private sector firms as essential and public utilities permitting a ban on strikes in these sectors. In a study by Heirs and Kuruvilla in 2007, they discuss the changes in the industrial relations in India and bring out the following dimensions: Collective bargaining in India has mostly been decentralized, but now in

sectors where it was not so, are also facing pressures to follow decentralization.

Some industries are cutting employment to a significant extent to cope with the domestic and foreign competition e., pharmaceuticals. On the other hand, in other industries where the demand for employment is increasing are experiencing employment growths.

In the expansionary economy there is a clear shortage of managers and skilled labour.

The number of local and enterprise level unions has increased and there is a significant reduction in the influence of the unions.

Under pressure some unions and federations are putting up a united front i.e., banking.

Another trend is that the employers have started to push for internal unions i.e., no outside affiliation.

HR Policies and forms of work are emerging that include, especially in multinational companies, nulti-skills, variable compensation, job rotation



etc. These new policies are difficult to implement in place of old practices as the institutional set up still needs to be changed.

HRM is seen as a key component of business strategy. Training and skill development is also receiving attention in a number of

industries, especially banking and information technology. Keeping in view the above analysis, it is quite evident that the industrial system right now is trying to shift from the old system to the new. In the process, it is experiencing tension between the workers who are trying to keep jobs and the employers who are trying to achieve flexibility so as to cope with the domestic and international market competition. In essence, these practices have accentuated the diversity existing in the Indian industrial system considerably. Global Competition – Trade Union Politics The role of the state in the industrial relations depends on the ideological (socialist, communist, or neo capitalist persuasion), political (neo-colonial, democratic, dictatorships) and socio economic (protectionist and neo-liberal policies) orientation. In India the role of the state may be studied over four times periods: colonial period, post colonial period, emergency era (1975-77), and post liberalization era. During the colonial period under the British the industrial relations were just another means of keeping the colonies inline, the labour law and the power of the state was used to maintain peaceful industrial relations so as to have continued production. In the post colonial era, the Indian government more or less built its labour relations structure on the pre-existing colonial law; the main purpose was again to achieve industrial peace. At the same time, in India there was political support for the Indian unions and there were laws that protected the rights of the worker but the main purpose again was that industrial peace should be maintained. The Indian state was tolerant of unions and recognised the value of labour manager rent cooperation in the context of planned economic development. There was more burdens on the employers but protectionist policies kept the employers, complacent. During the emergency rule the rights of the unions were restricted, but this era did not have a lasting effect on the industrial relations. In the era of globalization and liberalization, the government has realized that in order to keep India competitive, policies should be implemented that resulting in flexible workplace practices.



The employers are not facing the pressures of global competition and they also want to remain competitive. For this purpose the stress is now on more pro-employer policies. The role of the state has always been pervasive in Indian industrial relations. There have always been detailed laws on collective bargaining dispute resolution, employee participation and employment security. There is also a court system, the independent labour courts in India are the main mechanism for the implementation of labour low. During the independence movement, the political leaders and held leadership positions in major trade unions, they led and supported trade union movements in major industries. After the independence (1947) many trade union leaders held important positions in the government. Besides, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian government opted for socialistic Ideology based on the principles of controlled economy. During this period the government had three basic policies: Industrialization through public sector, creation of democratic institutions and protecting the interests of working class. Therefore, during this period and till liberalization the union membership increased. The verified membership of the All India Central Trade Union Organizations (CTUOs) - includes a total of 12 central trade union organizations increased from about 2 million to over 12 million between 1960-1989. What need to be done? The awards needs to be published and the government has the right to reject or modify the award. Failure to implement the award is an unlawful practice and the party can be prosecuted for the same. Final award can only be challenged by filing a petition to the High Court or the Supreme Court. Although the process and the Industrial Disputes Act are quite comprehensive, the biggest problem with it is the delay. The process itself is so long and tedious and cases are delayed for years and even if they are decided the awards are not often implemented by the employers especially when the litigant is a government or a public sector unit (Ghose; 2003). To overcome the problem of delays, court costs, procedural formalites and adversarial justice a new approach to dispute resolution has emerged. This system is called the Lok Adalat System, literally translated this would mean ‘Peoples Courts’. The origin of this system are in

the age old institutions of village Panchayat (village courts) and Baradary (community) system.

The process of collective bargaining in India is going towards decentralization. The movement is very much consistent with what is



happening in other parts of the worlds, especially, in European countries and America. The purpose of this decentralization is to give more flexibility to the employer to face the competition from abroad. The unions are not organized at the national level and there is no unity among them anyway to go for a centralized bargaining. Like the process of collective bargaining, the process of wage determination is also controlled by the state.

In industries, where the public sector dominates, the government naturally plays a central role in determining wages. In other industries that are dominated by private sector, it chooses to play a major role by establishing wage boards. In all these industries there is little space for collective bargaining. The trend towards flexibility is not only evident from collective bargaining, it is also apparent from the changes in work practices. Now more and more firms are introducing new manufacturing technologies. Total quality management, leaner organisations by eliminating middle management and supervisors and more HR practices are becoming the norm in industrial set ups. Conclusion The predominant effort of the Indian companies is to restructure themselves. Often their focus is primarily on numerical flexibility, although these efforts are accompanied by more dynamic and flexible HR practices that are in tune with a long-term orientation to competitiveness based on higher technology intensive production. To sum up, it can be said that the Indian state has and is still playing an important role in the country’s industrial relations. The basic

purpose of the state intervention has been to maintain industrial peace, but recently with the advent of globalization the policy is changing towards more competitive approach. New technologies opened up employment opportunities in new and emerging sectors. Globally. Skills needed have undergone a change from that of manual dexterity and physical strength to those of trouble shooting and process handling. Group based incentivization and company specific bargaining are becoming more common. Unions no longer resist technology change but are concerned with the implications on the number of jobs, their content and earnings. It’s also argued that subjective norms need to be considered as a variable influencing the behavioural intentions of workers with respect to acceptance of technology change.



REFERENCES ILO (1995): Ozaki, M – Industrial Relations (paper prepared for

ILO/World Bank Mission on Labour Market Policies for Higher Employment), Geneva.

International Industrial Relations Association (IIRA), 3rd Asian Regional Conference, Taipei, 1996: Record of Proceedings (Vol.1- The Transformation of Industrial Relations under Democratization; Vol.2 – The Impact of Globalization on Industrial Relations; and Vol.4 –The Perspectives of Industrial Relations in the 21st century).

Industrial Development Report-2013 – United Nations Industrial Development Organisation – eISBN: 978-92-1-050422.9.

Industrial Relations and Globalisation: Challenges for Employers and their Organisations by David Mocdonldn- Senior Industrialist-ILO-Bangkok-ebook-bureau for employees’ activities.

Information Technology and the Employment Relationship: An examination of the Adoption and use of Electronic Health Records – Ph.D. submitted by Adam seth Litwin to the Aflred Sloan School of Management.

World Bank (1995): World Development Report: Workers in an Integrating World, OUP, New York.

Related Web Sites 1. http://schollar.lib.vt.edu/ejouranls/JTT:/v33n3 2. http://ir.erudit.org.iderudit/027897ar.Lewis.html.

http://schollar.lib.vt.edu/ejouranls/JTT:/v33n3

http://ir.erudit.org.iderudit/027897ar.Lewis.html

Ravula Nageshwar Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Management of E-Resources and Print Substance in

Libraries

Ravula Nageshwar Assistant Professor, Library and Information Science, Government Degree

College Nirmal, Telangana State, India.

ABSTRACT New technologies and the increase in availability of information have led to a significant shift in users expectations for libraries. Users want fingertip access 24/7 availability and ease in finding and using Print and Electronic Resources. University libraries are an essential organization to collect printed materials such as books, journals, magazines, newspapers, Periodicals, references, theses and electronic resources such as audio and visual resources like CD s, DVD s, E Journals, E books, Online Databases and other type of E Resources The advent of IT has made a clear and pervasive impact in almost every area of library services. As such, the library environment has undergone a rapid changes leading to new generation of libraries with an emphasis on e- resources. Moreover, as the popularity of E-resources increases, the librarians and staff are also concerned about e-resources, their methods accessing, evaluation, selection, organization etc. The present paper is an aim to know how to manage e-resources in the modern LIS for better digital information services and challenges facing with e-resources.

Keywords: E-resources, Visual Resources, Electronic libraries, Consortia, Information Technology.

Introduction

Libraries function as crucial technology hubs, not merely for free web access, but for those who need computer training and assistance. Library business centers help support entrepreneurship and retraining.

Prof. Scott Turow

Library is the heart and soul of the College. Libraries were the store house of knowledge centres (Granthalayalu Vignana Bandagarulu). Since age old

Ravula Nageshwar ISSN 2349-0519


information has been passed on to the progeny through oral by word of mouth and recitation by students, then as centuries passed on different means were employed to communicate previously papyrus, clay stones, thala patra, Burj patra and from there evolved and transformed to paper based information society. Now 21st century is witnessing the new scenario of paperless information or what we call the e-resources. The development of information Technology has in evidently helped in globalising the information flow from any part of the world. The huge amount of Information generated using ICT has created an information explosion. In order to maintain and retrieve the information resources generated from various sources and for various purposes has to be streamlined and made available to the users living in any part of the world has become a challenge. New technologies and the increase in availability of information have led to a significant shift in users expectations for libraries. Users want fingertip access 24/7 availability and ease in finding and using Print and Electronic Resources. University libraries are an essential organization to collect printed materials such as books, journals, magazines, newspapers, Periodicals, references, theses and electronic resources such as audio and visual resources like CD s, DVD s, E Journals, E books, Online Databases and other type of E Resources. The Library Managers are required to cope up with the increasing demands of faculty, students and researchers against all odds like dwindling budget and decreasing staff. Librarians are forced to work together due to economic realities and technological possibilities paving the way for forming subscription clubs for e-journals, not just clubs but strategic alliances with broad based objectives. The consortia can be defined as a strategic alliance of institutions having common interest. The main aim of a consortium is to achieve what the members of the group cannot achieve individually. The developments in information retrieval system and faster access technologies have enabled the libraries to come together for licensing the information available in digital form. The University libraries are supporting teaching, learning, research, promoting educational activities and providing high quality information to its user. Information technology, especially the Internet has profoundly changed the ways of publishing. Newspaper, magazines and periodicals have for years been published in Print and Electronically all kinds of texts are now available

ISSN 2349-0519 Management of E-Resources and Print …


in digitized form. Publishing is changing with the increasing importance of computer technology. Publications are appearing with mixed media and increasingly in a completely electronic format. The e resources are found in various formats like E-books, E-journals, Online databases, CD-ROMs, Reference sources etc. We found that the uses of e-journals are very popular in academic institutions. The other web resources like online databases are also using in various libraries, but the printed books are not replacing with e-books as compared with e-journals. There are several reasons like technological limitations, tendency of user etc. An attempt has been made here to highlights some issues of e-books and its uses in academic environment. University libraries are changing dramatically by adopting new technology in all activities and services of print to electronic media like Print Journals to E Journals. Over the past few years, libraries and information centers have been greatly affected changes in IT, and the rate of changes still is still accelerating in this era. IT is now able to create:(i) new products, processes and machines that can be used independently, customized information packages, video cassettes, home information products, personals computers and reprographic equipments (ii) external dependents, database online information system (iii) cooperative library information networks and (iv) electronic information processing system such as the electronic book. IT has been able to abridge time and space dimension in communication .In order to cope with the present development in IT, modern libraries are now adopting various electronic resources for its collection developments to fulfill the requirements of different users in a better way. However to achieve the goals of an ideal information system there is a need to select, evaluate and organize the e-resources in the best possible way as to provide maximum ease, both to the users and the staff for its access and retrieve at all times. E-Resources E-resources are those electronic products that delivers a collection of data, be it text referring to full text basis, e-journals, image collection, other multimedia products and numerical, graphical or time based, as a commercially available till that has been published with an aim to being marketed. These may be delivered on CD-ROM, on tap via the Internet and so



on. According to Barker, there are three types of documents used in digital resources. Static- Static are the most basic, they contain fixed information and never change their form (such as traditional online data). Dynamic-Dynamic documents also contain fixed information but also able to change their outward form, the way embedded material is presented to users (such as multimedia CD-ROMs). Living -Living documents are able to change both their form (outward appearance) and these embedded information (such as information contain on the web.) Electronic publishing has led to new era of communications and information sharing .It creates opportunities for users as well as authors and publishers. Many of the electronic books or electronic publishers ‘ web site freely permit

and encourage readers to provide feedback on works, often directly to the author rather than to the publisher. Nevertheless users may establish their own accounts, charge services to credit cards or pay by prearranged method, and have requested material delivered directly to them by fax, e-mail, etc. Today, libraries of all kinds have been spending larger and larger shares of their budgets to adopt or gain access to electronic resources from publishers and vendors. This is due the fact that E-resources have enabled libraries to improve services in a variety of ways. First, most E-resources come equipped with powerful search-and-retrieval tools that allow users to perform literature searches more effectively and efficiently. Moreover, since most relevant e-resources are now available through the web, users can have desktop access to them 24 hours a day. And also the users can navigate directly from indexing databases to the full text of an article and can even follow further links from there. Nevertheless, the emergence of e-books and e-journals followed the widespread adoption and use of electronic mail, list servers and discussion groups to disseminate information quickly to large audiences. Selection of E-Resources Selection is not a new term to librarian and staff as they have been doing it since long back the libraries started acquiring printed material. However libraries are now focusing to adopt e-resources information technology approaching towards the e-resources rather than printed materials as technology developed. In fact, the emergence of Internet, particularly, the www (World Wide Web) has a triggered proliferation of web based full text online resources as a new media of information delivery. As the web has



grown, not just in popularity and use, but also in content, librarians are trying to meet the needs of the user and identify new resources, such as online databases, web based resources, collections in digital library, ebooks, e-journals etc. The selection process should be done in relevant with the demands of the users, committee, focus group, users’ recommendation etc. Apart from this, it should taken into consideration the following steps:

to identify library needs; to identify content and scope of the e-resources; to evaluate quality of that particular resource and search capabilities; to estimate the cost; to check either subscription based or web based when acquiring; to evaluate the systems and technical support; to review licensing agreements; to evaluate application software and installation, updated sporadically

or in regular schedule; and to check the facilities for educational support and training.

Evaluation of E-Resources Evaluation of resources assumes a greater importance due to the large e-resources such as e-journals, database, e-text, etc available on the net. Authority, currency, intended audience, ease of use accuracy etc are some responsible criteria for evaluation of e-resources. Moreover, extensiveness of the content, accessibility, quality of technical support, cost, conditions of licensing agreement are also other responsible factors which should taken into account. With the evaluation of e-resources the followings should be should be considered to identify the electronic version have the retrospective data (as mostly electronic resources do not include data prior to some year); to determine particular source of information of e-resources offer any special features which are not available in other print version; to check the content of the e-resources with relevant to the users as well as to the collection as a whole; to check whether the information is often updated or not; to determine the e-resources have affordable price or not though offered diverse pricing system by the publishers; to identify the method of accessing of e-resources available; to identify the e-resources needed to maintain and redesign the library website identified; to check the staffing needs for training of recruiting with the existing technology.



In any Library Information System (either traditional or modern library system), organization of resources is also one of the important and crucial works to function smoothly the library services. As such, the system manager should have good professional skills to organize the available resources effectively. In a modern digital library information system, the professional should have skills like computing, database management, networking, and other management skills relating to IT environment. Therefore, the system manager should keep in mind the following points while organizing the e-resources: to include those resources either in OPAC or to make different list for browsing; to organized accessing under a separate authority; to provide access either by alphabetical or under specific subject headings; to organize the e-resources within the context of other resources and websites; to check the method of access to e-resources, abstracting or full. Since most of the users search the resources under subject heading predominantly, organization of E-resources should be in such a way that the users could be able to retrieve different sets of information or records.

Challenges Faced with E-Resources Management The adoption of e-resources has made great advantage over the library services. In fact, most of the users are satisfied with such facilities since hey can easily retrieve their required information within a short period of time. However, libraries face a number of challenges as they seek to continue offering the high level of services that users have come to expect. Some of the challenges facing with e-resource management are discuss below.

Preservation- Though the e-resources are enabling information to be created, manipulated, disseminated and located with increasing ease, preserving access to this information posses a great challenge. Unless, preservation of digital information is actively taken, the information will become inaccessible due to changing technology platform and media instability.

Lack of professional skills- Due to lack of management and technical skills, the library professionals is not able to handle the e-resources. The professional staffs are required to constantly update their own knowledge and skill base so as to work in today’s rapidly changing digital environment. Inadequate library fund- Most of the libraries have inadequate fund for acquiring e-resources and so the users do not get their needy information at the right time. Libraries are at a disadvantage when acting alone in this environment and there is need for cooperative purchasing through library consortia.



Technical infrastructure. In a digital information service system, infrastructure such as software, hardware, internet facilities and other physical equipments are required to provide easier, faster and comprehensive access to information. Therefore, libraries in the digital age need to enhance and upgrade current technical architecture to accommodate e-resources. Lack of cooperation of staff members The support and cooperation of staff members, programmers and technical staff are very essential to provide effective service in a digital environment. As such, the library staff should not only be technically competent but should also user-friendly-approach.

Consortia Subscription to E-Resources It is known that libraries and information centers are not able to procure, organize and disseminate vast amount of information due to lack of adequate fund and budget. Nowadays, consortia subscription to E-resources through consortia of libraries is a viable solution to increase the access to e-resources at a lower cost. Library consortia refer to cooperation, co-ordination and collaboration among the libraries or institution for the purpose of resource sharing. The libraries all over the world are forming consortia of all types and at all levels with an objective to take advantage of global network to promote better, faster and most cost effective ways of providing e-resources to the information seekers. The collective strength of consortia members facilitate to get the benefit of wider access to electronic resources at affordable cost and at the bests terms and conditions.

Conclusion With the rapid advancement in computer technology along with information technology, libraries and information centers have been blessed with electronic materials and therefore libraries are gradually shifting towards the electronic libraries with electronic resources. As such, libraries therefore are now increasingly involved in creating and acquiring e-resources. The availability of IT based electronic resources has exerted ever-increasing pressures on libraries and there is no dough that e-resources are expanding rapidly. However, in order to meet the ever increasing demand of the user community in a digital environment, libraries have to develop ways to manage access to materials available in electronic format and to effectively share them mush as they have shared print resources for over a century through inter library lending.



REFERENCES Kochtanek, T.R and Mathews, J.R. Library Information System, libraries

unlimited, West port, 2004 Pandey, S.K. Encyclopedia of library Automation System and Networking

Series, Almond Publication, New Delhi. Venkadesam, S et al. Strategic planning and policy for collection development

of e resources to satisfy users requirements: A case study of JRD Tata Memorial Library. CALIBER 2004, FEB 11- 13, 2004, New Delhi.

Bhatt, R.K. and Madhusudhan, M. University Libraries in India and e-journal: The role of consortiabased subscription of e-journal for effective use of financial resources, CALIBER 2004 FEB 11-13, 2004, New Delhi

Natarajan, M. Selection and evaluation criteria for e-resources, ILA Bulletin, 38 (3), January-March, 2003, p. 11-14.

Verma, Rekha. Electronic Journals: Issues and challenges PLANNER 2003, 6-7 NOVEMBER, 2003, Shillong.

Verma, Kusum. Digital library preservation strategies, Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005.

Ali, Naushad & Faizul, Nisha. Use of e-journals among research scholars at Central Science Library, University of Delhi. Collection Building, 30 (1), 53-60. (2011).

Satpathy, Sunil Kumar & Rout, Biswanath. Use of E-Resources by the faculty members with special reference to CVRCE, Bhubaneswar. DESIDOC Journal of Library and Information Technology, 30 (4), 11-16. (2010)

Raza, Masoom M. & Upashyay, Ashok Kumar. Use of e-journals by researchers: A comparative study. International Journal of Library Science, 2 (A 10), 52-63. (2010)

Related Websites http://www.w3.org./2012/ws/Activity.html. http://www.w3.org/2002/ws/Activity.html http://www.editeur.org/gnixserials.html.

http://www.w3.org./2012/ws/Activity.html

http://www.w3.org/2002/ws/Activity.html

http://www.editeur.org/gnixserials.html

Dr. Shyam Kartik Mishra Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact actor:2.3222


Economic Growth in India during the Post Reform

Period: Challenges and the Way Ahead

Dr. Shyam Kartik Mishra

Associate Professor of Economics, LBS College, Mughalsarai, Chandauli, Uttar Pradesh, India & Founder General Secretary, Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand

Economic Association

ABSTRACT

The paper aims at evaluating achievement in terms of growth and inclusive growth in the post-reform period. Attempt has also been made to enquire status and role of inequality in economic growth. The stock of determinants and policies adopted and needed for reduction in poverty and speedup growth in future has been taken The paper finds that there has been visible and positive change towards growth and poverty reduction but also observes some failures in the processes and outcomes in the post-reform period. There are significant inequalities by sector, region, gender and social groups. To this study, creation of productive employment is crucial for reduction in poverty, particularly in informal sector and in more socially inclusive way. India aspiring to be a global economic power should invest in human capital and improve human development. The need for skill development for generation of productive jobs and to reap "demographic dividend" is indispensable. Everyone, irrespective of caste, class and gender, should have equal opportunities in education, health, employment and entrepreneurship for socially inclusive growth. A major institutional challenge is the accountability of service providers, particularly the public sector. Growth with redistribution will not affect social behaviour without social transformation. We need social movements to reduce social exclusion and also to change mental model. India for 8-9 percent of persistent growth for a decade needs bold and ace political leadership to move away from gradualist policy.

Keywords: Economic reforms, Gradualist Policy, Sustainable and inclusive growth, Productive employment, Equality of opportunity.

Dr. Shyam Kartik Mishra ISSN 2349-0519


Introduction Indian economy with current size of more than 2 trillion dollars in 2016 is very much different from 1991. The country is now more globally connected than the year when reforms commenced. The global financial crisis that originated in the US in 2008 transmitted to emerging market economies like India (Ahluwalia 2010, Reddy 2011). Moreover, continued global slowdown in the last few years had adverse impact on India’s economy as the value of exports declined significantly in the last two years. India needs and has the potential to achieve 8 to 9 per cent GDP growth. In order to have sustainable growth at this rate, the country needs to have appropriate policies and implementing systems. The new Government in central, with slightly different vision, mission and working style for so called corruption less rapid economic growth is facing lot of challenges with unique democratic system of India. Therefore, a critical review of challenges faced and that of emerging new opportunities in new millennium for India’s economic growth are points of serious concern. The present paper is a modest endeavour to this end. The Diverse Scenario during Post-reform: After economic reforms in the early 1990s, India has followed a gradualist approach. Gradualism could be due to two factors. First, it is better to be cautious instead of taking many risks as India can’t afford too many risks with so many poor people. Second factor is compulsions of the democratic process in a very large and heterogeneous country that need consensus building which often takes time. Fortunately, one recent feature of Indian elections is that people are also voting for development apart from other factors unlike ever before and shown wider public support to painful Policy decisions taken with honest intentions.

For raising growth investment has to be revived particularly private investment. It may take some time for revival of private investment and climate needs to be created. Global economic situation is not in good shape. There has been slow down in Europe. Brazil and Russia are not doing well among BRIC countries. The slow-down in China is particularly worrying. Exports in India showed negative growth consecutively in the last 13 months. Therefore, the country has to rely more on domestic economy. Public investment in infrastructure and other areas is crucial as counter-cyclical measure to revive the economy. The problem of large NPAs (non-performing assets) in public sector banks has to be resolved. Political economy with crony

ISSN 2349-0519 Economic Growth in India during the Post Reform.....


capitalism and political interference are visible particularly in public sector banks. One has also to stick to fiscal deficit targets and revenue deficit need to be reduced to zero over time. The objectives of raising public investment and sticking to fiscal deficits can be achieved only if non-merit subsidies are removed and disinvestment targets are achieved.

Reduction in the rate of corporate tax must be accompanied by reduction in exemptions that can be used for infrastructure and social sector development. Monetary policy by reducing repo rate has tried to improve credit and investment growth.

The present BJP government in centre has undertaken several reform measures in the last two years. The second generation reforms should be continued to improve growth. Introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) may get delayed due to political stalemate. There is a need for further improvement in quality of ‘doing business’ in India. Among other things, introduction of Bankruptcy laws and demonetisation can help in improving business environment in true sense and in long run. Special attention on agriculture and social sectors can’t be kept in abeyance any more if we want to improve sustainable economic growth and well being of people.

The Unmet Challenges In the last 25 years of reform period, India has done well and one can see significant visible change also. But, there have been some failures in policies, processes and outcomes in the post-reform period. To Dev (2016), there are five failures which are as given below:

(a) Slow Infrastructure development Problem of power shortage is perennial in India and it is one of the single biggest constraints for our growth. Meeting the energy requirements for growth of this magnitude in a sustainable manner presents a major challenge. Index of infrastructure across states is highly correlated with per capita income and level of poverty1. In the post-reform period, we have much greater dependence on private investment through different forms of public-private partnerships (PPPs) than was the case when the reforms started. PPPs have not met the expectations. Ahluwalia (2012) says “policy is being framed such that PPPs should be a means of bringing private money into public projects and not siphoning public money into private projects”. Vijay Kelkar committee’s recommendations would be useful to revive PPP in infrastructure projects



since energy security is important for economic growth and providing power to many households.

(b) Failure in increasing labour intensive manufacturing A study by Ramaswamy and Agarwal (2013) strongly suggest that services sector would be an unlikely destination for the millions of low skilled job seekers. Rise in manufacturing employment is need of the hour. Share of manufacturing in total employment has been almost stagnant at 11 to 12 per cent for a long time. It increased marginally to 13 per cent in 2011-12. In 2010, India accounts for 1.4% of the world exports of manufactures while the share of China is as high as 15%. Manufacturing has the capability because it has stronger backward linkages unlike the services sector. We cannot afford to neglect manufacturing at this stage of development in view of providing large scale employment. Labour intensity of organizing manufacturing sector has to be improved apart from increasing the productive employment in SMEs and unorganized manufacturing.

(c) Not taking advantage of demographic dividend. Labour force in India is expected to increase by 32 per cent while it will decline by nearly 5.0 per cent in China over the next 20 years. India is supposed to have surplus of 56 million while rest of the world will have shortage of 47 million working population2. Demographic dividend varies across regions. Northern states will have young population and southern states have already started aging. There has been slow progress in education and skill levels of workers. There are huge challenges in raising education and skills of workers and population. In India, around 78 per cent of rural female, 56 per cent of rural males, 47 per cent of urban females and 30 per cent of urban males are either illiterate or have been 1. Dev, 2016 2. Dreze and Sen (2013) educated up to primary level. Only about 5 per cent of rural females and 13 per cent of rural males have education of higher secondary and above. In the case of urban workers, the share of graduates and above rose significantly particularly for urban females3.Young population is an asset only if it is educated, skilled and finds productive employment. During the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012–17), 50 million non-farm employment opportunities are proposed to be created and at least equivalent number of people would be provided skill certification (NSSO 2014).



Regarding skill development, only 10 per cent of the workforce in the age group of 15-59 years received some form of vocational training in 2009-10. The percentage of workers who received vocational training was the highest in the service sector with 33 per cent. This is followed by manufacturing (31 per cent), agriculture (27 per cent). In the non-manufacturing and allied activities only 9 per cent had vocational training (GOI, 2013).

(d) Slow social sector development. India has success in growth but there is a failure in progress of social indicators4. There is no connection between economic growth and malnutrition. Slow reduction in malnutrition is one of the failures in the post-reform period. The country is not only behind china but the progress is slower than many of the Asian countries. It is known that India’s rank of human development index (HDI) is lower compared to many other developing countries. Basically the argument is that compared to economic growth, reduction in inequality, hunger and malnutrition is much slower. Improvement in health and quality of education is slower. We know that the solutions lie in improving agriculture, health, women empowerment and nutrition programs. Also, regional disparities are high in human development. Southern states have done better than Northern and Eastern states. There are five problems in social sector (Dev 2016): (a) low levels of social indicators (b) slow progress (c) significant regional, social and gender disparities (d) low level and slow growth in public expenditures particularly on health and (e) poor quality delivery systems. Social sector should be one of the focus areas for sustainability of economic growth and equity. (e) Governance Failures Problem of extremely poor governance, including corruption is not new. It has been flourishing during new millennium. Apart from many achievements, the post-reform period also witnessed many scams in the financial and real sectors. These scams in the more than last two decades could have been avoided with better governance. There has been a nexus between politicians, business people and bureaucracy. Crony capitalism is one of the factors for corruption. Jalan (2006) says the interface between politics, economics and governance, and their combined effect on the functioning of our democracy will determine India's future. The analysis also suggests that the overburdened legal system needs legal reforms. Many people feel that governance problem



is the biggest constraint for achieving our development goals in the country5. The focus of reforms can now be shifted to more efficient delivery 3. NSSO (2014) 4. Dreze and Sen (2013) 5. See Bardhan 2005 systems of public services. It has been recognized that better governance is very important also for inclusive development. This is important for better implementation of sectoral policies and poverty alleviation programmes. There has been a nexus between politicians, business people and bureaucracy. Crony capitalism is one of the key factors for corruption. Social mobilization, community participation and decentralized approach are needed. The new government has been talking about ‘minimum government and maximum governance’ but its ground reality in Indian democracy is yet to be tested.

Conditions and Policies in offing on Poverty, Growth and Social protection Banerjee and Duflo (2011) show that why the poor, despite having the same desire and abilities like the rest of the population end up with entirely differently lives. Similar observations were made also by World Development Report 2015. Following steps though may look small but can fetch big results: Productive Employment Higher and sustained per worker productivity can reduce poverty. Rising productivity per worker provides economic opportunities to larger and larger numbers. It is rising economic opportunities in this sense which are in fact the best solution to the sustained eradication of economic poverty or income poverty. Creation of productive employment is crucial for reduction in poverty (Muralidharan 2013). Quality of employment improves with changes in structure of employment from low productive to high productive occupations and sectors. Quality increases with shift from casual workers in informal sector to formal sector regular workers. Productive employment rises if workers in agriculture are shifted to manufacturing sector. In this context, ‘Make in India’ campaign is in the right direction that aims at creating 100 million jobs by 2022. It is argued here that one has to include services also in ‘Make in India’ program for creation of employment. Employment in manufacturing today is not comparable to employment in manufacturing in earlier times. The reason is that earlier manufacturing



enterprises used to directly employ staff for a variety of services required but now they outsource them from service enterprises (Ghose, 2015a). In other words, employment that counted as manufacturing employment now counts as employment in services. To put it another way, manufacturing today generates less direct employment but more indirect employment in services. In this way, these two sectors complement each other for generating employment. That is why in case of China, now the share of manufacturing in GDP is around 33% but its share in employment is only 16%. Similar pattern is observed also for Indonesia and Thailand.

Moreover, employment growth in India is much more difficult than GDP growth in manufacturing since this sector has been capital intensive. There are constraints even for raising GDP growth in manufacturing. It is because “world as a whole is unlikely to be able to accommodate another export-led China…. Export-led growth will not be as easy as it was for the Asian economies who took that path before us” (Rajan 2015). He also argued for ‘Make for India’ rather than exports. India’s share of services in employment is only 26.4% compared to 58.4% share of services in GDP6. Thus, service sector in India is not labour intensive. At the same time, manufacturing sector has low share in GDP (17%) and employment (12.8%). Therefore, the challenges are to raise both GDP and employment growth for manufacturing and employment growth in services. India’s post-reform experiences show that services generate less employment opportunities for the low skilled. On the other hand, manufacturing can generate substantial employment opportunities for the unskilled workers. India needs to aim at higher growth of productive employment and decent work, and that the manufacturing sector is critical to growth. Constraints that prevent manufacturing growth need to be addressed in cooperation with states. For example, we need investment, physical infrastructure, skill development, land acquisition, ease of doing business etc. Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and micro and medium enterprises (MSMEs) account for 95% of the total industrial activity in India and can play vital role in boosting employment generation. Higher emphasis on SME and MSME sectors is also inevitable since it offers maximum opportunities for self employment jobs after the agriculture sector. However, India can’t ignore service sector which contributes around 60% of GDP, even for employment. Therefore, India has to



forge its own path that will rely on both manufacturing and services as growth engines. Need of Fourth Industrial Revolution, Digital Age and Robotics: Industrialists and others at Davos meeting said that we have to be ready to welcome a fourth industrial revolution which includes advanced manufacturing, quantum engineering, 3D printing and robotics. It may lead to some disruption in the established sectors and may lead to some inequalities. But, overall net employment may rise with fourth industrial revolution including robotics. The new endeavour of the Government for transforming Indian economy from cash to cashless transaction through massive digitalisation as a means of fast and corruption less growth in long run may yield fruition if the move is not succumbed to party politics of Indian democracy. Inequalities: Dimensions and Issues Inequality has been an important issue in development debates. With the release of a classic book “Capital in the Twenty-First Century” by French economist Thomas Piketty (2014), there has been debate on inequality in several parts of the world. To Piketty, in the 18th and 19th centuries western European society was highly unequal. But inequality declined and stabilized during 1901-70. Again income inequality has been rising since 80s onwards. From this history, Piketty develops a grand theory of capital and inequality and recommends that governments should adopt a global tax on wealth, to prevent rising inequality contributing to economic or political instability. Similar idea has been brought out also by Basu7. According to Tendulkar (2010), social consensus with respect to social acceptability of a degree of inequality is feasible on the existence of three conditions: (a) the observation of merit based income mobility; (b) the existence of equality of opportunity; (c) improvement in the living conditions of people at the lower end of distribution. He also says

6. Economic Survey 2014-15, Government of India 7. See Kaushik Basu, Beyond the Laissez Faire (2010) that we need to be careful about perceived fairness, equality of opportunity, the provision of basic needs, and poverty alleviation. He examines the work of Simon Kuznets who indicates that inequalities rise with economic growth upto a point and then



decline (Kuznets inverted ‘U’ shape curve). Initially economic growth increases overall inequality as the rural-urban transformation takes place and labour moves from low productivity agriculture to high productivity urban industrial and service sector activities. To Tendulkar (2010), there may not be increasing feeling of inequity as people observe opportunity of high mobility and can aspire to move upwards like others. Dimensions of Inequality The share of global wealth of richest 1 per cent rose from 44% in 2009 to 48% in 2014 and at this rate it will be more than 50% in 2016. A report on inequality in India8, reveals that the richest 1% owned 53% of the country’s wealth while the share of the top 10% was 76.3%. In other words, 90% of Indians own a less than 24% of the country’s wealth. Generally inequality is examined with consumption distribution as income distribution data is not available. However, inequality in consumption may be an under estimate as NSS data may not be capturing the consumption of the rich adequately. In fact, inequality in income would be much higher than that of consumption. It may be noted that if we consider access to education and other public services like health, electricity, drinking water, the inequalities could be much higher.

A more recent way of looking at inequality is to examine the poverty ratios across social groups. Poverty declined much faster for all the social groups during the period 2004-05 to 2011-12 as compared to the period1993-94 to 2004-05 (Pangariya and More 2013). The rate of decline in poverty is the highest for SCs. The decline in poverty for SCs and OBCs exceeded the national average during the period 2004-05 to 2011-12. Poverty decline for STs was more or less similar to that of national average. It looks like SCs, STs and OBCs benefited equally or more in the high growth phase of 2004-05 to 2011-12. However, the poverty levels are higher for STs and SCs as compared to other groups. Particularly the poverty ratio of STs was two times to that of national average in 2011-12. Therefore, there is a need to have special focus on policies relating to STs for reduction in their poverty.

Inequalities in Labour Market Most of the socio-economic inequalities tend to have labour market dimension. Some issues on inequality exclusively deal with labour market structures, processes, mechanisms and outcomes while some others are influenced by labour institutions and labour market forces9. The evidence



based current research has shown that there have been significant inequalities in labour markets in India. Inequalities can be found across sectors, wages and earnings, quality of work, labour market access and, between organized and unorganized sector. Labour market segmentation is another important issue regarding inequalities. Wage differentials can’t be explained by economic factors alone in spite of increasing occupational 8. See IHD 2014 9. Quoted in Dev 2016, p. 20 and geographical mobility. Sometimes people do not move despite the attraction of higher earnings. Segmentation based on occupational skills and consequently industry and sectors is well known. It can be well observed also in case of rural non-farm sector and inequality at village level (Himanshu etal 2013). Reducing labour market inequalities is important for sustainability of growth, reduction in poverty and rise in human development.

Gender Inequalities Inequality between men and women is an important issue in India. Gender inequality index is the highest for India among the countries listed in BRICS countries10. The percentage of 25 plus female population with some secondary education and female participation rates are the lowest among these countries. Gender discrimination is another form of labour segmentation. The wages of women workers are lower than those of men across most employment categories and locations. There are distinct conventionally earmarked spheres of work for women and the entry of women into most male-dominated occupations is constrained. Conventional women’s work is characterized by lower wages and earnings and limited upward mobility. Participation rates of women are low and declined in India (IHD 2014). Work participation rate for women in India is only 22% compared to 54% for males. In fact in urban areas, only 15% of women’s participation in work compared to 55% for men. Recently IMF Chief Christine Lagarde said increase in women’s participation rates would increase 40% GDP in India. It is true that increase in women’s participation is important to reduce gender inequalities (Nandi and Hensman, 2015).

Inequality and Growth Increase in inequality can reduce the impact of growth on poverty. Higher inequality may adversely affect growth in a number of ways such as social



discontent, reduction in size of domestic market due to lower demand etc. Thus growth with increasing inequalities may not be sustainable. Living with high inequalities may lead to lower than expected growth and all the negative consequences of inequalities.

Policies for reducing inequalities Many of the policies for elimination of poverty and promotion of inclusive growth are also applicable for reduction in inequalities. For example, increase in the productivity of unorganized sector or small and medium enterprises or decline in poverty of SCs and STs can increase both growth and equity.

One view generally floated is that there are also high inequalities in China. One has to distinguish between China and India. In China, everyone has basic needs and capabilities like health and education. While in India we do not have these capabilities for majority of the population. Endogenous growth models and capabilities approach or investing in human capital or human development approach may have some answer. This can be shown in the 10. As per HDR 2014 contrast between East Asia and South Asia. We know that India has not invested in human capital till recent years adequately. One view is that you do not have to wait for higher growth to achieve human development. One can raise human development with moderate growth. There are examples all over the world and within in India. But for sustainability both higher growth and higher human development are needed. Yet another issue particularly in the context of India is social exclusion of SCs, STs and minorities and gender. Here economics alone will not help inclusion. Here social and political factors are important apart from economic factors. Growth with redistribution will not affect social behavior without social transformation.

The more important issue is whether markets and/or state are inclusive or exclusive. In many cases, markets can be exclusive with social exclusion not an exception. State can also be exclusive. Police, legal system and many other things of state can be exclusive. But, markets and state can also be inclusive. Pronab Sen who was involved in 12th plan document preparation indicates that during their consultations for the 12th Five Year Plan, an overwhelming proportion of the civil society in India clearly believed that the market was more inclusive than government interventions in Indian context12. No doubt, this is an interesting observation and needs further investigation. Here the concerns of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, regional imbalance and gender have to be considered.



Inclusiveness and Empowerment There is a feeling among many people that we should have some flagship social protection programmes like MGNREGA and others to achieve equitable growth (GOI, 2012). No doubt these programmes are important for protecting the poor. But, equitable or inclusive growth is much broader than this and productive inclusion in terms of generating quality employment should be the focus of any inclusive approach, not only in interest of individuals but also that of the country. Employment focus is the major part of equity approach. Both formal sector and informal sector have roles in generating productive employment. Increase in labour productivity and generation of productive employment would lead to higher growth and decline in reduction in poverty. The agriculture sector's share in total employment has fallen to below 50 per cent. We need more diversified agriculture development. Labour productivity of non-agriculture was six times more than agriculture in 2011-12. Workers must be shifted to manufacturing and services. The unemployment rate by current daily status was only 5.6 per cent in 2011-12, whereas youth unemployment stood at 13.3 per cent13.

Concluding Observations In the post-reform period, India has done well in many indicators such as economic growth, exports, balance of payments, resilience to external shocks, service sector growth, foreign exchange reserves, information technology (IT), stock market and improvements in telecommunications. But, there have been some failures in the processes and outcomes. 11. See Mind, Society and Behaviour, World Development Report 2015. 12. Quoted in Dev 2016. 13. See IHD 2014 five areas of failures are: slow infrastructure development, failures in increasing labour intensive manufacturing, not taking advantage of demographic dividend, slow social sector development and governance failures. India needs to forge policies and programmes in non-gradualist way in order to have higher economic growth and equity in the next few years. Poverty decline has been faster in 2000s compared to that of 1990s. But, still India has more than 300 million poor people besides some non-poor falling under vulnerable category. There are significant inequalities by sector, region, gender and social groups. Creation of productive employment is crucial for reduction in poverty, particularly in informal sector and in more socially inclusive way. India aspiring to be a global power should invest in human capital and improve human development. The need for skill development for



generation of productive jobs and to reap "demographic dividend" is obvious. Everyone, irrespective of caste, class and gender, should have equal opportunities in education, health, employment and entrepreneurship for socially inclusive growth. Central government has to play an important and leading role in achieving higher growth and equitable development, being bold in decision making and its implementation using political acumen in consensus building. There are many important areas like agriculture, health care and rural infrastructure where state governments spend much more than the Centre. Therefore, policies and governance at state level are much more important for better outcomes that needs better coordination between states and the Centre, objectively sharing their accountability in national interest at large. Reforms, among other things, need to be shifted to more efficient delivery systems of public services. A major institutional challenge is the accountability of service providers, particularly the public sector.

Limitations of the Study: The paper is a descriptive study assimilating number of issues based on secondary data/information to make macro observation of the economy. Therefore, it does not resort to in-depth data collection and its statistical analysis. Each aspect taken up here needs in-depth study and to be researched on them separately.

REFERENCES

Ahluwalia, Montek (2010), “India’s Prospects in the Post-Crisis World”, 2010

Narayanan Oration lecture, Australian National University, Canberra.

Ahluwalia, Montek (2012), “Prospects and Policy Challenges in the Twelfth Plan”, Economic and Political weekly, Vol.46, No.21

Banerjee, Abhijit and Esther Duflo (2011), “Poor Economics: A Radical Thinking of the way to fight Global Poverty”, Public Affairs , New York

Bardhan, P.K.(2005) “Nature of Opposition to Economic Reforms in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, November 25, 2006

Dev, S. Mahendra (2016),” Economic Reforms, Poverty and Inequality”, WP-2016-009, IGIDR, Mumbai

Dreze, J. and Amartya Sen (2013), “An Uncertain Glory: India and its Contradictions”, Princeton University Press



Ghose, A.K. (2015b), “India Employment Report”, mimeo, Institute for Human Development, New Delhi

GOI (2014), "Report of the Expert Group to review the Methodology for Measurement of poverty", Chaired by C. Rangarajan, Planning Commission, Government of India

Himanshu, Peter Lajouw, Rinku Murgai, and Nicholas Stern (2013), “Non-farm diversification, poverty, economic mobility and income inequality: A Case Study in Village India”, “Agricultural Economics”, Vol 44: 461-73

IHD (2014), “India: Labour and Employment Report 2014”, Institute for Human Development, Delhi

Jalan, Bimal (2006), “The Future of India: Politics, Economics and Governance” Penguin Books, New Delhi

Muralidharan, Kartik (2013) ““Priorities for Primary education Policy in India’s 12th Five Year Plan”, India Policy Forum 2013, NCAER-Brookings, New Delhi

Nandy, Amrita and Rohini Hensman (2015), “The Work Women Do”, Indian Express, November 7, 2015.

Panagariya, Arvind and Vishal More (2013), “Poverty by Social, Religious & Economic Groups in India and its Large States: 1993-94 to 2011-12” working paper no.2013-02, Columbia University, Program on Indian Economic Policies, USA

Piketty, Thomas (2014), “Capital in the Twenty-First Century” The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, London

Rajan, Raghuram (2014), “Make in India – Largely for India”, Bharat Ram Memorial Lecture, December 12, Reserve Bank of India.

Ramaswamy, K.V. and T. Agarwal (2013), "Services-led Growth, Employment, Skill, and Job quality: A Study of Manufacturing and Service Sectors in Urban India", in Rao, C.H.H (2009), “Inclusive Growth: Recent Experiences and Challenges Ahead”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 44, No.13

Reddy, Y.V. (2011), “India and Global Financial Crisis: Managing Money and Finance”, Orient Blakswan, Paperback

Tendulkar, S.D. (2010), “Inequality and Equity during Rapid Growth Process”, in Acharya, Shankar and Rakesh Mohan (2010), “Indian Economy: Performances and Challenges, Essays in Honour of Montek Singh Ahluwalia, Oxford University Press, New Delhi

Narayana Reddy Bommineni Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Speech Sounds in English – A Study with Reference

to Speaking and Writing Skills

Narayana Reddy Bommineni Principal, Jayamukhi College of Education, Mugdumpuram, Chennaraopet

Mandal, Warangal Rural District, Telangana State, India.

ABSTRACT Communication is an activity in which information of some sort is transferred from one ‘system’ to another by means of some physical

embodiment. Communication - unlike language, which is a specia1 form of communication – does not exist only in human beings; it can exist well among animals, or even in parts of animals as when nervous impulses are transmitted from one part of body to another, or when genetical 'information' is conveyed from cell to cell; or it can exist even in machines, as in servo-mechanisms, electronic feedback circuits, or in such simple devices as thermostats.

Keywords: Speech Sounds, Motivating Pictures, Speaking Agencies, Sample illustrations, mind attitudes, Physical embodiment

Introduction “Speech sounds cannot be understood, delimited, classified and explained except in the light of the tasks which they perform in language”

Prof. Roman Jakobson Men communicate with; one another in various ways. The most obvious are speech and writing. But there are many others: gestures with the hands, facial expressions, nods, winks, smiles; the ringing of bells or the sounding of horns, sirens; the waving of flags; the flashing or changing of colors of lights; the moving of pointers over dials; carving of wood or stone or the. shaping of metal or plastic' or some other material; drawings, paintings, sketches, maps, diagrams, still moving pictures; the playing of musical instruments; singing, dancing, acting, miming, and so on. All these ways of communicating, different as they are, have one characteristic in common, and that is the translating of something originating in brain or nervous system – some

Narayana Reddy Bommineni ISSN 2349-0519


thought, idea, belief, opinion, emotion, feeling, attitude of mind – into some .physical embodiment, something that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. The act of communication can be analyzed into four constituent parts, which need five agencies for their operation. This can be illustrated by taking the simple case of one person talking to another - sending the message to another person by means of speech. The message is what the speaker wants to tell the listener. In order to be able to utter the message the speaker has first to select, from. a large number of combinations of words available to him in the language he is using, those that will convey. The message he wants and not any other. This selection goes on in his brain and nervous system. When it is complete he utters the words he has chosen. His vocal organs become the transmitter of the message, and the resulting sound-waves in the atmosphere make up the physical embodiment, or signal, by means of which the information that conveys the message is realized. The listener's organs of hearing become the receiver by picking up this signal and conveying it to the listener's brain where it is interpreted.

Language and Skills The most reliable way of studying language is by an examination of the physical embodiments, which can be recorded and reproduced and made publicly available so that all observers may have the same material to work upon, with the same tools. The physical embodiment of language is two-fold. It is substance realized in sound-waves traveling through the atmosphere, or it is a kind of record of that substance realized in the marks of writing or printing. Even in those cases where writing is used as a means of communication in its own right, the author of what is written uses the same kind of marks as are used to record speech, so that what is written can always be read aloud and always has the implication of speech. The substance of language which is realized as sound-waves in the atmosphere is called phonic substance, and that which is realized as the marks of writing or printing is called graphic substance. Anything which exists physically and which can therefore be perceived, by the senses can be to have form, that is, a shape, or an arrangement of parts that makes any particular manifestation recognizable by the senses same, as, or different from, any other particular manifestation. The substance of language has form in this sense, and this form of language substance enables us to distinguish what is language from what is not. A random selection of, noises made by the vocal organs, the grunts and

ISSN 2349-0519 Speech Sounds In English…


breathings of two men having a fight, is not language in this sense though it may communicate something. It is not language because it is not articulated into conventionally recognizable patterns, as are, the vocal sounds made by a radio announcer reading a news bulletin. Studying English Language It is useful to be able to think of a language as a code. To do so is to invoke ideas derived from the mathematical theory of communication or what most people nowadays call information theory. This is a branch of science which has been developed in the recent years by communication engineers who have investigated problems connected with the transmission of messages of all kinds by telephone, radio and electronic devices. The main conclusions of Information Theory are reported and expressed in terms of mathematics of statistical probability. the ideas lead to a conception of what information means, and to an understanding of the differences between the conception of information and that of a message. When we look at a communication channel and note the various signs which make the signals that are sent across it, we notice that each sign is a kind of instruction from the encoder and the decoder will share the same kind of knowledge of what the signs of the code are, and we are justified in making this assumption because of our definition of a code as pre-arranged set of signs. When we observe instances of what we think are 'correct' responses to signals - the obeying of commands in the right way has made the same selection from the code as the encoder made when he transmitted the signal. It can be understood that the information conveyed by a sign as an instruction to make a choice from the items of the code, to choose this and reject those. The ideas about communication include the idea of meaning, the meaning of a sign. A sign is a physical mark or event that carries information. The meaning' of a sign is a kind of response to a stimulus. It depends on the relationship between the sign itself and the response it evokes, and this relationship is a matter of degree or scalar difference in the nature of responses to a given sign or a set of signs. Further, a special kind of sign is symbol. It is a sign which conveys information both directly and indirectly. In so far as all symbols are signs they are physical marks or events, but they have this additional property: they always convey more information than signs do. They may in fact convey two or more information that signs do. They may in fact convey two or three or



even more bits of information simultaneously. They have therefore a greater amount of meaning. When signs are transmitted across a communication channel they group themselves into signals, and each sign is an instruction to the decoder to differentiate that sign from others, to choose only the information which it conveys and not any other information, and thus to assemble to signal which is the message. But so far as the language is concerned, this kind of process can become extremely complex, because of the symbolic nature of language. The sounds which we speak when we utter words and sentences in conversation are symbols for our thoughts and ideas. And in graphic substance, the marks of writing or printing are symbols for sounds as well as other ideas. Different kinds of printed marks may even mean different kinds of things. Communication in the Language There is another concept of communication. Codes ‘rules’ for the use of signs

brought some of this potential capacity of the code into communication channels when it was not 'really' necessary for efficient use of the channel. An efficiently used channel is very 'productive' and its 'productivity' can be measured as a ratio of 'input' to 'output'. If more is put into the channel by the encoder that is absolutely necessary for the assembly of the message by the decoder, then the ratio of 'input' to 'output' is high, and the channel is not used efficiently, for its productivity is low. Thus, anything which is brought into a communication channel when it is not really necessary, or any unpredictable interference with the transmission of signs across the channel, and therefore any addition to the bare minimum requirements of the signal, can be called noise. The word ‘communication’, derived from the Latin word

‘communicare’ or ‘communico’ means to share. Communication is not merely

transmission of idea from one person to other through sounds. As Uma Narula points out, “... in an active communication, the effort is for

interaction, inter change, dialogue and mutual understanding. Communication presupposes a shared symbolic environment and social relationship among those who participate leading to social interaction"1. Literally communication means the act of sharing or exchanging information, ideas or feelings. Giving or receiving some information in return for something else is possible only if there is congruity between transmission and reception. Failure in communicating effectively is the root of misunderstanding.



Language Trends Every language is a code. In the process of coding and decoding messages, difficulties may arise when signals confuse the elements of code. The confusion or incongruency arising out of spoken language is called noise. Referring to noise, H.A. Gleason remarks, "The obvious way to avoid noise is to introduce redundancy". An effective code must have sufficient redundancy to compensate for any noise in the system. Gleason also opines, "Since a language typically has an appreciable amount of redundancy inherent in its structure, it is always possible to use it in the presence of a moderate amount of noise"12. When the amount of noise is greater, more redundancy is needed, as speech operates under a wide variety of conditions like reverberation; resonance in the environment and impact of culture and habit. In a language what is called "quiet" there are considerable possibilities of what mayhem called "noise". Rules safeguard the tradition and richness in a language. A rule in a language describes what is usual or correct. Rules must have scholarly explanation, for the user to respond to the language intelligibly. If language is to be guarded by hard and fast rules, then there should be an explanation for every exception. The beginner finds the use of mother tongue instinctive and learns it with ease. He is unaware of the rules of grammar or phonetics. The learner enjoys using the language and his mistakes are accepted and corrected. While learning the second language such as English, the beginner has to acquaint himself with rules in the beginning. Learning becomes imposed and is deviated from the natural way. The beginner is afraid of not being accepted and thus lose intelligibility. On the other hand, the essence of communication is the presence of a thought that a speaker wishes to share with the listener. Communication implies the absence of external control. One of the common ways of making English prevalent is to make if easily learnable. The process of teaching and learning phonetic language is a difficult task because the rules have many exceptions. The situation worsens when language regulations are passed on without any clarifications which leads to mere parroting. Thus a plateau exists in creative communication graph of teaching learning process. It is also observed that the learner avoids language usage fearing his intention is not properly communicated. The succeeding chapter deals in detail how some phonetical and grammatical rules that are arbitrary cause noise in language.



Communication encompasses not only transfer of idea or message but also expression of feeling or intention. It is language that matters, not the rules that subordinate language. Language exists in a frame of rules reasonable and flexible to satisfy the basic needs of communication. As long as intelligibility in communication prevails, spoken and written forms of the language are acceptable. The study attempts to put these twin aspects of language and the noise in the speech entail into a perspective. What need to be done On balance, the arguments and evidence presented above favor the multidirectional theory and behavior analytic support of that theory. This support is clearer in contemporary behavior analysis than in early S-R psychology. The if-then simplicity of early S-R theory is no longer an ideal for all behavioral accounts, and any tendency to see the relationship between speech and writing as a simple one-way relationship receives little support now from dispositions toward a Mechanistic World View (which were fairly pervasive at the turn of the century). Instead of an exclusive reliance on paired correspondences between stimulus and response, modern accounts of behavior have largely shifted to a more systematic, functional analysis of behavior in terms of functional antecedent correspondences to behavior, functional consequences, and the functional contexts of settings. Instead of a general description of behavior in terms of stimulus and response (S-R), behavior is now more appropriately described in terms of antecedents, behavior, consequences, and setting. The main practical issue to be resolved is which ways will be better ways of applying modern behavioral theory.

Since the multidirectional view undermines any theoretical need for a priori one-way sequences of instruction, a variety of other ways might well be considered and implemented for developing literacy. Instruction, for example, might be continually modified by teachers on the basis of student self-recorded progress in a variety of literacy skills. Revising their instruction on the basis of reported data, inside and outside of their classroom, teachers might then pull together a variety of multidirectional practices in different ways from a variety of behavioral technologies. The resulting reading program may then appear as bits and pieces connected by unifying themes-a status which has been claimed for behavioral technology in general. Such a collection of bits and pieces may be disconcerting to those who like tightly integrated end products. But such an arrangement may be an advantage if it encourages



components to be changed and modified. Perhaps more progress in literacy would occur by selecting from competing components rather than competing total packages. Giving teachers more instructional discretion in doing this, however, will probably mean giving teachers more support in advancing record-keeping both as a fundamental literacy skill and as a method for evaluating instruction in literacy skills.

Conclusion And lastly, there are the many interesting cases of what has been called mixed medium. Here we choose to use either speech or writing, but the reason for choosing one may require us to bear in mind the existence of the other, and this then influences the nature of the language we use. When we choose to speak, we usually intend our utterance to be heard immediately. But there are several interesting exceptions.

When we choose to write, we normally intend that what we have written should be read; and the norm, at least since late classical times, has been for the recipient to read silently. Here too there are several exceptions; for example, we may write with the intention that what we have written should be read aloud, as with those who prepare scripts for radio or television drama or news. There are also a few situations where speaking and writing are mutually dependent: the language used is partly made up of speaking/listening activities and partly of reading/writing activities, in proportions that are sometimes difficult to disentangle. For example, when we address a group of listeners using an overhead projector, we may keep up a running commentary while we write. In such a case, an audio recording would tell only half the story, as would a photograph of the written work. Both mediums here work together to produce a successful use of language. REFERENCES Alderson, J.C. Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a

language problem. In J.C. Anderson & A.H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language, New York, NY: Longman, 1984.

Alexander, Peter. William Shakespeare – The Complete Works. The English Language Book Society and Collins. London: Glasgow, 1951.



Anthony. E.M. “Approach, Method and Technique”, English Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP, 1963.

Bansal, R.K. The intelligibility of Indian English, Monograph No.4, Central Institute of Foreign Languages, Hyderabad. 1985.

Barnes, D. From Communication to Curriculum. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1976.

Berciter, C. Some persisting dilemmas in the measurement of Chance. In Harris, C.W. (Ed.), Problems in measuring Chance., Machison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2017.

Fries Charles Carpenter. The Structure of English; an Introduction to the Construction of English Sentences. New York: Harcourt, 1952.

Gautam, K.K. English Language Teaching: A Critical Study of Methods and Approaches. New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1988.

Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing: The Foundations of Grammatology. Chicago Press, 1952.

American Council of Learned Societies, Committee on the Language Program. Structural Notes and Corpus. (2016).

Bernard Spolsky, “What Does it Mean to know a Language or How Do you Get Someone to perform His Competence?” Paper delivered to the

University of Southern California Testing Conference, 1968.

Bloomfield, Leonard. Outline Guide for the practical Study of a Foreign Language. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America (1942).

Brumfit, Christopher. “The Bangalore Procedural Syllabus.” English Language Teaching. 38.4 (2016).

Cisero, C.A., & Royer, J.M. “The development of Cross – Language transfer of Phonological Awareness”. Contemporary Educational Psychology (2017).

Clarke, M. “The Short circuit hypothesis of ESL reading – Or when language competence interferes with reading performance.” Modern Language Journal. 64 (1980).

Crookal D. “Learner Training a neglected Strategy”. Modern English Teacher. (1983).

Edward M. Anthony. “Approach, Method and Technique”. English Language Teaching Ar. 1, (1963).



Fernandez – Toro, M. and Jones. “F.R. DIY Techniques for Language

Learners”. London: CILT (2001).

Gleason, Weimer M. “Better Communication in Large Courses.” College Teaching. 34.1(1986).

Hampe, R. “Theoretical Perspectives and new practices in Language

Learning”. Re CALL Journal. (2003).

Harrison, R. “Learner Managed Learning: Managing to learn or Learning to

Manage?” International Journal of Lifelong Education (2000).

Hughes-d’ Aeth, Armand. “Classroom Organisation and the Teacher.” Cross Currents. (ed.) Mayer, Laura A. and Brian C. Toblin. 11.2 (1984).

Lambardo, L. “Oral Testing: Getting a Sample of Real Language”, English Teaching Forum. 22.1 (1984).

Lewis, Micheal. “The Lexical Approach”. The State of ELT and a Way Formward. ISBN O – 906717 (1993):

Lionel E. Deimel. “The Columbia Guide”. An Essay on Critism. Caderons http: //www. Iep. uminho. pt/gtpa/indexing.htm@LED.

Benson, Morton, et. al., The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 1997.

Goodale, Malcom. Collins Co BUILD English Dictionary – Workbook. London: Haper Collins, 1995.

Samuel Buckett. www. google search/Language noise @ 7 entries so far new article on scratching.

Heffner, List of erros, introductory page. <<http://www.wsn.edu/ brains/errors. http://www.cln.org/subjects/es/cur.html.

www.priorservice.com@search/storming media LLC. Tittles Authors and Abstract @ 2009-14. http://privatewww.essex.ac.nk/~patrick p/aaversem/htm#B TESOLANZ at [email protected] <http://www.warwick.ac.uk/~elsdr/ Teachers autonomy.pdf

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N. Rajesh Kumar Reddy Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Knowledge and Awareness on MGNREGS: A Study

in YSR Kadapa District of Andhra Pradesh

N. Rajesh Kumar Reddy Research Scholar, Department of Sociology, Off Campus, Dravidian

University, Kuppam, Chittore District, Andhra Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was launched in 2006 and renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in 2009. Initially the scheme was launched in 200 most backward districts in the first phase and extended to 330 districts in the second phase during 2007-08. The remaining 266 districts were notified in September, 2008 and the scheme now has been extended to all the districts of the country. MGNREGA has placed a judicially enforceable obligation on the state. Under the provisions of the Act, State Governments are to provide unskilled, manual work within 15 days of a person making an application, within a radius of 5 kms from the applicant’s residence.

Failing this, the state government has to provide an employment allowance. Workers are entitled to a statutory minimum wage for their labour to be paid within 7 days after the work is done. Men and women are to be paid equal wages without any discrepancy. The Act gives entitlement to every rural household to demand for wage employment. It is the State Government’s responsibility to provide 100

days of employment to each household. The present study express the people knowledge and perception on MGNREGS rules and regulation and community participation for smooth running the scheme in rural rears of YSR Kadapa District. Keywords: Guarantee, Equal wages, Labour, Act.

Introduction In the past 69 years India has developed a lot, In spite of this development India still ranks 134 in human development index. This journey from under developed country to a developing country has brought many changes some good some bad but still there are some issues which still are the same for example poverty and unemployment. In these past 6 decades a lot has been

ISSN 2349-0519 Knowledge and Awareness on MGNREGS…


done to improve them and one such measure was taken on Aug 25 2005 in the name of MGNREGA. It was adopted by Indian government to reduce rural unemployment and poverty so that it leads to reduction of rural-urban migration in search of employment. Being the largest public work programme a lot has been expected from MGNREGA since its inception and thus it has always been in limelight. MGNREGA is different from earlier employment programmes launched by government of India as on one hand it is a demand driven scheme while on the other hand it treats employment as right of rural household. This scheme provides income directly to unskilled workers in rural areas. There are many people against this scheme who think that it is just another instance of a large chunk of public money being flushed down the drain in pointless rural development work. Despite these challenges it can be clearly seen from last MGNREGA report that number of households with MGNREGA are increasing constantly and also are the number of days providing employment. One of the major achievements of this scheme is increasing participation of women. By proving equal wage rate to men and women this scheme has empowered women economically and socially. The eleventh five year plan marks a significant departure from the conventional way of looking at women in plan document. It tries to mark the centrality of women in all sectors. It explicitly recognizes, probably for the first time, that women are not just equal citizens but agents of economic and social growth (Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability, 2008, P.50). The Mahatma Gandhi Nation Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in India an important safety nets for women (UN Women, 2013). According to Dr. Pranab Mukherjee (2009) inclusive growth carries the twin strategy of the growth and the instrumentalities through which it is achieved, so that the benefits reach the largest section of the society and that the maximum numbers of people are able to derive benefits from these development projects. That is why special emphasis was given to schemes like MGNREGA. Various provisions under the Act and its Guidelines aim to ensure that women have equitable and easy access to work, decent working conditions, equal payment of wages and representation on decision-making bodies. From FY 2006-07 up to FY 2013 -14 (up to Dec, 2013) the women participation rate has ranged between 40-51 per cent of the total person-days generated, much above

N. Rajesh Kumar Reddy ISSN 2349-0519


the statutory minimum requirement of 33 per cent. In fact, the participation rate of women under the Scheme has been higher than in all forms of recorded work. Research studies also indicate that Mahatma Gandhi NREGA is an important work opportunity for women who would have otherwise remained unemployed or underemployed. MGNREGS in Andhra Pradesh The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act came into effect in September, 2005. The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh, has launched the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme on 02.02.2006 in Bandlapalli village of Anantapur District. This Scheme shall provide at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in every financial year to every household below the poverty line and for its adult members to do unskilled manual work. This Scheme was implemented in 22 Districts of Andhra Pradesh, {13 Districts in Phase I, 6 Districts in Phase II and 3 Districts in Phase III (except in Hyderabad)} for the first time in the history of the country. The Act gives entitlement to every rural household to demand for wage employment. It is the State Government’s responsibility to provide 100 days of

employment to each household.

The Act empowers people to play a pivotal role in the implementation of employment guarantee Schemes through Gram Sabhas, social audits, participatory planning and setting up of local Vigilance and Monitoring Committees. It was strongly felt that active community participation in full swing is immensely important for ensuring transparency and public accountability. Thus, there is a promoting role for all grassroots institutions such as workers associations, local beneficiary committees, self-help groups and user groups in spreading awareness, mobilizing workers and in monitoring the implementation of the Scheme.

Social Audit of MGNREGS and Andhra Pradesh The Government of Andhra Pradesh recognized that if corruption was to be controlled in MGNREGS, several steps would have to be taken to plug potential leakages. For one thing, past experience with the National Food-for-Work Programme (NFFWP) revealed that inf1ated budgets would be prepared by engineers and contractors, workers would be defrauded of their wages (particularly if they were paid in cash) and it was difficult to track expenditure



as vouchers, bills, pay orders and sanction orders were prepared at different levels. It was virtually impossible to assemble all the papers needed for scrutiny.

A.P. in Implementation of MGNREGS This programme has been grounded in the State of Andhra Pradesh on a strong footing with the following: 1. Contractors and labour displacing machinery shall not be engaged. 2. Every registered rural household shall be provided not less than 100 days

of wage employment in a financial year. 3. Payment of wages shall be made at least once in a fortnight. 4. Equal wages shall be paid to men and women. Works approved by the

Gram Panchayat (identified in the Gram Sabha) at village level, the Mandal Parishad at Mandal Level and the Zilla Parishad at District level only shall be taken up.

An Overview of MGNREGS in KADAPA District Total No of Mandals 50 Total No of Gram Panchayats 791 Total No of revenue villages 1097 Total No of Jobcards Issued 7,29,034 Household total wage (Lakhs) 16392.99 No of House hold registered 5,57,588 No of House hold working 2,05,353 Household total working days 1,06,56,040 Household avg. wage 153.84

Source: Department of Rural development, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Report 2015-16.

Review of Literature There are many studies done on the evaluation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). The literature reviewed here focuses on different studies that look at problems in the implementation of the scheme in general and in particular pertaining to women and at possible ways to deal with these problems.

Bhattarai at al (2014) in their study Impact of MGNREGA on Rural Credit Structure in Andhra Pradesh state of India: Household Level Panel Data Analysis from 2006-2012, With expenditure of USD8 billion per annum, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Schemes



(MGNREGS) of India is one of the largest Social Safety Nets (SSN) programs in the developing world. The program aims to improve rural livelihood in India by reducing overall vulnerability and distress of rural poor. The nature and degree of implementation of the program vary across the Indian states (provinces); Andhra Pradesh is one of the states which have received/spent largest national level MGNREGS funding. Using panel data sets out of ICRISAT targeted four villages (and 227 households) in Andhra Pradesh state for the last 5 years (2007-11), we quantified the impact on the program on credit and debt structure the rural households, using quasi- experimental design such as difference-in-difference method of impact assessment.

Narasimha Reddy at al (2014) in their study has evaluated the differentiating impact of MGNREGA on the extent of fulfillment of the basic entitlements such as days of employment, wages and earnings and the extent of coverage of social groups like dalits, adivasis and women and poverty alleviation. This study has disaggregated state level data to discern the factors that make a difference to the performance. Also some micro level scenarios are presented based on the reports of focus group discussions (FGDs) in the villages of Andhra Pradesh. Based on macro level results and micro level evidence some policy interventions are suggested - such as development of labor saving technologies and machines to mitigate labor scarcity, an inclusive farm mechanization program especially for women and youth, strengthening rural urban connectivity, social protection for migrant labor and Capacity building programs for skill augmentation. Further, a revision of the time frame of MGNREGA work to create more employment in the lean season has been recommended.

Jawed Akhtar S.M. (2012) attempts to examine and assess the environmental implications of the activities implemented under the MGNREGS. He considered that the MGNREGA as it designates a balance between human action and natural resources creating sustainable economic security through green jobs. The MGNREGS must be strengthened and revamped to provide not just wages for work done but work that will make regeneration possible. The author validates that assets created under MGNREGA have been useful and have contributed towards natural resource regeneration. Since MGNREGA is an ecological Act, it was suggested to set up a biological hedge that grows by the year and not regenerate like sea walls made of stone boulders.



Ashok Pankaj Rukmini Tankha (2010) examines the empowerment effects of the national Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme on rural women in Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. They argue that women workers have gained from the scheme primarily because of the paid employment opportunity, and benefits have been realised through income-consumption effects, intra-household effects, and the enhancement of choice and capability. Women have also gained to some extent in terms of realization of equal wages under the NREGS, with long-term Implications for correcting gender skewness and gender discriminatory wages prevalent in the rural labour market of India. Despite the difficulties and hurdles for women, prospects lie, inter alia, in their collective mobilization, more so in laggard states.

Need for the Study The MGNREGS aimed at helping the poor people to improve of farm incomes through participatory technological interventions, application of eco-technologies, ICT-enabled knowledge system, value chain and market linkage, and building their capacity, are being implemented now. This underlines the need for the study. In the backdrop of planning for economic development in the context of spreading globalization impact, a study of the contribution of MGNREGS adds to the literature on development for equality and betterment of people belonging to the scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribe communities women who form a special class of under privileged villagers.

Methodology Objectives 1. To find out the objectives, features and other details of Mahatma Gandhi

National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS); 2. To investigate the extent of availing of MGNREGS by the rural poor; 3. To assess the economic and social impact of MGNREGS on the rural poor 4. To examine the people knowledge and awareness on MGNREGS in rural

areas for effective implementation of the Scheme. Sampling A multi-stage random sampling technique has been adopted to select the sample beneficiaries for the study. YSR Kadapa District was chosen as the MGNREGS has been implemented well in the District. Rajempeta was selected on the basis of performance of the Scheme. The three revenue



panchyats has been selected on the registration of the job cards such as Peddakarampalli 90 samples Kollavaripalli 60 samples, Pulapathuru 100 samples and Akepadu 70 samples has been adopted for the study.

Techniques of Data Collection Both primary and secondary data were made use of in the present study for analysis, drawing inferences and arriving at conclusions keeping in view the objectives of the study. Primary data was collected through personal interviews with the sample respondents with the help of a pre-tested interview schedule. Secondary data was collected from Reports and records available at the offices of Project Director, DWAMA, Mandal Praja Parishads in Adoni, Bethamcherla and Mahanandi, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, Indian Five Year Plan Documents and other published and unpublished Reports.

Experience with MGNREGS The respondents have been working in MGNREGS for quite some time. Different respondents have different levels of experience and the experience varies from respondents to respondent. The information on the experience of the respondents with MGNREGS has been elicited and presented in the Table-1.

Table 1 Experience with MGNREGS

Experience with MGNREGS No of Respondents Percentage 1 Year 8 2.5% 2 Years 24 7.5% 3 Years 44 13.8% 4 Years 79 24.7% 5 Years 165 51.6% Total 320 100%

The table presents that 165 respondents (51.6%) have 5 years of experience with in MGNREGS 79 respondents (24.7%) have 4 years of experience in MGNREGS and 44 respondents (13.8%) have 3 years of experience in MGNREGS and 24 respondents (7.5%) have 2 years of experience in MGNREGS and plain 8 respondents (2.5%) have just 1 year of experience in MGNREGS. By and large, it is concluded that around 52 per cent of the respondents have 5 years of experience in MGNREGS. It is quite interesting to note that higher the experience higher will be the number of respondents.



No. of working days in last one year The MGNREGS provides a minimum 100 and recently extended the 125 days working days to the beneficiaries. The information on the number of working days the respondents have availed has been elicited and presented in the Table-2.

Table 2

No. of days worked in the last one year No.of days No. of Respondents Percentage < 25 days 16 5.0%

26-50 days 41 12.8% 51-75 days 102 31.9% 76-100 days 136 42.5%

100-125 25 7.8% Total 320 100%

The table presents that 136 respondents (42.5%) worked for 76 -100 days in the last one year and 102 respondents (31.9%) worked for 51-75 days the remaining respondents worked for less than 50 days in the last one year. A small portion i.e. 7.8 % were fulfill the 125 days as for government extended who are the under BPL. It is concluded that more than 50 per cent of the respondents worked for 76 -125 days in the last one year. Total earnings The information on the total earnings of the respondents through MGNREGS has been collected and presented in the Table-3.

Table 3

Total amount earned through MGNREGS by the Respondents Total Earnings (Rs.) No. of Respondents Percentage

0 -5000 59 18.4 5001-10000 82 25.6

10001-15000 53 16.6 15001-20000 108 33.8

20001 & above 18 5.6 Total 320 100%

The table shows that 108 respondents (33.8%) earned an amount of Rs. 15,001-20,000 through MGNREGS followed by 82 respondents (25.6%) earned Rs.5001-10000, 59 respondents (18.4%) earned Rs. 5000, 53 respondents (16.6%) earned an amount of Rs. 10001-15000 A mere 5.6percent of the respondents earn Rs. 20001 & above.



Availability of Facilities at work site Facilities or working conditions at any work place are important for the development, progress and smooth functioning of work. Higher the facilities, higher will be the performance and progress. The facilities available at work place for the respondents has been elicited and presented in the Table-5

Table 4

Availability of Facilities at work place Facilities available No of

respondents Percentage

First Aid 73 22.8% Drinking water 297 92.8% Crèche -- -- Shelter for workers 6 1.9% Free medical treatment 46 14.4% Payment of daily allowance not less than half of wage rate if hospitalized

--

--

Period of rest 320 100% Payment of ex-gratia of in case of death or permanent disability in the job

--

--

Payment of wage to women deputed to look after children at the work site

--

--

Payment of one fourth wage as cash 69 21.6 Discrimination of wages between men and women -- -- Involvement of Contractor -- -- Using machinery for work -- -- Work approved by the Panchayat Raj Institutions through Gram Sabha 320 100

Display of information on MGNREGS on the prescribed walls regularly in the village 320 100

Publication of summary of the Scheme progress in news papers 88 27.5

One third of wage seekers are women 36 11.3 Vigilance and Monitoring Committee 136 42.5 Employment Guarantee Scheme Committee 245 76.6 Awareness on the system of mate 320 100 Awareness on the Field Assistant 320 100 The table reveals that the first aid is available that 92.8 percent of the respondents opined that drinking water facility is available. All the respondents (100%) expressed that the information on MGNREGS on the prescribed walls regularly in the village is displayed, and the work is approved



by the Panchayat Raj Institutions through Gramasabha, 245 respondents (76.6%) expressed that Employment Guarantee Scheme Committee is working, all the 320 respondents (100%) have awareness on the system of mate and Awareness on the Field Assistant and, all the 320 respondents (100%) expressed that period of rest is available at work place. Opinion on work site facilities available The information on worksite status basing on the facilities available for the respondents has been elicited and presented in the Table-5.

Table 5 Opinion on Worksite facilities available

Level of facilities available at worksite No. of Respondents Percentage

Poor 136 42.5% Average 149 46.6%

Good 35 10.9% Total 320 100%

The table presents that 149 respondents (46.6%) appraised that the worksite status is average and 136 respondents (42.5%) appraised that the worksite status is poor and 10.9 percent of opinion good. Above all it is concluded that more than 46.6 percent of the respondents appraised that the worksite status is average. Conclusion The MGNREGA has positive impact on gender and gender empowerment. Women have benefited both as individual and community. Women are benefited individually because they are able to earn independently, spend some money for their own needs, contribute in family expenditure etc. The gained benefits of women as community can be understood by increased presence in the gram sabha, increasing number of women in speaking out 5 in the meetings, increasing capacity of interaction etc. But the poor implementation across the nation (such as lack of child care facility, worksite facility and illegal presence of contractors) accrued the gender sensitiveness of this act mainly in Andhra Pradesh state. Certain initiatives and changes should be taken to remove these barriers. The valuable gains should not be derailed for poor implementation.



REFERENCES GoI (Government of India) (2008). The National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA): Operational Guidelines, 3rd edition, Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi.

Banerjee K and Saha P. 2010. The NREGA, the Maoists and Development Woes of the Indian State. Economic and Political Weekly XLV (28):42-47.

Kareemulla, K., Kumar, S., Reddy, S.K., Rama Rao, C.A. and Venkateswarlu, B. (2010) Impact of NREGS on rural livelihoods and agricultural capital formation. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 65(3): 524-539.

Shah, D. and Mohanty, S. (2010) Implementation of NREGA during Eleventh Plan in Maharashtra: Experiences, challenges and ways forward. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 65(3): 540-551.

Shankar, P.S.V., Rao, R., Banerji, N. and Shah, M. (2006) Government ‘Schedule of Rates’: Working against rural labour. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(17): 1616- 1619.

Vinayak, U. (2009) Is the NREGS a Safety Net for Children? M.Sc. paper submitted to University of Oxford. www.nrega.nic.in Official website of MGNREGA. Ministry of Rural Development, Department of Rural Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

Lakshmaiah, K. (1989). “Working of National Rural Employment Programme

(NREP) A case study of Chittoor Block” Un-Published M.Phil. Dissertation, Tirupati, Department of Economics, S.V. University.

Venugopal K.R. ‘Opinion on Food for Work Programme,’ Letters to the Editor, Special Reporter, National Human Rights Commission.

Reddy DN, Upendranath C, Tankha R, Sharma AN, et al. 2011. Institutions and Innovations in the Implementation Process of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) in India. Report 09. Sussex, UK: Centre for Social Protection Research, Institute of Development Studies.

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). 2008. An Assessment of the Performance of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Program in terms of its Potential for Creation of Natural Wealth in India’s

Villages. New Delhi: CSE, September. 1-47pp

Rajeev Kumar Ranjan Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 & Dr. Nafisa Priti Sanga ISSN 2349-0519, Impact actor:2.3222


Sustainable Development Concerns of Agrarian Jharkhand from Ecosystem Management

Perspectives

Rajeev Kumar Ranjan1 and Dr. Nafisa Priti Sanga2

1Convergence – Consultant, MGNREGA Planning Cell, Rural Development

Department, Government of Jharkhand, India.

2Asst. Professor, College of Agriculture, Wolaita Sodo University, P.O. Box – 138, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia.

ABSTRACT

Community based development trends which builds on centuries-old indigenous techniques, are gradually refined by ethnological as well as ecosystem processes. The existence of such endogenous techniques pertaining to ecosystem services and natural capital has worked as conservation factors across societies beyond geographical limits. In the context of rural Jharkhand – India, the present paper aimed at analyzing needs and extents for policy implication of such endogenous technologies applicable to land and natural resources. Thus, the validity and applicability of such indigenous techniques were analyzed primarily in the context of land, water and agricultural development perspectives of rural Jharkhand, for studying current development trends. Despite the higher policy integration rates of endogenous land and water management practices, only 37% agricultural lands are currently irrigated, resulting in increasing food and employment insecurities in State. However, abandonments of some endogenous agricultural practices such as use of local agricultural seeds, traditional seed preservation methods, communal seed banks etc., has resulted in serious biodiversity losses. Overall, agricultural modernization has adversely affected agrarian communities of Jharkhand thereby further increasing their vulnerabilities. Keywords: Agrarian Jharkhand, community-based approaches, indigenous technologies, public policies, sustainable development

Rajeev Kumar Ranjan & Dr. Nafisa Priti Sanga ISSN 2349-0519


Introduction Good environmental management, which is also central to poverty reduction, depends to a large degree on strategic management of local and indigenous knowledge and resources. Therefore, conservation of local resources is critical for delivering development goals such as employment, incomes, food and nutrition security, access to clean water etc. UN IPCC (United Nation International Panel on Climate Change) declared unprecedented changes in global ecosystems during the last 50 years, based on their comprehensive studies carried out during 2001-2005 (Roe et. al., 2006). The findings of the study revealed approximately 60% of the ecosystems services were either degraded or used unsustainably. Although the relationship between ecosystem services and human well-being is poorly understood, ecosystem degradation influences loss of natural capital and thus human well-being is undermined. The latter is true for many of world’s poor and indigenous people, since

ecosystem services forms the bottom line safety net of their everyday life sustenance. This ‘ecosystem approach’ of poverty-environment initiative requires the adoption of decentralization principle to the lowest practical unit of management, particularly in terms of fostering local-level management of natural resources. Unless the local communities are given ownership of their resources, share benefits, and involved in decision makings, measures to conserve natural resources are more likely to be unsuccessful.

Indian agrarian state – Jharkhand, is considered richly endowed with natural resources mainly in the form of dense forest coverage constituting an area of 29.61% of State’s geographical area, and about 40% of the mineral wealth of country. Prevalent conflicts on non-infinite natural resources over the decades had only increased vulnerabilities of poor in the State, thus jeopardizing UNDP’s (United Nation Development Programme) emphasized importance of

sustainable Natural Resource Management – NRM for achievement of MDGs (Millennium Development Goals). Furthermore, Jharkhand’s persistent

challenges associated with recent climate change, land degradation and biodiversity losses have further increased ecosystem degradation underpinning delivery of state’s NRM services. Elimination of rural poverty had always been the priority development agenda of Indian public policies. However, innovations and improvements brought about in poverty alleviation programmes have poorly performed in Jharkhand, owing to high poverty rates of rural masses. Agriculture constitutes the main occupation of rural Jharkhand; in combinations of allied sectors e.g. livestock, fishery, forestry

ISSN 2349-0519 Sustainable Development Concerns of Agrarian….


resources and wage labour (Sanga and Ranjan, 2014b). According to recent report of JSLPS (Jharkhand State Livelihood Promotion Society) (JSLPS Baseline report, 2015), agriculture still remains primary livelihoods of about 72% of rural population. However, incomes generated from the sector is much lower (≤ INR 50,000) compared to service sector consisting of salaried jobs (≥

INR 150,000), thus agricultural community resilience is poor owing to current economical inflation rates. Community-based natural resource management gained momentum as early as in 1994 when Western and Wright (1994) defined community-based conservation as conservation ‘by, for and with the local community’. Such conservation approaches at policy level, contains continuum programmes aimed at empowering farmers, both on communal and private land, such as to sustainably manage land and natural resources. The essence of community conservation theory stressed on devolution of authority as it evolved around parallel ideas of grass-root planning and bottom-up technocratic approaches. Most of Jharkhand’s conservation efforts revolved around a range of community motivations and needs, including ongoing survival and continued access to livelihood resources, cultural importance, political empowerment and likes. Nevertheless, the efforts to conserve biodiversity had been missing from community conservation agenda, without realizing that efforts projected towards social reforms could ultimately lead to natural resource conservation. Thus, from the perspectives of ecological management theory, the present paper attempted at examining applicability of certain indigenous technologies of agrarian Jharkhand in the context of state’s socio-economic development policies; particularly agricultural development.

Study Scopes and Methodology The main objective of the present study was to examine the community-based agricultural development issues in Jharkhand by studying the roles of relevant indigenous technologies; and importance of their integration in public policies. Desk study research in the form of comprehensive literature review constituted the base of present study. The latter was followed by process research (De Cock and Sharp, 2007) involving interviews with field experts as well as local community representatives for validating research assumptions. Government data as well as research publications were also sourced as means of secondary data sources. The present work thus reverted to existing indigenous knowledge, practices and methodologies pertaining to land and natural



resource management of Jharkhand. Thereby examining the validity of applicable technologies for policy integration; attempted at addressing missing agrarian links to developing Jharkhand.

Existing indigenous technologies in the context of relevant public policies Land and water management Dey and Sarkar (2011) conducted comprehensive research studies for documenting ages old indigenous land and water management practices of Jharkhand. These constituted construction of eco-friendly low cost assets such as small spring water structures, earthen and stone bunds, stone-cum-earthen bunds, ponds, dobas, bunds for managing rivulet seepage water etc. to name a few. Additionally, under the umbrella of Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Govt. of India (GoI); nationalized nongovernmental organization (NGO) PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action) released technical manual for constructing scientific land and water conservation structures (available at: www.nrega.nic.in/2pradan%20inrm-

mnual.pdf). Such research documents were prepared based on existing indigenous knowledge and age’s old tried technologies, hence community acceptance of technologies thereby community ownership rates of assets thus created are higher in Jharkhand. MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) was launched in 2005 by MoRD – GoI with a broader prospective of natural resource conservation, particularly land and water resources. By reviewing MGNREGA statistics it becomes apparent that most of NRM structures found in the above mentioned technical documents had been well integrated in NRM component of the flagship programme of MoRD i.e. MGNREGA. During recent five years the percentage of NRM works carried out under MGNREGA in Jharkhand have increased from mere 49.92% (FY 2012 – 2013) to 73.55% (FY 2016 – 2017). Similarly, percentage expenditure on agriculture and allied sectors ranged between 62% – 85% in the State (FY 2012 – 2017). However, employment generation component of programme have poorly performed during last five years ranging between 36.26 – 52.01 annual person days out of guaranteed 100 annual work days. Hence there remains potential yet for harvesting community resources both at societal as well as ecosystem levels, if the flaws associated with MGNREGA programme implementation were diligently addressed and improved in Jharkhand. Integrated Watershed Management Program (IWMP) is yet another flagship NRM programme of MoRD-GoI in the country. IWMP is inclusive of

http://www.nrega.nic.in/2pradan%20inrm-mnual.pdf

http://www.nrega.nic.in/2pradan%20inrm-mnual.pdf



innovative commendable technologies such as GIS (Geographical Information System) mapping of watershed areas in its programme implementation strategies. Despite delayed program launch in Jharkhand compared to rest of India (due to unstable governance in State), the program outreach has only increased during the successive periods. Similar to MGNREGA, this program also focuses on NRM component but works on watershed based area development principle. Nevertheless, the programme has well integrated as well as adapted endogenous land and water management techniques. IWMP has so far covered a total of 873,077.20 ha of geographical areas, out of which 766,842.27 ha land areas had been treated, and about 1146 nos. of micro-watershed areas had been documented after identification (FY 2013 – 2014). Furthermore, during FY 2015 – 2016 decent amounts (INR 20 crores) were sanctioned for IWMP implementation in State under ‘Pradhan Mantri Krishi

Sinchayee Yojana – PMKSY’ for furthering development of irrigation infrastructure in the State (MoRD, 2015). Hence, the potential for tapping ‘unutilized’ surface water’ as well as ground water amounting to 79.9% and 73.4% respectively (Dey and Sarkar, 2011), has increased in the State. Jharkhand’s annual rainfall ranges between 1100 – 1300 mm irrespective of erratic rainfall patterns. Hence, the current agricultural intensity of 113% could further increased to about 130% depending on strategic water management in the State. However, the above mentioned two programs i.e. MGNREGA and IWMP had been rather limited in achieving its goals. Latter is true owing to the fact that irrespective of increasing funding and outreach of these two programs, field surveys depicts only 37% of Jharkhand’s

agricultural lands are irrigated (JSLPS, 2015). Additionally, migration rates for employment and food security has also increased since the primary occupation (agriculture) of 72% of rural masses has failed to provide life sustenance. Current migration rates particularly among deprived communities were reported in the ranges of 37.8% among SCs (Schedule Castes), 31.8% among OBCs (Other Backward Castes) and 25.7% among STs (Schedule Tribes). At global levels, there had been increased awareness on water crises issues during recent years since sustainable water management concerns have gained priority agenda of Sustainable Development Goals – SDGs 2030. UNDP’s

revised SDGs aims to end poverty, promote prosperity and people’s well – being while protecting environment by 2030 (UNDP, 2016). Water resources and their associated services are considered as underpinning factors for



poverty reduction, economic growth and environmental sustainability; since water availabilities influences social well-being, and inclusive growth. This established fact is further supported by adversely affected livelihoods of millions of Jharkhand’s deprived migrant communities. As discussed in previous sections, although indigenous land and water management technologies exists in Jharkhand, the implementation rates are lagging far behind the levels required to address water conservation needs in the State (63% shortages of agricultural water demand). Hence, in the light of current global water crises and policy implications; it becomes imperative to revisit rich indigenous knowledge and technologies, for effective implementation of community – based conservation strategies. Agricultural Practices During later half decades of past century the concept of ‘agricultural modernization’ received prominence in developed as well as developing countries influenced by principles of sustainable agriculture (Pugliese, 2001). However, irrespective of some positive impacts on overall food security; agricultural modernization caused some major problems such as uneven benefit distribution resulting in serious deterioration of farmers’ socio-economic conditions, and dangerous human deterioration due to displacement and marginalization effects. Thus, the declining performances and the side effects of agricultural modernization practices have been experienced worldwide, including Jharkhand. Therefore, in the context of sustainable agriculture, the adoption of ‘endogenous development paradigm’ seems rather

rational. Traditional agricultural practices of Jharkhand included unique organic, eco-friendly community practices which served to conserve ecosystem and society as a whole (Lakra et al., 2009). One of the unique features of such traditional endogenous knowledge was the use and conservation of local endogenous varieties of agricultural seeds i.e. paddy, millet, corn, wheat, Niger, black pulse (urad), cowpeas, sorghum, vegetables etc. Seed conservation practices involved both cropping for generating seed banks as well as storing surplus seeds for communal grain banks. However, surpassing the ages’ old indigenous practices, for production enhancements under the aegis of ‘National Horticulture Mission’ of

Agricultural Ministry, hybrid and HYV (high yield variety) seeds were introduced. However, the complex scientific methods required for storage of HYV seeds coupled with failure of hybrid seeds in producing second



generation crops, limited the prospective of generation old village seed bank concepts among local communities. Moreover, recent drought and erratic weather patterns of the State also resulted in crop failures thus further increasing farmers’ vulnerabilities. Almost all rural development programmes of Jharkhand emphasized on the distribution and use of hybrid/HYV seeds, however, the availability at local level were very limited due to limited research and development services in the state. As a result the input seed cost, most of the times, becomes not only difficult but an expensive venture among farmers’ thus discouraging agricultural activities. Field surveys reveals almost

80% marginalized communities fail to obtain life sustenance from agriculture due to persistent challenges associated with access to quality seed in absence of village seed banks. Furthermore, traditional practices of seed storage (husk/straw baskets) had been replaced with modern methods e.g. use of metal drums, which don’t support air circulation. Field surveys also revealed striking low adoption rates of about 33% of advantageous crop technology i.e. system of crop intensification (SCI) in the State. Additionally, traditional endogenous systems of mixed cropping and crop rotations are not practiced as it were in the past times, due to low resilience of agrarian communities and erratic weather patterns. Hence, the recent altered sustainable agricultural practices had been somewhat constrained in supporting the benefits out of existing traditional agricultural technologies, which also supported community-led agricultural practices. Furthermore, field data suggested mono-cropping still prevails among 42% (Kharif only) while only 32% practice bi-cropping (both kharif and Rabi). Therefore, current agricultural crises of the state call for urgent community-based research and development services which could foster biodiversity conservation as an important paradigm of sustainable ecosystem services. Hence the time has come when the concept of biodiversity conservation, which remained fairly absent from welfare policies; should form strategic part of state agricultural policies. This in turn could prove as preventive measure against loss of traditional crop varieties at one end, and at other, could serve as multiple policy benefits such as biodiversity conservation, food and employment security, societal health and well – being etc.

Conclusion and Way forward Components of post-2015 developmental agenda and current SDGs – 2030 suggests such structural transformations as to include inter-related economic,



social and environmental aspects as a whole. Such transformations aimed at sustainable development must be based on shared global frameworks of food-water-energy nexus, which could promote strategic convergence of policies, strategies as well as technologies. Conservation of land and natural resources are at the very core of ecosystem management. Hence, in an era of technological change, dangers associated with rapid information evolution and its threatening impacts on existing industries must be considered thoroughly. Adverse human impacts on environment are resulting in massive changes in production as well as consumption patterns.

A substantial number of low-income countries experience high demographic changes resulting in increased regional and global flows of migrants having the potential to create instability. There exist apparently no economic, social or political forces sufficiently strong to guarantee their escape from endemic poverty and fragility. Unless, unprecedented environmental changes are well addressed, it will only result in dramatic crises of food production, public health and well-being, and natural disasters. Structural transformations fostering sustainable development requires ‘convergence of strategies’ such as to promote replicable models already existing endogenously, rather than relying on development of new technological advancements. It becomes rather economically logical to refine the pre-existing technologies through continuous research and field experimentation than to devise new technologies. From policy implementation perspectives, authors in their previous work (Sanga and Ranjan, 2015) suggested the roles of ‘Convergence Strategies’ for NRM management

through Jharkhand’s example. Additionally, authors’ emphasis on the principles of ‘govern Abilities’ which

technically involves intertwining economic, environmental and good governance strategies, is also imperative for SDG – 2030 concerns; owing to reducing funding sources and current market inflation rates. However, current rural development and agricultural extension policies remains either ignorant or reluctant of the importance of ‘convergence strategy’, particularly in

Jharkhand.



REFERENCES

De Cock, C. and Sharp, R. J. (2007). Process theory and research:

exploring the dialectic tension. Scandinavian Journal of Management Vol. 23, pp. 233 -250.

Dey, P. and Sarkar, A. K. (2011). Revisiting indigenous farming knowledge of Jharkhand (India) for conservation of natural resources and combating climate change. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 10 (1), pp. 71 – 79.

Jharkhand State Livelihood Promotion Society – JSLPS (2015). Baseline survey report on livelihoods in Jharkhand. A technical report submitted by GFK Mode Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata.

Larka, V., Singh, M. K., Sinha, R. and Kudada, N. (2009). Indigenous technology of tribal farmers in Jharkhand. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 9 (2), pp. 261 – 263.

Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Govt. of India (2015). S.No. 2/Jharkhand/2015-16/IWMP Payment Order No. K-11013/15/2012-IWMP (Jharkhand), Department of Land Resources, MoRD, GoI.

Pugliese, P. (2001). Rural development: A multifaceted and promising convergence. Sociologia Ruralis Vol. 41 (1), pp. 112 – 130. ISSN 0038 – 0199.

Roe, D., Jones, B., Bond, I. and Bhatt, S. (2006). Local action, global aspirations: The role of community conservation in achieving international goals for environment and development. Natural Resource Issue Series No.4. International Institute for Environment and Development. London, UK.

Sanga, N. P. and Ranjan, R. K. (2014b). Building resilience to climate change – A case of rain-fed fisheries development in Tribal Jharkhand (India). Indian Journal of Social Vision Vol. 1 (2), pp. 73-84. Print ISSN: 2349 – 0519.

Sanga, N. P. and Ranjan, R. K. (2015). Scope of policy convergence approach to freshwater management in rural Jharkhand – a review of public policy. World Journal of Science Technology and Sustainable Development Vol. 12 (2), pp. 129 – 147. DOI 10.1108/WJSTSD-09-2014-0027.



United Nation Development Program (2016). Sustainable Development Goals 2030. UNDP support to the implementation of sustainable development goal 6: Sustainable management of water and sanitation. New York, USA.

Western, D. and Wright, M. A. (eds.) (1994). Natural Connections: Perspectives in community-based conservation. Island Press. Washington DC, USA.

Lakshmi Narayana N Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017

ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Healthy Living of Senior Citizens - Service Models

Lakshmi Narayana N Mentor, Geo Rehabilitation Centre, Hyderabad, India.

ABSTRACT

Senior Citizens (60+) who contributed significantly for their Family,

Community and the Nation are the most valued human resources. They

are the key facilitators between the older generation and the younger

generation for better transformation of systems, traditions, and values

with connectivity. Their population is 8% of the total population of the

Nation and at present it may be much more. Among this group majority

lives in rural villages. In view of better health care, the elders have got

longevity and have strength to contribute for others. They are retired

from the job or services but not from life. Due to various reasons,

elders are living away from their families and thus marginalized

including isolation and are facing the consequences by leading

unhealthy poor quality of life. This group needs to be seen as two faces

of the same coin where on one side they need care and rehabilitation

and on other side can contribute for the people and community. The

challenges of this group can be transformed into opportunities so that a

healthy environment can be created at Home, Community and Care

Homes. The proposed model home of providing care and rehabilitation

services to the Senior Citizens and Persons with Intellectual and

Developmental Disabilities under a single roof will satisfy the needs of

both the groups in inclusive and accessible environments with improved

quality of life. There exist several service models and RWAs & CSOs

can work on partnership basis with Government and Private with better

DIME and PART. The suggested service channels are simple,

replicable, scalable and sustainable matching to the dynamics of the

environment given.

Keywords: Environment, Isolation, Healthy Living, Opportunities,

Rehabilitation, Empowerment, Quality of Life.

Statement of the Problem

Senior Citizens who have contributed for the Family, Community and Nation

are more vulnerable including isolation both socially and economically and

lead poor quality of life (QOL).

Lakshmi Narayana N ISSN 2349-0519


Fig.1: Population (%) of 60+ to Total Population.

Introduction

The persons who have attained the age of 60 (58 years in the case of senior

women) are defined as Senior Citizens. It is the definition given for the person

who is eligible to get the benefits of pension, social security, or medical care

as per the guidelines of the Acts / Policies. The retirement age for the

employees in various States of India is not common and varies from 58 to 62

or so.

Based on the Census 2011,

the population (percentage,

%) of the aged 60+ to the

total population by residence

is shown in Fig.1. Some of

the key reflections are as

follows:

1) The population of 60+ is

8% to the total population

in India. It is more in the

rural areas (8.1%) than

urban area (7.9%). The

Female in both the areas

is more than the men i.e.,

8.4 & 8.2 against 7.8 &

7.6 respectively.

2) Kerala is having highest

number of elder persons

(60+) and the percentage

is 12.6% of the total

population where men are

less (11.8%) than female

(13.3%). It also follows

the pattern of having

more elder persons in

rural areas (12.6%) than

urban areas (12.4%).

ISSN 2349-0519 Healthy Living of Senior Citizens – Service Models


Fig.2: Elders Population in States of India.

3) Andhra Pradesh (united) stands at 7th position with 8.8% after Kerala

(12.6%), Tamilnadu (10.5%), Himachal Pradesh (10.4%), Punjab (9.5%),

Odisha (9.3%) & Maharashtra (9.3%). Where Delhi is having lowest

population of elder persons (5.9%).

4) In general, the population of the elder persons is more in the rural areas

than urban areas. But in the case of West Bengal, Delhi, Assam, Jharkhand

and Rajasthan rural population of elder persons is less than its urban areas.

5) In the state of Maharashtra, the gap between the elder populations of rural

to urban is highest (10.3% to 7.9% i.e., 2.4%). At the same time, in West

Bengal the trend is reverse as rural population is less in rural areas (7.5%)

than its urban areas (10.1%) with a maximum gap of 2.6%.

6) In the case of Andhra Pradesh (united), the elders’ population is 8.8%

where male is less (8.3%) than females (9.4%). At the same time, the rural

population of elder persons is more (9.5%) than urban (7.2%). The trend of

male to female is same that female are more than their counterparts.

As discussed above, the population of the elder persons varies from state to

state. The highest is in Kerala (12.6%) and the lowest is in Delhi (5.9%). Out



Fig.3: Senior Citizens & Family Dynamics.

Fig.4: Needs of Senior Citizens and QOL.

of 21 states, 8 will have the population more than the Nation’s average of

8.0% and others are having lower than this average. This variation reflects the

realities of the elder persons and this become the baseline to plan for their

care, welfare, rehabilitation, and scope to utilize this force in various

programmes of the Nation.

Based on the recent survey, the present population of the elder persons is

around 14% of the total population and expected to reach 20% by 2050. To

move further, the need of the hour is to understand the living environment,

family dynamics, needs, and vulnerabilities of the elder persons who

contributed significantly for the development of their Family, Community and

Nation at large.

Elder Persons or Senior

Citizens and their family

dynamics which forces

them to be the

marginalized are shown

in Fig. 3. Due to various

reasons, the system of

combined family has

slowly reduced and

dominated by nuclear

family. The senior citizen

living in rural area are

more and facing several

problems compared to

their counterparts living

in urban areas. One of

the key reasons for the

vulnerabilities of the

senior citizens is

migration which may be

for livelihoods or money

orientation or status

orientation or

combination.



Fig.5: Challenges of Senior

Citizens.

Now a days, for the younger generation it has became more of status to leave

the country and may or may not support their parents and other elder persons.

In all the case, senior citizens are the most affected both socially and

economically and are victimized and marginalized including isolation.

The needs and demands of Senior Citizens are many and some of them are

shown in Fig. 4. They includes: Shelter, Food, Clothing, wish to Live with the

family & community, Security when gets isolated, Health Care & Protection,

Access for Services & Supports, Recreation & Leisure Activities, scope for

Second Employment / other Income Generation Activities and other needs

from time to time.

After contributing so much to the family, community and the Nation, the

expectations of the Senior Citizens are the minimum and genuine to expect

and to lead healthy living with better quality of life (QOL) with dignity and

respect. In the absence or poor services / supports, this group’s living affects

with poor quality of life which sometimes leads for suicides. More clarity can

be obtained on the challenges of Senior Citizens and opportunities for others

to minimize them by doing SWOT

Analyses.

SWOT Analyses

SWOT stands for Strengths,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.

In the case of Senior Citizens, their

challenges and opportunities were

analyzed and presented below.

Challenges: The challenges of Senior

citizens are many irrespective of their

stay either in rural or urban areas and

severity may vary. Some of the

challenges of Senior Citizens are shown

in Fig. 5.

The reflections on the challenges of the

Senior Citizens include:



a. Due to various reasons, the families particularly in rural areas, the mode of

combined family has been reduced to nuclear families. In urban areas it is

very much less and are living mostly isolated.

b. The consequences of Business oriented Development (BOD) affects the

people / families in general and particularly rural villages.

c. The connectivity among the family members and others has become of

financial connectivity rather than human relationships.

d. This forces the people to migrate from rural to urban areas or outside the

country.

e. This disturbance in the dynamics of the family forces the elders to depend

more on their children even for basic living.

f. The group of elder persons will have limited resources as they spent most

of their earnings on the health, education, marriages and development of

their children both sons and daughters.

g. In the absence of daughters (after marriage) and sons (migrated to within

or outside the country), the elders have become marginalized including

isolation and get affected to lead the life with poor health and peace.

h. In some of the cases where the sons have earned much wealth at the living

place of their parents or other places, the elder people have become

custodians (security purpose) of the property.

i. The scope for second employment or other earnings is less in general and

particularly very much less in rural villages.

j. Majority of the elder person’s financial security is very poor and

vulnerable for poor health care, nutrition and other needy services.

k. The sons and daughters who utilized the services, and supports for their

development feels the care of their parents as burden and many times wish

to leave them alone.

l. The availability, accessibility and affordability (3As) of the Home Care

Services are very poor and thus forced to isolation or struggling for the

critical needs.

m. The access for the Oldaged Homes in general is not that convenient for

better living. Sometimes the children may feel it as a stigma or shame to

hear about their parents staying at Homes.

n. On the other side, the credibility in respect of services, protection, security,

continuity etc., majority of the Homes do not have much credibility.

o. The redressal systems are very much limited and do have several barriers

in getting their schemes and benefits even from the Government.



Fig. 6: Needs and Role of Senior

Citizens.

p. All such measures forces the elder persons either homeless or orphans with

negative attitude from the community.

The consequences of all such unhealthy measures forces the senior citizens to

several challenges and finally identified as vulnerable or marginalized or

isolated groups without much connectivity with the family or the community.

This is pathetic situation of the elder persons who scarified and contributed to

their family, community and the Nation. The situation is alarming to the

stakeholders and forces them to look for better alternatives as solutions.

Needs and Role of Senior Citizens: Before moving on to the ways to

minimize the above challenges of the Senior Citizens, let us understand the

needs and role of this group. The needs and role of Senior Citizens has to be

seen as two faces of the same coin and are shown in Fig. 6.

A. Needs of the Senior

Citizens: The Senior Citizens

needs Care and Supports on one

side of the coin. They prefer to

stay with the family within the

community or adoption by

someone for comfortable stay at

homes. When they are staying

with the family, depending upon

the dynamics or needs of the

family members, this group

expects day care or short stay

facilities so that family members

will fell happy and get relief from

the routine life. When such

arrangements are not possible or not conducive, elder groups expects facilities

for long stay or even for life care when they do not believe that their family

members should only perform the last rights.

B. Role of Senior Citizens: The elder persons after 60+ are not retired

from life and have got energy to contribute for the family, community and the

Nation. It is the only attitude that after 60+, people should take rest as they



Fig. 7: Opportunities for Senior Citizens.

have done enough work. In view of better health care facilities, majority of

60+ people having experience and expertise can contribute to others with

innovation and creativity. On the second side of the same coin, they can be

treated as valued human resources to transform the systems, culture, traditions,

and values to the next generation. In fact they can be good facilitators between

the government and people / community. Some of the roles the elder people

can play include: act as ambassadors, better change makers, good advisors,

volunteers, trainers, and other need based roles from time to time. In the case

of crises, elders can be good supporters to stabilize the systems to normalcy.

In addition, senior citizens can also do some jobs which need experience and

expertise, support the marginalized groups in creating their livelihoods, and

can start or support the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to help others.

Even after the retirement from job or active services, the elders group can

contribute (10 to 15 years at minimum side) to the people at all levels with

innovation and creativity and thus the feeling of burden will move towards the

responsibility of the younger generation to respect and support their elders.

Opportunities: The need of the hour is to accept the challenges, needs and

role of Senior Citizens and transform them into to opportunities and some of

them were shown in Fig.7. The brief

discussion on these opportunities

includes:

1. Counseling & Guidance: The

issues related with the age and

readiness to accept the realities

of the retired or active life, need

based counseling and guidance

should be provided for creating

positive attitude towards self,

family and community.

2. Shift towards POD: To

minimize the negative impact

of Business oriented

Development (BOD), the

Government and the Investors



should move towards the People oriented Development (POD). This shift

helps to create a healthy environment at all the levels.

3. Human Connectivity: The People and Society should develop more of

human connectivity rather than money connectivity. The former is the

natural and healthy where as the later one is artificial and unhealthy.

4. Valuable Human Resources: Though this group is retired from job or

active services, still they can be considered as valued human resources.

The can contribute to the family, community and the Nation for the given

opportunity (Fig. 6).

5. Alternatives for Livelihoods: Among the elders, majority of them are

not financially secured to take care of their commitments and later part of

the life. The Government and Private with the support of CSOs can

prepare / develop their skills for taking up the second employment / livelihoods.

6. Better Financial Security: Government with the support of Financial

Institutes should provide better schemes and supports for improving the

Financial Security of the elders who are in need. This includes availability,

accessibility and affordability (3As) of the services and supports.

7. Responsibility: The Government should feel it as a responsibility to cater

the needs of the Senior Citizens with dignity and respect. At the same

time, it should also empower the group to access the rights provided

under various acts and policies from Government, Private Community

and Family Members.

8. Better 3As for Home Care: The elders who are staying away from their

children (either due to migration or rejection) needs services and supports

at their home itself with better availability, accessibility and affordability

(3As). The Government should develop or authorize centers to cater the

needs to this group with better protection and security.

9. Better 3As for Homes: Due to various reasons who are forced to live out

of their home or family, Homes should be developed on their own or by

private or CSOs with better systems and policies tuning to the model of

better availability, accessibility and affordability (3As).

10. GO – Acts and Schemes: The Government should make and implement

the need based Acts and Policies to support and protect the elder persons.

Educate the family and community to respect this group with need based

services and supports.

11. Protection of Rights: The Government should make an action plan to

protect the rights of the elders for getting better services and supports in



respect of health, justice, protection, security, employment, and other

need based from time to time.

12. Strengthening of RWAs / CSOs: It is the fact the Government will have

some limitations to reach the targeted groups and to serve them. To

overcome these limitations, Government should strengthen Residential

Welfare Associations (RWAs) / Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) both

legally and financially so that they can facilitate for better reach with

healthy living.

13. Home / Community Based Services: Due to stigma and other reasons,

elders feel happy to get services and supports at Home or Community so

that they feel proud and happy to be part of the Home / Community with

same connectivity and environment. At the beginning, the RWAs can be

strengthened to start Day Care Services within the Community / Colony.

This gives better relief to the elders as well to their family members.

14. GO-Private-CSO Partnership: To protect the rights of the elder persons

the Government, Private and CSOs should work on partnership basis

where the first two will support the later one for better implementation.

CSOs are very close to the targeted group and will work with better

participation, accountability, responsibility and transparency (PART).

RAWs can also be added to this partnership.

15. Better DIME and PART: Empower and allow the RAWs and CSOs to

work with the Government and Private Departments on the basis of

Design, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation (DIME) so that the

services and supports to the elder persons will be made with better service

delivery system (SDS) which allows for better Participation,

Accountability, Responsibility and Transparency (PART).

All such opportunities will support for creating a healthy and wealthy

environment for better living of the Senior Citizens. In view of such a positive

and accepted environment, elder persons need a suitable Home which helps

for their happy and healthy living.

Model Home

In addition to their healthy living Senior Citizens can also support other

targeted group which is most marginalized. The Persons with Disabilities

(PWDs) in general and particularly the Persons with Intellectual and

Developmental Disabilities (PWIDDs) are the most marginalized both socially



Fig. 8: Model Home for Senior Citizens.

and economically which includes isolation from the community. In addition,

the parents of PWIDDs are more worried about the future of their child and

expect a solution to their concern that “what will happen to the child after us?”

The model home conceptualized and designed to cater the needs of both the

targeted groups is shown in Fig. 8.

Some of the key reflections on the proposed model home are as follows:

1. The model home works for

Senior Citizens on one side

and on other side for

PWDs / PWIDDs.

2. Both the groups have got

similarity of lacking the

one who can take care of

them.

3. For Senior Citizens, their

children are away and

needs companionship of

family / children.

4. The parents of PWDs /

PWIDDs expect someone to take care of their children when they are old

or no more.

5. One way or the other way, both the groups need support of other group

with a concept of give and take policy.

6. Home needs the support of Professionals like: Physiotherapist,

Psychologists, Doctors, and Social Workers along with Managers and

supporting Staff.

7. The combination of such groups with multidisciplinary approach helps the

Service Providers / CSOs to develop Supportive, Healthy, and Protected

Environment so that both the groups can live with better harmony.

8. Such environment helps the groups to live with dignity and respect.

9. CSOs are legally constituted service organizations with specific guidelines

of the Acts under which it has got registered.

10. This model home is the last option when home based, community based

and other such options were not providing suitable solution.

11. Such models will get support from Government, Private, Financial

Institutions, Funding Agencies both National and International,



Fig. 9: Model of Care and Rehab.

Foundations, Philanthropists and other Donors. Corporate Social

Responsibility (CSR) is the priority area to get the support both for

development and maintenance.

The concept of Model Home has been

discussed by the author with

Politicians, Policy Makers,

Bureaucrats, Professions, CSOs,

Senior Citizens, & Parents of PWDs /

PWIDDs and got positive acceptance

to move forward. The process is going

on for developing such a Model Home

under the banner of selected CSOs.

This will certainly gain significance

with image and values.

Role of RAWs, CSOs and Corporate

As discussed and supported, the Care

and Rehab of the Senior Citizens and

PWDs / PWIDDs is the priority area

and Model Home is the last and better

option for developing a healthy

environment with dignity and respect.

With the support of Government,

RAWs, CSOs and Corporate / Private will work with various need based

service delivery channels and are shown in Fig. 9.

A brief discussion on various service channels has been made and furnished

below as:

a. RWAs: The Residential Welfare Associations can provide services to both

the groups by maintaining a Day Care Centre at the Community Hall or

any other specified Centre situated within the Colony. This Centre can also

support to extend the needy services at the Home depending upon the

severity of the individuals. This gives relief to the individuals as well as to

their family members. RAWs can get the support of its members as well as

Government, Private and other Departments / Agencies. Depending upon



its financial position, RAWs can make provision for nominal charges. This

is the best model of service delivery as the residents feel it as their

responsibility to support other residents. Depending upon the need, this

Centre can also think towards diagnostic facilities which include limited

residential facilities.

b. CSOs: The Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) also known as Non

Governmental Organizations (NGOs) works on the motto of not for profit

in serving others as per its objectives and guidelines. This model provides

the services with the combination of Day Care (partly for PWDs /

PWIDDs) and Residential Mode (for Senior Citizens and PWDs /

PWIDDs). In addition, they also provide residential facilities on Respite

Care mode which is for short term. CSOs works for the Care and

Rehabilitation of the trainable people in both the groups. This service

delivery can be free or part payment depending upon the social-

economical status of the groups as well as the supports it is getting from

Government and other Departments. This has got better acceptance and

well accepted to work for the individual groups and combination is the

new dimension to work under a single roof. CSOs are expected to work on

life cycle basis with better protection and security. In the case of PWIDDs,

CSOs have got eligibility to be the legal guardian as per the provisions of

the National Trust Act 1999.

c. Corporate: The needs and vulnerabilities of both the groups in general

and particularly the senior citizens have been conceived by the Corporate

to work under the provision of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

either directly or through the partnership of CSOs. On the other side, some

Corporate started developing business models by attracting the elders who

are financially storing or whose children are well off staying within or

outside the Country.

All the three specified service channels are well established and matching

services and supports can be taken by the targeted groups matching to their

needs and vulnerabilities. The author is associated with the CSOs working for

the Senior Citizens and PWIDDs on various models of service delivery

channels working in the state of Andhra Pradesh (united) and trying to

experiment with the proposed model home.



Conclusions

The study made on Senior Citizens is the priority and emerged for several

conclusions and some of them include:

1. Senior Citizens (60+) are the valued human resources who contributed for

their family, community and the Nation.

2. Health care has improved longevity and have got longer period after the

retirement / active life to contribute for the people.

3. Census 2011 indicates the population of elder persons (60+) is 8% of the

total population of the Nation.

4. Kerala State is having highest population of elder persons (8%) where as

Delhi has got lowest (5.9%).

5. The State of Andhra Pradesh (united) stands at 7th position having 8.8%

of elders’ population.

6. The elders’ population is more in the rural villages in general but in the

case of West Bengal, Delhi, Assam, Jharkhand and Rajasthan rural

population of elder persons is less than its urban areas.

7. The migration of the youth for livelihoods or status or business changes

the dynamics of the family and community and left their parents and other

elders vulnerable, marginalized and isolated with poor quality of life.

8. Senior Citizens have got several needs like shelter, food, health care,

financial supports and others for leading better living.

9. In the absence of family supports, elder persons do face several

challenges and forced to depend on others for basic needs.

10. Senior Citizens have to be seen two faces of the same coin. On one side

they need care and supports including rehabilitation and on other side,

they are the more valued human resources to contribute for the family,

community and the Nation.

11. The need of the hour is to accept the challenges of the Senior Citizens and

transform them into strengths / opportunities for better solutions.

12. There exist several opportunities for creating healthy environment around

the elder persons for better living.

13. Home and Community based services and supports stands priority as it

supports for inclusive environment and thus satisfies everyone.

14. Government has got Acts, Schemes and Benefits for this group and

created better system to utilize the same.



15. The opportunities help the senior citizens to lead a healthy and wealthy

living with dignity and respect.

16. In spite all such measures, majority of the senior citizens are living away

from their children and other family members.

17. PWDs /PWIDDs are the most marginalized in general and particularly the

PWIDDs whose parents are more worried with a concern that “what will

happen to the child after us?”

18. Model Home is proposed to work for the Care and Rehabilitation of

Senior Citizens on one side and PWDs / PWIDDs on other side under the

same roof. It works on give and takes policy like senior citizens needs the

affection of children and PWIDDs wants the affection and support of elders.

19. This model has got acceptance and gaining importance from all the

stakeholders / sectors for developing such centers.

20. Government, Corporate and CSOs are expected to work on partnership

basis tuning to the concept of Design, Implementation, Monitoring and

Evaluation (DIME) which improves the participation, accountability,

responsibility and transparency (PART).

21. RAWs can work for these two groups with day care and home based

supports having centre mostly within the colony. Diagnostic and short

term residential facilities can be added.

22. CSOs works with both day care and residential basis on life cycle basis

which includes to be the legal guardians of PWIDDs and offers services

either on free or nominal charges as they work on the motto of not for

profit.

23. Corporate has entered into this area and extends need based services and

rehabilitation either directly or through CSOs under the arm of Corporate

Social Responsibility (CSR). On the other side, they also extend the same

through business model.

24. The target of healthy living with improved quality of life (QOL) can be

achieved with better systems, and values.

25. The suggested models and service channels are simple, replicable, scalable

and sustainable and match to the dynamics of the environment given.

Recommendations

The emerged conclusions of the study need to be continued for better health,

protection and security of the targeted groups and recommendations made

includes:



1. Encourage and motivate Students and Educational Institutes to take up

Research Study.

2. Create channels with better access for utilizing the services of Senior

Citizens at all levels.

3. Empower RAWs and CSOs to shoulder the responsibility of Care and

Rehabilitation of the targeted groups.

4. Develop platform to work Government, Private and CSOs on partnership

basis tuning to the model of DIME.

5. Support the Model Home for better implementation by CSOs preferably at

Mandal Level and later to Village / Panchayat.

REFERENCES

Lakshmi Narayana N (2011): Need of Creating Barrier Free Environment

– An Empowering Model for Persons with Disabilities. Annual Hand

Book of Human Resources Initiatives. Initiatives and Interventions.

New Delhi. ISBN: 978-81-902754-2-2.

National Policy on Older Persons, Ministry of Social Justice &

Empowerment, Government of India, New Delhi. 1999.

www.socialjustice.nic.in

National Policy for Senior Citizens, Ministry of Social Justice &

Empowerment, Government of India, New Delhi. 2011.

www.socialjustice.nic.in

The National Trust (under MSJ & E), Government of India. New Delhi.

www.thenatioantrust.gov.in

Situation Analysis of the Elderly in India. Central Statistics Office,

Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of

India. New Delhi. 2011.

Maintenance and Welfare of Senior Citizens Act, Government of Andhra

Pradesh. 2007. www.aponline.nic.in

United Nations General Assembly. 2002. www.un.org

United Population Ageing: 1950-2050. Department of Economic & Social

Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, New York. 2002.

http://www.socialjustice.nic.in/

Ms. Bharati Jani Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact actor:2.3222


Occupational Self Efficacy and Job Satisfaction of

Teachers working at the Primary School

Ms. Bharati Jani Teacher Educator, DIET Rayagada, Bissamcuttack, Odisha, India

ABSTRACT

The research was conducted to study the occupational self efficacy and job satisfaction of teachers working at the primary school. The investigators used Occupational Self Efficacy Scale (OSES) of Sanjaypot Pethe, Sushma Chowdari and Uppinar Dhar. And Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS) of Amar Singh and T.R. Sharma to collect the data. Certain Statistical techniques like percentage, t-test and correlation were used to analyze the data. The results found that there is a high positive relationship between occupational self efficacy and job satisfaction of primary school teachers. The teachers who are effective in their profession are highly satisfied with their job. It was also found that higher the occupational self efficacy higher will be the rating of job satisfaction.

Keywords: Occupational Self Efficacy, Job Satisfaction, Primary school teachers

Introduction Teachers have always played vital roles in the reconstruction of the society. In the event of universalisation of elementary education, therefore much emphasis was placed on recruitment of teachers. Teachers are accorded great due to their manipulative skills in igniting the inherent talents of the children. Hence NCTE (1998) put emphasis on teacher education as only enlightened and emancipated teachers can lead communities and nations in there march towards better and higher quality of life. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they qualify, a process known as continuing professional development. Teacher respect their occupation and Job satisfaction could be said that the felling of joy and pleasure that a person has at the work he is engaged is known as his job satisfaction. Recent thrust on elementary education is intended to increase enrolment, retention and reduce drop and rates by achieving success through SSA/DPEP programs. Hence the

Ms. Bharati Jani ISSN 2349-0519

164 | Page Social Vision Volume: 3 Issue: 4 January – March 2017

following activities were given due importance – i) Operation Blackboard scheme. ii) Strengthening of teacher education in content and pedagogy. iii) Nutritional support for all children. iv) Making the school an attractive place. v) Innovative and alternative education. And vi) Inclusive Education etc. In all these activities, teacher improvement was the only solution. Hence capacity building of teachers thought to be the priority area at the primary level. Therefore a community based SSA was launched. Under SSA intervention, immediate recruitment of Para teachers was made who were directed to work as primary school teachers.

They were given in service training and hints to look into the quality dimensions of education with a paltry salary not commensurate with their educational qualifications. But whether teachers working at those levels are satisfied or not, this was where looked. Hence the target of reaching at the aim of universalisation of elementary education is skill at stake. This has been quite pertinent from the reviews cited here under. The successful running of any educational system depends mainly upon the teacher, the pupil, the curriculum, and the facilities. Of these, the teacher is the most important one and is the pivot on whom the entire educational structure rests. S.G. Jadhav and Ramesh R. Pujar (2013), conducted study on Occupational Self-Efficacy and Job Satisfaction of Teacher.

Objectives 1. To compare the Occupational Self-efficacy of Teacher Couples

(Husbands/Wives). 2. To compare the Job-Satisfaction of Teacher Couples (Husbands/Wives). 3. To know whether there is a correlation between Occupational Self-efficacy

and Job-Satisfaction of Teacher Couples (Husbands/Wives).

Hypothesis 1. There is a significant difference in the Occupational Self-efficacy of

teacher couples (Husbands/Wives). 2. There is a significant difference in the Job Satisfaction of Teacher Couples

(Husbands/Wives). 3. There is a significant correlation between Occupational Self-efficacy and

Job Satisfaction of Teacher Couples (Husbands/Wives).

Methodology Sample: Sample of 100 teachers (50 Husbands and 50Wives) of primary school from Dharwad district were selected on a random purposive sample

ISSN 2349-0519 Occupational Self Efficacy and Job Satisfaction....


technique basis. Tools used: 1. Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale Developed by Pethe, S. Chaudhari, S. and Dhar, U (1999) was used. 2. Job Satisfaction Scale Developed by Dixit, M (1993). This scale is consisted of 52 items Findings: 1. Primary school teacher couples did not differ significantly in terms of their Occupational Self efficacy.2. Primary school teacher couples did not differ significantly in their Job satisfaction.3. Occupational Self-efficacy and Job satisfaction of Primary school teacher couples is positively and significantly correlated.

Moyosola Jude Akomolafe And Abel Olufemi Ogunmakin (2014), conducted research on Job Satisfaction among Secondary School Teachers: Emotional Intelligence, Occupational Stress and Self-Efficacy as Predictors. Research Questions: 1. What is the combined contributions of emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and occupational stress to the prediction of job satisfaction of secondary school teachers?2. What is the relative contribution of emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and occupational stress to the prediction of job satisfaction of secondary school teachers? Methodology: Research Design: This study adopted a survey research design in order to explore the predictions of job satisfaction from emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and occupational stress of teachers. Discussion: Results of the present study revealed that emotional intelligence significantly predicted job satisfaction. The contributions of emotional intelligence to job satisfaction can be easily explained bearing in mind that emotional intelligence include: self-awareness, empathy, self-motivation, emotional stability, managing relations, integrity, self-development, value orientation, commitment and altruistic behaviours that are highly germane to job satisfaction and success. Indeed, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, ability to regulate ones feeling and solve problems are fundamental to achieving satisfaction and success in a place of work. Additionally, persons with high emotional intelligence can appraise and control their emotions and that of others effectively. Consequently, they gain more control over the tasks they perform which in turn influence their self-efficacy, job success and satisfaction. The result of this study is at variance who found no association between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among workers.

The outcome of this study could be due to the fact that self-efficacy ultimately determines how an individual behaves, thinks and becomes motivated to be involved in a particular task. Individuals with high self-efficacy tend to behave



more positively, think more creatively which also interacts with motivation. Consequently, such teachers are relatively more satisfied with their jobs. Another possible reason for this finding is that individuals with high level of self-efficacy have the ability to effectively handle various tasks, obligations and challenges related to their professional role. Thus, it is not surprising that a significant positive relationship was found between self-efficacy and job satisfaction among teachers. The study also found a negative insignificant relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction among participants. Basu Mudasir (2013), conducted research on Occupational efficacy and job satisfaction of educational administrators-A question of outcomes. Objectives:1. To describe the sample of Educational Administrators with regard to Occupational Efficacy and Job Satisfaction.2. To undertake correlation analysis between Occupational Efficacy and Job Satisfaction. Finding: On the basis of the findings of the present study, the Effective Educational Administrators has emerged as those who possess greater ability in doing their work independently and ensure proper planning and organization of their institutional matters. They quickly adjust to different challenges that came in their task and are able to handle them effectively. They abide by the rules of their institution and make their ideas known to the group.

All these characteristics in turn positively influence the Occupational Efficacy of Effective Educational Administrators. The results also showed that majority of educational administrators were moderately contented with their job. Therefore, Special orientation programmes should be organized to improve and raise the Job Satisfaction of educational administrators. Thus, responsibility lies on various institutions that should organize special programmes so that the behaviour of ineffective educational administrators can be brought up to effective level. A Hand Book may be prepared for administrators that may guide them in administering their institutions effectively and to become effective institutional leaders. Special in-service orientation programmes should be organized for ineffective educational administrators to orient them with different dimensions of administration behaviour and train them in techniques of effective management. The educational administrators should be given special incentives and promotional avenues in order to reward their better performance in their respective fields.



A synoptic review of the above researches revealed that occupational self efficacy and job satisfaction of the teachers working at the primary school is positively and significantly correlated. The present study attempts to explore the relationship between occupational self efficacy and job satisfaction.

Objectives The following objectives were formulated for the present study:

1. To study the occupational self efficacy of teachers working at the primary school.

2. To study the Job Satisfaction of teachers working at the primary school. 3. To study the relationship of Occupational self Efficacy with Job

Satisfaction of teachers working at the primary school.

Method and Procedure The present study was designed to study the occupational self efficacy and job satisfaction of teachers working at the primary school. The descriptive method was used.

Sample The sample for the study consisted of 120 schools and 240 Teachers selected from Koraput district. 120 teachers were randomly selected. All the primary schools were included in the study. However, the sample of teachers from Government schools was drawn on the bases of systematic sampling technique.

Tools The following tools were selected to collect the data: 1. Occupational Self Efficacy Scale developed by Sanjaypot Pethe, Sushma

Chowdari and Uppinar Dhar. (2000) (OSES) was selected to measure Occupational self Efficacy of Primary school teachers.

2. Job Satisfaction Scale developed by Amar Singh and T.R Sharma. (1999) (JSS) was selected to measure Job Satisfaction of Primary school teachers.

Statistical Analysis The data collected was subjected to the following statistical treatment. I. Percentage statistics, t-test and Coefficient of correlation.

Analysis of the Data The data have been analyzed and interpreted in the following tables:



Table 1.0 Showing the levels of Occupational Self Efficacy of Primary school

teachers (N=120) Scores Obtained on OSE Scale N Percentage Remarks

83 and above 41 39.16 Above average 65-82 59 49.16 Average Below 64 20 16.66 Below average A perusal of the above table shows the levels of occupational self Efficacy of Primary school teachers. The data reveals that 34.16% of the Primary school teachers in higher fall in the above average category of occupational self efficacy, 49.16 % of the Primary school teachers fall in the average category. The data further reveals that 16.66% of Primary school teachers fall in the below average category so far as their occupational self efficacy is concerned.

Table 1.1 Showing the levels of job satisfaction of Primary school teachers (N=120)

Scores Obtained on JS Scale N Percentage

Remarks

74- above

44 36.66%

Extremely Satisfied

63-73 17 14.16% Very Satisfie 56-62

38 31.66%

Moderately Satisfied

48-55 14 11.66% Not Satisfied 47-beow

7 5.83%

Extremely Dissatisfied

A perusal of above table shows the levels of Job of Primary school teachers. The statistical data reveals that 36.66% of Primary school teachers were found extremely satisfied with the job, 14.16% were found very satisfied with the job. 31.66% of Primary school teachers were found moderately satisfied with the job. It was further observed that 11.66% of Primary school teachers were found dissatisfied with the job and 5. 83% of Primary school teachers were found extremely dissatisfied with the job.

Table 1.2 correlation between Occupational Efficacy and Job Satisfaction of

Primary school teachers (N=120) Occupational Efficacy and Job Satisfaction

r=0.52 Significant at .01 Level



The above table depicts that there is Positive relationship between Occupational self Efficacy and Job Satisfaction of Primary school teachers having co-efficient of correlation r= 0.52 (p> .01). The above table reveals that Occupational self Efficacy is positively related to the Job Satisfaction of Primary school teachers. This suggests that higher the Occupational self Efficacy, higher will be the Job Satisfaction.

Findings The study has arrived at very interesting findings. Some of these main findings are reported here as under: 1. It was found that 34. 16% of Primary school teachers fall in the above

average category, 49.16% in average and 16.66% fall in below average category on occupational self efficacy. It was further found that the Primary school teachers who fall in above average category on occupational self efficacy display confidence, commitment and competence in their job profile. They display mastery over the job assigned to them and complete the assigned task with a positive attitude. They attach intrinsic component in their job. They re-evaluate strategies when they fail in any task and are able to handle unforeseen situation and resolve conflicts at their work places. The Primary school teachers who fall in average category on occupational self efficacy display moderate confidence and commitment in their job profile. They attach extrinsic component in their job. They relate their personal development to revision in their pay scales; power vested in them and their execution with minimum interference. They display moderate authority on their subordinates. It has been further found that Primary school teachers who fall in below average category lack managerial skills to implement best healthy practices from the other institutions.

2. It has been found that 36.66% of the Primary school teachers were extremely satisfied, 14.16% were very satisfied, 31.66% were moderately satisfied, 11.66% were not satisfied and 5.83% were extremely dissatisfied with their job. It was further found that the Primary school teachers who are satisfied with their job feel that the position and job they hold have a positive impact on their social status with regard to economic advantages like salary, allowance and increment they rate their job as excellent. Job satisfied of Primary school teachers derives pleasure from their job and they are satisfied with the working conditions in their



offices. They do their duty with a professional sprit and believe that work is worship. It has also been found that the Primary school teachers who are not satisfied with their job always hunt for excuses. They are more concerned with revision in pay scale and other monetary benefits. They oppose new trends in methodology of Primary school teachers and maintain status quo. They do not weight or recognize the opinion of other faculty members. They are somewhat rigid and authoritative while discharging their duties.

REFERENCES

Abbasi, P. (2003) A comparative study of job satisfaction among primary school teachers in India. New frontiers in education, XXXIII (02)

Abraham (1997). Job Satisfaction and Teacher Effectiveness: A Study of College Teachers: Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education. 25(1&2).61-64

Akomolafe, M. J. and Ogunmakin, A. O. (2014). Job Satisfaction among Secondary School Teachers: Emotional Intelligence, Occupational Stress and Self-Efficacy as Predictors. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4 (3), 487-498. May. MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy.

Bindu, C.M, (2007). Relationship between job satisfaction and stress coping skills of primary school teachers, EDUTRACKS, Vol. 06(05).

Ghosh, M. (2013). Job Satisfaction of Teachers working at the Primary School. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention.2, 7.1-5.www.ijhssi.org

Jadhav, S.G. and Pujar, R.R. (2013). Occupational Self-Efficacy and job Satisfaction of teachers. Indian Streams Research Journal February, 3, 1.1-5. Available online at www.isrj.net

Mudasir, B. (2013). Occupational efficacy and job satisfaction of educational administrators-A question of outcomes. Merit Research Journal of Education and Review. 1(2), 023-029, March, http://www.meritresearchjournals.org/er/index.htm Copyright © 2013 Merit Research Journals

Pethe, S., Chowdari, S. And Dhar, U. (2000) .Occupational Self Efficacy Scale (OSES).

Singh, A and Sharama, T.R. (1999). Job Satisfaction Scale. (JSS)

Dr. W. Jyotirmoy Singh Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


A Study on HSLC Social Science Examiner of

Bosem

Dr. W. Jyotirmoy Singh Associate Professor, D. M. College of Teacher Education, Imphal, Manipur,

India. Emil: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The contributor is the Additional Head Examiner for Social Science (Head for History Section), High School Leaving Certificate Examination (HSLCE) of Board of Secondary Education Manipur (BOSEM) for the last six years. This paper is developed based on the experiences of the contributor. Examiners were appointed as Coordinators on the basis of their merits, punctuality among others. This is also favoured by the Examiners. At times, the examiners also faced non – examining related difficulties. Efforts should also be made to address this problem at the earliest if such problems arise in the future. Lest, it may distract the attention of the examiners.

Keywords: Examinations, observation, coping, social science Introduction Class Ten Examination is one of the most important examinations in one’s life. It in fact is the first public examination for every student. It needs standardized examination which is to be of same level for all students and a competent examining body to conduct such standardized examination. Like every other state, Class Ten Examination known as High School Leaving Certificate Examination (HSLCE) is conducted by BOSEM. HSLCE is conducted in five compulsory subjects – Modern Indian Language (MIL), English, Mathematics, Science and Social Science and in one optional subject – any from Computer Science, Home Science and Thang Ta. HSCLE’S Social Science Question paper of BOSEM consists of four sections: Section A – Geography, Section B – History, Section C – Political Science and Section D – Economics. This paper seeks to find out the experience of the HSLCE 2016 examiners of BOSEM. More than 120 examiners from the Government and non – Government schools evaluate Social Science answer

Dr. W. Jyotirmoy Singh ISSN 2349-0519


scripts of the said examination. Questionnaire was given to all of them. Only 73 (60.8%) of them responded to the questionnaire. In this paper, teaching, examining and coordinating experiences of the examiners were included in the questionnaire. The difficulties faced by them in examining the answer scripts and their feedback are also included in the study.

The questionnaire was asked in the form of closed question with opportunities given to the respondent to answer in five scale format of – HA – Highly Agree, A – Agree, O – OK, DA – Disagree and HAD – Highly Disagree. Often some of the respondent did not respond to a particular question. When there were no responses from them it was marked as NR.

Key Terms BOSEM Board of Secondary Education Manipur. HSLCE High School Leaving Certificate Manipur. MIL Modern Indian Language GM Male Examiners from Government School GF Female Examiners from Government School NGM Male Examiners from Non - Government School NGF Female Examiners from Non - Government School

Table I.1 Teaching Experience

Year 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 +26 Total GM 1 2 2 2 - 2 9 GW 9 3 2 1 - - 15 NGM 5 7 9 8 6 6 41 NGW 2 1 1 1 1 2 8 Total 17 13 14 12 7 10 73

HSLCE Social Science examiners of BOSEM seem to be a good blend between the experienced and new teachers (I.1). Around 58.9% of the evaluators have been teaching for more than 10 years. While 23.29% of them have teaching experience for more than 20 years.

If one looks at the number of examiners of every interval, except for teachers having 1 – 5 years teaching experience, teaching experience of the teachers of every interval does not exceed 20%.

The examiners from the Government school also seem to be very few. Only 1/3rd of the examiners are from the Government school. Often the Government

ISSN 2349-0519 A Study on HSLC Social Science Examiner of Bosem


schools have performed dismally in the HSLCE. Thus, here one needs a further study if the two issues are proportionately (inversely) related.

Table I.2 Exam Experience

Year 1 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 +26 Total GM 4 3 - - 1 1 - 9 GW 12 2 1 - - - - 15 NGM 17 14 2 5 2 1 41 NGW 3 2 - 2 1 - 8 Total 16 25 17 2 8 4 1 73

More than 55% of the examiners have the examiners experience of examining HSLCE for more than five years. These experienced examiners are one of the factors for bringing reliability in examining the answer scripts. Developing next generation examiners is also needed for bringing continuity to the reliability of examining the answer scripts. In this aspect BOSEM also seems to have done its homework by initiating new examiners (22%) in examining the answer scripts.

The ratio of 1:1 between experienced and the new evaluators can be interpreted as a good blending. Moreover, experienced examiners often help the new ones. In fact, effort was made to sit the new examiners with the experienced examiners so that the experienced one can share their experience with the new ones. This, on the other hand, reduced the working lot of the head examiners. As in the case of previous one (I.1), there was scarce experienced examiners from the Government schools. One of the plausible causes maybe due to the reluctance of the teachers of Government schools to take up examination task of HSLCE. If this is the case, then efforts should be made at the earliest to address this problem.

Table I.3 Coordinating Experience

Year 1 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 +26 Total

GM 4 3 1 - - 1 - 9 GW 12 2 1 - - - - 15 NGM - 24 12 2 2 1 - 41 NGW 3 1 3 1 - - - 8 Total 19 30 17 3 2 2 - 73



Another important role of the examiners in bringing reliability to the examination is the appointment of the Coordinators (scrutinizer of the assessment by the examiners). Coordinators are usually appointed in the ratio of 2:1 or 3:1 to the number of examiners. About 1/3rd examiners (33%) of Social Science of HSLSCE of BOSEM who responded to the questionnaire had coordinating experiences (I.3). This is a healthy sign as the experienced Coordinator often helped (sharing their experiences) the new or less experienced examiners in examining the answer scripts. This is one of the reasons for bringing the reliability to the answer scripts. The numbers of re-evaluation and also application for availing their answer scripts by the examinees through RTI in Social Science in the last two years is around 200 (0.6%) only from around 33,000 examinees. This can be interpreted as an efficiency of the examiners in examining the answer scripts.

Table II Coordinator’s Experience

HA A O DA HAD NR 1. Coordinator should be appointed on

the basis of years of the experience in evaluation of the evaluator.

27 24 9 9 1 3

2 Coordinator should be appointed on the basis of the merit of the evaluator.

21 21 14 10 2 5

3 Coordination if necessary can be started before the end of the evaluation by the examiners.

13 22 18 10 2 8

Questions regarding the experience were also asked. Coordinators are appointed from amongst the examiners. There are no hard and fast rules for the appointment of the Coordinators. Usually they are appointed on the basis of their experience. Examiners with less than five years experienced of examining the answer scripts were also appointed as Coordinators on the basis of their merits, punctuality among others. Examiners highly favoured that Coordinators should be appointed on the basis of their experience (II.1.1) and on the basis of their merits (II.1.2). While appointing Social Science Coordinators from amongst the examiners both the points were taken into consideration. In fact two / three examiners who were appointed for the first

ISSN 2349-0519 A Study on HSLC Social Science Examiner of Bosem


time were appointed as Coordinators. This enabled them to gain further experience in examination. The first time and also the less experienced Coordinators were generally seated along with the experienced one. Most of the examiners (72%) agreed that Coordination work should be carried out before the completion of the examination of the answer scripts (II.2.3). Generally Coordination was carried after the end of the examination. This makes it impossible to communicate with the Examiners in regards to their shortcoming. Some Examiners commit the same mistake the following years. To mend this gap Coordination simultaneously along with examination of answer scripts is deemed necessary. This is also accepted by many of the Examiners.

Table III Difficulties while Assessing

HA A O DA HDA NR 1 Evaluation rooms are congested 37 18 6 8 - 4 2 Rooms are not well ventilated 12 19 20 18 - 4 3 Power supply is insufficient 14 20 19 15 1 4 4 Toilet facilities are not good 19 21 19 7 4 3 5 School did not grant leave for the

entire duration of evaluation work of HSLC of BSEM

19 6 10 29 6 3

Questions were also asked about the difficulties faced by the examiners. Of them five points had been selected because they bear common difficulties of the Examiners. The first four are related with the centres of examining answer scripts (IV. 1-4) while the last one is related with the current schools of the Examiners (IV.5). The examining rooms are somewhat small. It is very difficult to accommodate 50 plus examiners in one room. Care should be taken to ensure that the Examiners examine in favourable situation.

Some of the schools did not grant leave for their teachers in examining the answer scripts. While some grant leave only for a few days. This hampers in examining the scripts. So ways and mechanism should be developed to address this problem. It happens every year. Instruction may be intimated to the schools to enable the presence of their teachers selected for examining answer scripts. Or more Examiners may be appointed so that examining of scripts can be finished within a short period.



Table IV Suggestion

HA A O DA HDA NR 1 BSEM should collect

feedback from the evaluators

20 31 10 1 2 9

% 27.4 42.47 13.7 1.37 2.74 12.33 BOSEM does not take feedback from its Examiners. 69% of the respondents felt that BOSEM should take feedback from the Examiners (VI.1). This is very important. It will help in understanding the needs of the Examiners and also identifying the short comings of BOSEM (if there is any). HSLCE Social Science examiners of BOSEM seem to be a good blend between the experienced and new teachers. Developing next generation examiners is also needed for bringing continuity to the reliability of examining the answer scripts. In this aspect BOSEM also seems to have done its homework by initiating new examiners (22%) in examining the answer scripts. The examiners from the Government school also seem to be very few. One needs a further introspection for the fewer examiners from Government Schools and efforts should also be made at the earliest to address this problem. The numbers of re-evaluation and also application for availing their answer scripts by the examinees through RTI in Social Science in the last two years is around 0.6%. This can be interpreted as an efficiency of the examiners in examining the answer scripts. Examiners were appointed as Coordinators on the basis of their merits, punctuality among others. This is also favoured by the Examiners. At times, the examiners also faced non – examining related difficulties. Efforts should also be made to address this problem at the earliest if such problems arise in the future. REFERENCES

National Curriculum Framework – 2005, New Delhi, 2005

Examination Reform, National Focus Group, NCF – 2005, New Delhi, 2005

2016, HSLC Examination result of BOSEM

Bipin Asthana, Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education, Agra, 2008

B.K. Sahu, Statistics in Psychology and Education, Jalandhar, 2007

Prof. R. Ranganathan Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact Factor:2.3222


Multiple Intelligence Based Teaching Strategies and

Academic Achievement of Children with Learning Disabilities

Prof. R.Ranganathan

Principal, IASE, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT The distribution of intelligence is not equal among all human beings. Every child will have his/her own unique set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how easy (or difficult) it is for a student to learn information when it is presented in a particular manner. Howard Gardener argued that the mind/brain consists of many modules/ organs/ intelligences, each of which operates according to its own rules in relative autonomy from the others and this lead to Multiple Intelligence theory. The present study aims to cater to these sets of intelligence of children with learning disabilities. The main objective of the present study is to find out the effectiveness of multiple intelligences based teaching strategies in teaching children with learning disabilities. Pre test - post test single group design was adopted. The Learning Assessment tool and achievement pre and post test was developed by the investigator. 30 Children with learning disabilities were the sample in the present study. The result revealed that the multiple intelligence based teaching strategies was found to be effective in the teaching learning process of children with learning disabilities. There exist negative correlation between academic achievement and learning disability which means that when a child is taught through MIBTA they can overcome their leaning disability. Positive correlation between multiple intelligence and academic achievement was found. The study implied the need for incorporating the strategies which gives importance of multiple intelligences in the teaching learning process. Teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style, which engages most or all of the intelligences. Pre service and in-service training should insist on Multiple Intelligence Based Teaching Strategies and Academic Achievement of Children with Learning Disabilities. Keywords: teaching, intellectual disability, strategy, learning

Prof. R. Ranganathan ISSN 2349-0519


Introduction A specific learning difficulty is one of the categories in special education. Children with special learning disabilities exhibit a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written languages. These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling or arithmetic. Difficulties with reading and spelling and associated problems are known as ‘Specific

Learning Disability’ or dyslexia in the United States and occasionally in the

United Kingdom (Joy Pollock and Elizabeth Waller, 1997). Although the concept covered diversified learning deficits, definition gives clear picture about learning difficulties. In 1969, The National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children (NACHC) developed an acceptable definition under Kirk’s leadership. This definition was incorporated into Public Law 91 - 230, the Specific Learning Disabilities Act of 1969.‘Children with special learning

disabilities exhibit a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written languages. These may be manifested in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling or arithmetic. They include conditions, which have been referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia etc. They do not include learning problems, which are due to primarily visual, hearing or motor handicaps, to mental retardation, emotional disturbance or environmental disadvantage (USOE, 1968, P. 34).USOE released the 1977 Federal Register, which included the revised definition almost identical to that of the NACHC.‘Specific learning disability’ means a disorder in one or more

of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, or mental retardation, or emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (USOE, 1977, p.65083). In 1981, the National Joint Committee on Learning disabilities revised the definition and agreed on the following: Learning disability is a generic term

ISSN 2349-0519 Multiple Intelligence Based Teaching Strategies…..


that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g., sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance) or environmental influences (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient / inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors) it is not the direct result of those conditions or influences (Hammill et al 1981). A child, thus can be considered as learning disabled if i) he has considerable difficulty in understanding or using spoken language, reading, writing, spelling and / or arithmetic during developmental period (before 16 years of age), ii) he is free from visual, hearing or motor activity, mental retardation, severe emotional problems, and iii) he has adequate facilities, interest and motivation to learn. Such children experience difficulty in one or many area - i.e. reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic and organization. Based on the frequency of occurrence, the following ten characteristics have been identified as widely prevalent in individuals with learning disability (Clements, 1966). Hyperactivity Perceptual impairment Emotional instability General co-ordination deficits Disorder of attention Impulsivity Disorder of memory and thinking Specific learning disabilities in the areas of reading, writing, spelling and

arithmetic Disorder of speech and language Equivocal neurological signs and electro encephalographic irregularities.

Research by Bryant and Pflaum (1978) reveal that learning disabled fail to read social cues and may misinterpret the reactions of other people. Pearl, L. Seidenberg, and Laovie (1989) list out nine characteristics of children with learning disabilities.



They are Hyperactivity: Inappropriate excessive motor activity such as tapping of finger or foot, jumping out of seat, or skipping from task to task. Attention deficits: Distracted by irrelevant stimuli or preservation, or attention becomes fixed upon a single task or behaviour that is repeated over and over. Motor deficits: General co-ordination problems resulting in awkward or clumsy movements. Perceptual Motor Deficits: difficulty in integrating a visual or auditory stimulus with a motor response. Language deficits: Delays in speech and difficulty in understanding and formulating spoken language. Impulsivity: Lack of reflective behaviour. Cognitive deficits: Deficits in memory and concept formation. Orientation Deficits: Poorly developed spatial or temporal. Specific learning deficits: Problems in acquiring reading, writing, or arithmetic skills. The USOE 1977 Federal Register provides framework for examining characteristics. The list of disability areas (oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, and mathematics reasoning) shows that academic and language difficulties are primary characteristics. Apart from primary characteristics there are some specific characteristics - a) Discrepancy factor, b) Academic learning difficulty, c) Language disorders, d) Perceptual disorders, e) Meta-cognitive deficits, f) Social - emotional problems, g) Memory problems, h) Motor disorders, i) Attention problems and hyperactivity (Cecil D. Mercer, 1997). The remedial reading programmes for dyslexics have to be based on the following specific principles suggested by various experts like Tansley (1967), Richardson et al (1971) and Stauffer (1951):



Dyslexic children need to over learn information so that it is not forgotten. Therefore, considerable amount of time should be devoted to revision of earlier work.

Because the dyslexic child forgets quickly, new concepts should be presented frequently and in a number of ways. Thus learning appears to be optimal after the following stages have been followed:

Recognition, Recall Relearning, Recall

Remedial help should refer to the precise skill to be learned rather than to an assumed gross deficit. Thus, b/d, confusions may well be a product of directional confusion, but it is more productive if the child is trained specifically on b/d discriminations, rather than on general directions.

In selecting the child’s beginning reading vocabulary, it should be made

sure the words are within the student’s range of experience and different

with reference to sound and visual configurations. Learning must be guided, controlled and made explicit in the early stages.

This implies that training may be needed to clarify sensory experiences. The child must be actively involved n the learning process, rather than

passively assimilating. The child should be allowed to discover the rule if possible and they define it.

The child should be busy at a ‘meaningful’ task during the remedial

session. Immediate feedback is essential for the child to evaluate the adequacy of this response. Also, the teacher should either prevent, or immediately correct, spelling errors to ensure continuous reinforcement of correct spelling patterns and thus aid assimilation and memory.

Multi-sensory attack should be made using visual, auditory tactile and kinesthetic links supported by spoken language, mnemonics and verbalizations.

Because, the dyslexic child has had a lot of school failure, it is possible that he has become very under motivated when he is presented with the written word. To help him to become more motivated the following tactics may be helpful.

i) The initial part of the remedial session should involve activities on which the child should achieve success as easily as possible, since this will act as a motivator.

ii) The learning task should be divided into sub skills so that the child can master each of them easily and keep himself highly motivated throughout learning the task.



According to Hallahan and Kauffman (1976), the task of holding the pencil correctly could be broken down into the following steps: Grasping pencil with the thumps in opposition to the index and middle

fingers, the shaft of the pencil forming an angle of approximately 45 degree with the thumb.

Placing the thumb and fingers approximately one inch from the point of the pencil.

Curling the fingers naturally towards the palm of the hand. Resetting the fourth finger and outside edge of the hand on the paper. States and colleagues (cited in Hallahan & Kaufmann, 1976) have shown that learning to count involves learning three distinct performances: (1) the visual-motor skill of touching or moving objects one at a time and in order, (2) the verbal skill of saying the numbers in sequence, and (3) the skill of combining or coordinating the visual motor and verbal performance. Touching or moving objects in order without the appropriate verbal accomplishment cannot be considered counting. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for the teachers to carry out classroom instruction effectively in teaching learning process. The different types of intelligence have been named by him as Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal and Naturalistic. The theory states that all eight intelligences are needed to an individual to productively function in society. Therefore, teachers should think of all intelligences as equally important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems, which typically place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligences. Thus, the Theory of multiple intelligences implies that educators should recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills. Another implication is that teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style, which engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the revolutionary war, a teacher can show to students’ battle maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play of the signing of the declaration of independence, and to make the students to read a novel about life during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students about learning, but it also allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide assortment of intelligences,



teaching in this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject material. (Kallenbach et.al, 2001). Objective of the Study The main objective of the present study is to find out the effectiveness of multiple intelligences based teaching strategies in teaching children with learning disabilities. Research Question Can Multiple Intelligence based Teaching Approach (MIBTA) can help children to overcome their learning disabilities? Methodology Pre test - post test single group design was adopted in the present study. The Learning Assessment tool and achievement pre and post test was developed by the investigator. Children with learning disabilities were identified and the sample of 30 students with learning disabilities was taken for the present study. For the purpose of the investigation, the investigator applied the multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA) to enhance the scholastic achievement and to minimize the learning disability among children. Parents were asked to motivate the students in their studies, provide necessary support to continue the exercises at home. Results and Discussion One of the major objectives of the study was to implement the multiple intelligence based teaching approach to enhance the scholastic achievement. Multiple Intelligence and reduce learning disability among the learning disabled children. To attain this objective, correlated‘t’ values of pre and post test scores of experimental group with regard to scholastic achievement, learning disability and multiple intelligence were calculated and the results are given in following table. The obtained correlated‘t’ values 4.54, 17.30 and 3.91 of scholastic achievement, learning disability and multiple intelligence respectively is significant at 0.01 level. Thus the stated hypothesis “there exist

significant difference in the mean scores of the pre and post test of experimental group of learning disabled children in their scholastic achievement, learning disability and multiple intelligence” is accepted.



Further, from the table a close analyzes of the mean scores of scholastic achievement at post stage is 36.75, which is significantly higher than the pre stage means scores 28.75. This means that, in the post test, the experimental group has established a clear increase over the pre test mean score. This can be attributed only with the implementation of multiple intelligence based teaching approach.

Learning disability mean scores at post stage is 4.35 which is significantly less than the pre stage where the mean score is 9.35 is may be because of the decrease in the mean scores of post test in the experimental group proves the effectiveness of multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA). The result evinced that the level of learning disability is reduced with the implementation of multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA). Further, the mean scores of multiple intelligence at post stage is 119.20, which is significantly higher than the pre stage where mean score is 106.45. It may therefore, be said that the students with learning disabilities have improved their multiple intelligence level with the treatment of multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA). It may therefore, be said that the students with learning disabilities were benefited through the treatment of multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA). The result was in agreement with the study done by Anderson &Virginia B. (1998) and Brand & Susan Trostle (2006) where they found that multiple intelligence -based instructional approaches can be an effective means of improving student retention of foreign language vocabulary and academic achievement, enlarge the awareness of memory techniques for foreign language vocabulary mastery and awareness of varied learning styles in both teacher and students, seven-week program resulted in significant gains in phonemic awareness, nonsense word competence, and word usage fluency. Shah et al (2002) developed and used student centers within the classroom to activate the multiple intelligences thereby increasing the retention of high frequency spelling words by moving beyond verbal/linguistic instruction. Post intervention data indicated an increase in the ability to spell high frequency words conventionally within students' daily writing, and a new understanding of how multiple intelligences can enhance the students' learning in all areas of the curriculum. Fathi Abdullamid Abdulkader, Kerim Gundogdu and Mourad Ali Eissa (2009) established the effectiveness of the multiple intelligence based programme in improving reading skills, namely word recognition and reading comprehension skills of learning disabled students.



From the above, it can be concluded that, the implementation of multiple intelligence based teaching approach (MIBTA) could significantly enhance the scholastic achievement and multiple intelligence of children with learning disabilities and minimize their learning disabilities.

Table: Correlation Analysis

Variables

Experimental Group Correlation Coefficient (r) (Before Treatment)

Percentage of commonness

(r2x100)

Correlation Coefficient (r) (After Treatment

Percentage of commonness

(r2x100)

SA and LD SA and MI LD and MI

-0.714** 0.665** -0.632**

50.97 44.22 39.94

-0.798** 0.775** -0.805**

63.68 60.06 64.80

Table: Mean, SD, Correlation and Correlated t values of Scholastic Achievement, Learning Disability and Multiple Intelligence of Children with Learning Disabilities of Experiment group

Test for

Experiment Group

Scholastic Achievement Learning Disability Multiple Intelligence

Mean

SD

Correlated ‘t’ value

Mean

SD

Correlated ‘t’ value

Mean

SD Correlated ‘t’ value

Pre test Post test

28.75 36.75

4.18 8.69

4.54**

9.35 4.35

1.00 0.97

17.30**

106.45 119.20

13.30 11.92

3.91**

@ Not significant at 0.05 Level * Significant at 0.05 Level **Significant at 0.01 Level The above table revealed that the children with learning disabilities have evinced negative correlation on the scholastic achievement and learning disabilities, positive correlation between scholastic achievement and multiple intelligences and negative correlation between learning disabilities and multiple intelligence. Thus the multiple intelligence based teaching approach has significant correlation on the scholastic achievement and learning disabilities. Thus the implemented MIBTA is found to be effective in the teaching learning process of the Children with learning disabilities.

Implications of the Study The study has emphasised the importance of intervention programmes based on the multiple intelligence in upper primary high school level. Thus, this study will be a lime light to the teachers to implement multiple intelligence based intervention programmes in their schools for earlier promotion of students with learning problems. Pre service and in-service training should



insist on the use of the multiple intelligence based teaching in the teaching learning process. Orientation training programme should be given to the teachers and teacher educators by the National and International Educational Bodies on the use of multiple intelligence based intervention programmes. REFERENCES

Bryant, P. and Pflaum, S. (1978) Social Interactions of Learning Disabled Children: A Linguistic, Social and Cognitive Analysis’. Learning Disability Quarterly, 1, 3, 70 -79.

Cecil, D. Mercer (1997) Students with learning disabilities’. Prentice

Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Clements (1966) Minimal brain dysfunction in children NINDS’.

Monograph No. 3, US Public Health Service Bulletin No. 1415. Washington DC: US. Government Printing Office.

Hallahan, D and Kauffman (1976) Introduction to Learning Disabilities, Prentice Hall, N.J.

Hammill, D. D., Leight, J. E., Mc Nutt, G., and Larsen, S. G. (1981) .A new definition of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 336–342.

Kallenbach, Silja, Ed.; Viens, Julie, Ed. (2001). Multiple Intelligences in Practice: Teacher Research Reports from the Adult Multiple Intelligences Study. NCSALL Occasional Paper. www. Eric.net (ED453386).

Pearl, L. Seidenberg (1997). Understanding Learning Disabilities’. In

Deena K. Bernstein Ellenmorris, Tigerman – Farber, Part-III of Language and Communication Disorders in Children, Allyn & Bacon, A Viacom Company, Needham Heights, MA.

Richardson, Ellis and Collier, Lucy. (1971). Programmed Tutoring of Decoding skills with third and fifth grade non-readers, Journal of Experimental Education, 39(3), 57-64.

Tansley, A.E. (1967) Reading and Remedial Reading, Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited.

Stauffer, Russel.G. (1951) Certain Basic Concepts in Remedial Reading, Elementary school Journal.

U.S. Office of Education (1977) Assistance to states for education of handicapped children: Procedures for evaluating specific learning disabilities’. Federal Register, 42, 65082-65085.

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kallenbach+Silja%22

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Viens+Julie%22

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&ERICExtSearch_Operator_2=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw&searchtype=advanced&ERICExtSearch_Operator_1=and&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_1=kw&eric_displayStartCount=171&ERICExtSearch_PubDate_To=2008&eric_viewStyle=list&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=multiple+intelligence&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_2=kw&ERICExtSearch_SearchCount=2&ERICExtSearch_PubDate_From=0&pageSize=30&eric_displayNtriever=false&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b800c4c27&accno=ED453386&_nfls=false%20%20%20%20



Ms. Jyotirmayee Rout Social Vision Vol:3 Issue:4 Jan-March 2017 ISSN 2349-0519, Impact actor:2.3222


Health Status of Odisha: A Multi-Comparative

Analysis

Ms. Jyotirmayee Rout ICSSR Doctoral Fellow, Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development

Studies, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

ABSTRACT Health for all is the fundamental right of everyone to live a healthy and active life. There is a strong relationship between health and economic development as human resource development is closely related to economic health. Health Sector of Odisha is in challenging situation with 37% of its total population living below the official declared poverty line where health status indicators are below the national average and public spending in health sector has moved around to 1-1.5 per cent of the gross state domestic product (GSDP) against 6% recommended by Indian Council of Social Science Research and Indian Council of Medical Research (1981). Now health status is not in a reasonable standard to maintain its persistent growth due to inadequacy of health care expenditure, lack of finance and also the changing role of government involvement in health care financing, and inefficient use of health services. There is vast rural and tribal population, who are unable to take health and medical service from various sectors. Thus the paper basically focused to discuss the status of health care facilities and health status of Odisha in somehow related to national Context.

Keywords: Health care facilities, Health indicators, Out-of-pocket expenses, Medical institutions

Introduction The 21st century world is going in a competitive and critical situation. Every govt. has been striving hard to make the country economically, socially, politically strong for an active and healthy society. There is a strong relationship between economic development and healthy active mind. In 1983 the policy direction of govt. of India has came into forefront and with the motto of “health for all”. Both the millennium development and sustainable

Ms. Jyotirmayee Rout ISSN 2349-0519


development goal has appreciated the integrated health goal into their agenda. Our health sector always faced major challenges due to vast population in one hand and among them more are under below poverty line and in other hand due to the competition between private and govt. to provide health facilities. It has become one of the major discussions among policy makers and health scientists. Unfortunately, near about 37% of its total population living below the official declared poverty line where health status indicators are below the national average (Rout, 2015) and public spending in health sector has moved around to 1-1.5 per cent of the gross state domestic product (GSDP) against 6% recommended by Indian Council of Social Science Research and Indian Council of Medical Research (1981).There is rapid growth of private sector in to the health sector, absence of doctors, nurses, midwives etc., non-filling of posts, frequent transfers of the health workforce in the public sector, migration of health personnel from public sector to the private sector etc. affect the healthcare delivery system significantly (Debi, 2011).

It is estimated that the private sector provides about 58% of total hospitals, 29% of total hospital beds and 81% of the doctors. It caters to the health needs of about 78% of the rural and 81% of urban population (GOI 2008).Approximately, 77% of outpatient Department (OPD) cases in rural areas and 80% in urban areas as being serviced by the private sector in the country (NSSO 2004). However, despite it, the various health indicators such as Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR), Crude Birth Rate (CBR), Crude Death Rate (CDR) and life expectancy at birth shows a mixed experience on health status in the state. On the one hand, the state has made considerable progress in reducing Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and CBR and on the other hand, the state lags behind in India in terms of other health indicators such as IMR, MMR, Malnutrition, life expectancy and deprivation etc. The main theme of this paper is to examine the Health status of Odisha through number of medical institutions, IMR, MMR, CDR and CBR and also to show the comparative health status of private and public sector among different districts of Odisha.

Review of Literature The literature addresses the various tools for research design, scopes, issues, reforms, policies, policy implementations, conclusions, suggestions or recommendations related to Health Sector where every bit of information is as considered as significant and it includes books, journals, magazines, web

ISSN 2349-0519 Health Status of Odisha: A Multi-Comparative Analysis


articles, news papers and various sources of data. As the objectives of healthcare system are concerned, it facilitates the achievement of optimal level of health to the community through the delivery of services of appropriate quality and quantity. So we must give effective attention for its proper utilization by realizing its efficiency and significance in human’s life. Some of the studies have undertaken to review the past literatures and for future analysis. In March 2005, WHO launched the Commission on Social Determinants of Health, which “aims for changes whereby the societal relationships and factors that influence health and health systems will be visible, understood, and recognized as important”. It is the intention of WHO to incorporate the social determinants of health into its policy, planning, and technical development agenda. To provide advanced health equity to the people by reducing health disparities is the main motive of the association because through this disparity, one can measure the progress of the nation by following health equity. [American Public Health Association (APHA), Aug 16, (2015)]. For changing the current scenario of the economy, social development plays a crucial role which required scientific advancement and enhanced healthcare system which is nothing but the major requirement of health equities for the nation. To meet the formidable challenges, there is urgent need for revitalizing primary health care based on the principles of Alma Ata in 1978 (Lakshminarayanan, 2011).

There is an impoverishment consequences of out-of-pocket payment for health care in terms of proportion of household belong to below poverty line. Income inequality is one of the reasons due to high out-of-pocket expenses on healthcare. (Shankar P. et al, 2012&Ladusingh L et.al, 2013).The service provided by the private healthcare providers in India though better than the service provided by the public healthcare providers, but there is a need to improve the service quality in both the sectors (Ghosh, 2014).According to the WHO just 33 percent of Indian health care expenditures in 2012 came from government sources. Of the remaining private spending, around 86 percent was out-of-pocket (OOP) (Dhawan, 2015). Due to lack of fund allocation towards rural areas, preventive services, medicines and equipments, and complexity of centre-state financial relation, health policies turned ineffective to meet the required level of resources for basic health care facilities (Hooda, 2015).

The recent incident such as Nagada case of Jajpur district, malnutrition among mother and children mostly the tribal districts of Odisha and the huge death of



Japanese encephalitis in Malkangiri and Sum hospital incidents proves the inefficiency of government mechanisms due to their poor maintenance and negligence. However, the coastal and central region of the state shows a significant improvement in different health indicators. Statement of the problem The public healthcare delivery in Odisha is not considered to be adequate because there is deterioration of state finances, increased non-developmental requirements; state is forced to spend a less proportion of their revenue income on health care services and other health related aspects. There is shortage of public fund in health care system, migration of health personnel, frequent transfer of health workforce, absence of doctors, nurses and midwives etc., and also there is lower quality of healthcare service available in public sector which enhances the growth of private spending in to the health sector through different facilities.

So in this context it is important to analyze the status of healthcare services that are available from private and public sector and to check the current availability of healthcare infrastructure in different districts of Odisha. Followings are some research questions have been came in the mind of researcher and which has to answer in the next analysis. Objectives Specifically following are the objectives of the study: · To know the current health status among different districts of Odisha. · To find out the various healthcare facilities available among different

districts of Odisha. · To identify the gap between Public and Private healthcare sector in

provisioning basic healthcare facilities. · To identify the major areas of basic healthcare infrastructure where there

can be scope for further investment.

Data sources and methodology The study basically depends on the secondary data and the data has been collected from different statistical organizations, different govt. offices and other journals, magazines, reports etc related to the study. More specifically speaking the study used the district-wise secondary data on Health status,



Medical institutions, collected from Economic survey 2014-15. The data relating to same indicators for Odisha was collected from Poverty and Human Development Monitoring Agency 2014-15. The data on rural-urban health status was collected from NSSO 71st round 2014-15. In this paper, data was collected from 30 districts in order to show the difference between healthcare facilities among rural and urban by using secondary source. Status of Infant and Maternal Health: A Comparison between India and Odisha Some theoretical study reveals that the health status of Odisha is very poor in comparison to the national average. The state and central govt. have taken major steps and spends a lot for the improvement of health status. Total health care expenditure in India is about 4% of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country. There are so many health determinants but for the present analysis birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate have been taken into account.

Table 1 Birth rate, Death rate and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) per 1000 live

birth in Odisha/All India Year

Odisha India Birth rate Death rate IMR Birth rate Death rate IMR

2005 22.3 9.5 75 23.8 7.6 58 2006 21.9 9.3 73 23.5 7.5 57 2007 21.5 9.2 71 23.1 7.4 55 2008 21.4 9 69 22.8 7.4 53 2009 21 8.8 65 22.5 7.3 50 2010 20.5 8.6 61 22.1 7.2 47 2011 20.1 8.5 57 21.8 7.1 44 2012 19.9 8.5 53 21.6 7 42 2013 19.6 8.4 51 21.4 7 40

Source: Sample Registration system bulletin, office of the Registrar general of India

The above table reveals that the death rate of Odisha which was 9.5 and it decreased to 8.4 in 2013 due to the development of science and medical services. Likewise in all India figure the death rate which was 7.6 in 2005 it was declined to 7 in 2013. But the death rate in Odisha is higher than the



national average. Like death rate the IMR (infant mortality rate) which was 75 in Odisha on the year 2005 has decreased to 51 on 2013 and compared to 40 in the all India figure. These two shows the poor picture of the Odisha health status. Thus now it is the time of the hour to focus on the rural and urban health care of Odisha as health is the key determinant of economic development.

Figure 1 Maternal Mortality Rates in Odisha and India (1997-98 to 2010-12)

Source: Odisha Economic Survey 2014-15, Planning and Coordination Department, Govt. of Odisha.

Due to the availability of health facilities and advanced Medicare, the maternal mortality has fall down in both Odisha and India in some few years. The MMR in Odisha was 346 in 1997-98 slowly fall down to 235 in 2010-12. But in India national average figure which was 398 fall down grater to 178 only. It is estimated that the maximum no. of mother death happened during the delivery situation, thus we may go through the following graph to know the delivery status.

Figure 2 General Fertility Rates in Odisha and India (2008-12)




In the above graph general fertility rate of Odisha and India has been discussed. In both India and Odisha the general fertility rate has fall down in recent Years.

Current Status of Health and Health care Facilities in Odisha The state of Odisha, which consist of 30 districts, 314 blocks and 51349 villages, an area of 1, 55,707 sq. km. The state has also taken population of 4, 19, 74,218crore and the density of population 270 per sq.km according to 2011 census. The decadal growth rate of the state is 14.0% (2001-11) and the population of the state is growing slower rate than the national rate. Economic survey 20014-15 of the state outlined that Odisha has made significant achievements in terms of economic growth, poverty reduction and other socio-economic indicators. The IMR of the state is 59 in 2011-12 which was reduced to 51 in 2013 as per the SRS report. Three factors explain such a high level of IMR in Odisha:

· Poor availability of professional attendants at birth. · High percentage of low birth weight babies. · Lack of professional pre and post-natal care.

The crude birth rate in the state is 19.6 against the national average of 21.4 in 2013 and the Life expectancy at birth in the state for male and female are projected at 64.3 years and 67.3 years respectively which are lower than the national average of 67.3 years and 69.6 years respectively (Odisha Economic survey). So the Government has been taking steps to bring about considerable improvement in Health Infrastructure and accessibility of Health care services in the state.

Figure 3 District wise CBR, CDR, & IMR of Odisha 2011-12




Malnutrition is a major challenge today, as we may take the example of Nagada Block of Jajpur district. Inadequate health/medical service and the improper education is the important determinant of the malnutrition. Due to lower availability of medical services malnutrition today is a challenge.

Maternal Health Status There is a saying ward child is as active and healthy as the mother. Really its true child health mostly depends on the mother’s health. If the mother is in full of security, then the child will be better off. The below figure will say about the health and health care of mothers of Odisha.

The above graph clearly mirrors out the no. of institutional delivery has increased day-by-day due to development of medical and health care facilities. Due to adoption of 108 and Janani Surakhya Yojana, Mamata Yojana, maternal mortality has also fall down and people are attracted towards institutional delivery. In 2012-13 the percentage of institutional delivery was 80.8 %. It shows the rosy picture.

Figure 5 HIV Positive Cases in Odisha 2005-14


The highest number of HIV+ve cases (11,891) has been detected in Ganjam district, followed by Cuttack (4,312). Boudh is credited with the minimum number of positive cases 27. Out of 1,410 deaths due to AIDS, the highest number was registered in Ganjam (447) followed by Koraput (149). No death case has been recorded in Sonepur district so far. At present NACP-IV (2013-

ISSN 2349-0519 Health Status of Odisha: A Multi

Social Vision Volume: 3 Issue: 4 January

17) has been implemented to prevent new infections, particularly among high risk groups. Infrastructure and human resources under the programme habeen strengthened to develop a nationsystem. A large part of the western and southern districts of the State are covered with forests and hills and are prone to vector breeding. The majority of the population in these districts are tribal. Their customs, beliefs, poor health seeking behaviour and operational difficulties of vector control measures have resulted in a high burden of malaria in these districts. The burden of malaria in non-endemic districts has incretheir population to high malaria prone districts in search of livelihood and other purposes. Status of Health Infrastructure in OdishaIn literary term health infrastructure means the physical assets or instruments which is essential for providing basic health facilities. Different medical offices, medicals, beds in medical, the different types of instruments are also coming under the health infrastructure.

Source: Computed from District Profile of Odisha, 2014 Above figure reveal that the treatment like allopathic, homoeopathicoptions of ‘Indian System of Medicine’ (including Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha), Homeopathy and ‘Yoga or Naturopathy’ has been included for nature

20%

18%

0

Health Status of Odisha: A Multi-Comparative Analysis


17) has been implemented to prevent new infections, particularly among high and human resources under the programme ha

been strengthened to develop a nation-wide strategic information management

A large part of the western and southern districts of the State are covered with forests and hills and are prone to vector breeding. The majority of the

these districts are tribal. Their customs, beliefs, poor health seeking behaviour and operational difficulties of vector control measures have resulted in a high burden of malaria in these districts. The burden of malaria in

endemic districts has increased manifold over the years due to mobility of their population to high malaria prone districts in search of livelihood and

Status of Health Infrastructure in Odisha In literary term health infrastructure means the physical assets or instruments which is essential for providing basic health facilities. Different medical offices, medicals, beds in medical, the different types of instruments are also

lth infrastructure.

Source: Computed from District Profile of Odisha, 2014-15

the Persons who were depending different nature of ent like allopathic, homoeopathic, Ayurvedic, etc. From this round the

options of ‘Indian System of Medicine’ (including Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha), Homeopathy and ‘Yoga or Naturopathy’ has been included for nature

62%Allopathic

Ayurvedic

Homeopathic

Comparative Analysis

P a g e

17) has been implemented to prevent new infections, particularly among high and human resources under the programme have

wide strategic information management

A large part of the western and southern districts of the State are covered with forests and hills and are prone to vector breeding. The majority of the

these districts are tribal. Their customs, beliefs, poor health seeking behaviour and operational difficulties of vector control measures have resulted in a high burden of malaria in these districts. The burden of malaria in

ased manifold over the years due to mobility of their population to high malaria prone districts in search of livelihood and

In literary term health infrastructure means the physical assets or instruments which is essential for providing basic health facilities. Different medical offices, medicals, beds in medical, the different types of instruments are also

who were depending different nature of etc. From this round the

options of ‘Indian System of Medicine’ (including Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha), Homeopathy and ‘Yoga or Naturopathy’ has been included for nature

Homeopathic



of treatment. The public providers for health care include government hospitals, clinics, dispensaries, Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and the Community Health Centres (CHCs), Mobile Health Units (MHUs) and dispensaries which shows that out of total medical institutions, 62% of allopathic, 20% of Ayurvedic and 18% of Homeopathic medical institutions are available which depicts that most of our population depend upon allopathic treatment which includes different medical college, sub-divisional and CHCs, PHCs and mobile health units. Healthcare facilities available from public and private sector Healthcare, like education, housing, old age security and other social provisions, has now here in the world been able to make an effective contribution without the active participation of the state (Health Information of India).

In 2011-12, the share of out of pocket expenditure on health care as a proportion of total household monthly per capita expenditure was 6.9% in rural areas and 5.5% in urban areas. This led to an increasing number of households facing catastrophic expenditures due to health costs (18% of all households in 2011-12 as compared to 15% in 2004-05). The private sector today provides nearly 80% of outpatient care and about 60% of inpatient care. And 72% of all private health care enterprises are own-account-enterprises (OAEs). In terms of comparative efficiency, public sector is value for money as it accounts for less than 30 % of total expenditure, but provides for about 20% of outpatient care and 40% of inpatient care. Private health care and facilities are built up where there are the basic infrastructure facilities are available. Total no. of beds in public medicals is 16537 which is necessarily less but in comparison to private it is more. Likewise the medical institutions in the public health sector are 1944 where in private it is only 705 no.

With a view to improving health and nutritional status, children in the age group of 6 months to 6 year, pregnant women and lactating mothers are given nutritional support for 300 days a year. This is a centrally sponsored scheme with cost sharing between the Centre and State in the proportion of 50:50. Each beneficiary is given nutrition food. From the year 2009-10, the ration costs under this programme have been revised upward to Rs.6, Rs.9 and Rs.7 for normal, mild and moderately malnourished children, severely mal-nourished children and pregnant and lactating mothers respectively.



Major Findings · The death rate of Odisha which was 9.5 and it decreased to 8.4 in 2013 due

to the development of science and medical services. But the death rate in Odisha is higher than the national average

· The IMR (infant mortality rate) which was 75 in Odisha on the year 2005 has decreased to 56 on 2013 and compared to 40 in the all India figure.

· Bolangir, Boudh, Dhenkanal has the highest no of CDR and Kalahandi has the lowest.

· In the above graph normal undernourished of 0-3 year child rate was 1083.96 in 2012 and increased to 1702.77 in 2014.

· Likewise severely undernourished child of 0-3 year rate was decreased from 91 .7 in 2012 to 51.11 in 2014, underweight child rate was increased from 640.6 in 2012 to 653.59 in 2014.

· Undernourishment of 3-6 year children increased from 793.77 to 1176.91 in 2012-14. But the severally undernourished and underweight has fallen down sharply.

· The MMR in Odisha was 346 in 1997-98 slowly fall down to 235 in 2010-12. But in India national average figure which was 398 fall down greater to 178 only.

· The highest number of HIV +ve cases (11,891) has been detected in Ganjam district, followed by Cuttack (4,312). Boudh is credited with the minimum number of positive cases 27. Out of 1,410 deaths due to AIDS, the highest number was registered in Ganjam (447) followed by Koraput (149).

· The public providers for health care include government hospitals, clinics, dispensaries, Primary Health Centres (PHCs) and the Community Health Centres (CHCs), Mobile Health Unit (MHU) and dispensaries which shows that out of total medical institutions, 62% of allopathic, 20% of Ayurvedic and 18% of Homeopathic medical institutions are available which depicts that most of our population depend upon allopathic treatment which includes different medical college, sub-divisional and CHCs, PHCs and mobile health units.

· The private sector today provides nearly 80% of outpatient care and about 60% of inpatient care. And 72% of all private health care enterprises are own-account-enterprises (OAEs). In terms of comparative efficiency, public sector is value for money as it accounts for less than 30 % of total expenditure, but provides for about 20% of outpatient care and 40% of in-patient care.



Suggestions and Conclusions Ministry of health and family welfare and the ministry of human resource development have been striving hard with the collaboration of state and central govt. to wash out the basic health problems and to provide the health facilities at an affordable cost. But in the real field it all is failure due to corruption and bad political intervention. The state Odisha facing severe challenges due to neglect of basic health care facilities. The basic health care facilities and health infrastructure are very poor if we compared public with private health institutions in one side and in other side the cost of private health care is too high, it will bring a poor or vulnerable when the necessity comes. Bed is there, facilities are running with pen and papers, death are due to the mistake of the victim itself, not the doctors and the institutions. We see in the real field in tribal area the health care facilities are very poor and they have to go near about 40 Km. for getting minimum health care. The time has already come to check up all the things and to bring a new revolution in the field of health and health care facilities to recover health status. REFERENCES Dhawan, A. (2015). 2015 Health care Outlook India. Deloitte.

www.deloitte.com/healthc areoutlook.

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