Social Surveys

Collect large amounts of empirical data from a large cross-section of the population

Questionnaires or structured interviews Computer analysis of results

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are lists of questions and are the main method used in social surveys because they can reach large numbers of people. A respondent can fill in their own (self completion) or answers can be recorded by an interviewer (structured interview) or posted

Comparative Data

Data can be directly compared – in theory

Everyone answers the same questions –

But not everyone interprets them the same

If it is a structured interviewer there may be interviewer bias

Quantitative Data

Numerical data can be subjected to stats analysis

Correlations can be discovered e.g. a link between unemployment

and crime

Operationalising Concept

To measure things they must be in a form which allows them to be measured

How can we measure religious beliefs?

We need to settle on a particular definition

Coding Answers

Answers can be classified into different categories

- like a multiple choice approach

Types of Questions

Closed Questions Where the answers are set down and

the respondent chooses one (or more) Sometimes ranking is used e.g. on a scale of 1-5 etc say how

important something is ‘Other’ is often added at the end if there

aren’t enough choices Closed questions are well suited to

factual data

Types of Questions

Open questions Simply where a space is left for

the respondent to write their own answer

This gives more freedom but is very difficult to code answers

Open questions are seen as more suitable for attitudes and values

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Self Completion Where the respondent

answers at leisure and posts back or has it collected

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Advantages Inexpensive – no interviewer to pay Large samples can be covered Fast and efficient analysis can be made Answers can be quantified Postal q’res allow a greater

geographical area to be studied No interviewer bias Fill in at leisure

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Disadvantages Low response Often well below 50% for postal q’res Therefore not representative Respondents might not understand the

q’s and there is no one to ask Answers may be incomplete, illegible or

incomprehensible Closed q’s can limit what respondents

want to say

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Structured Interviews Here the interviewer goes through

the questions and records responses

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Advantages

Response rate is good Interviewers can help to explain

things This can result in more

information Respondents who can’t read or

write can be included

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Disadvantages

More expensive – training and paying interviewers

Cost increases if the sample is spread over a large area

Interviewer bias can affect responses

Pilot Studies

These are a small scale study carried out before the main study to test the questions, the responses, train interviewers etc. Thus any problems can be ironed out at this stage before committing a lot of money to the project.

Pilot studies help to improve clarity by removing ambiguous questions

However, despite careful preparation problems can occur.

Interpreting answers

What do the answers mean? How can you tell if they are true? Consequently results may not be as

reliable as they seem Impression management may play a

part – especially if they want to be seen in a certain light

Different meanings can be attached to the same question

Consequently researchers have to know as much about the people under study as they can

Interpreting answers

Theoretical issues can affect choice of methods. Positivists tend to favour quantitative data because this enables generalisations from a lot of data. This helps to make causal relationships between factors…e.g a link between unemployment and crime.

Interpretivists are more concerned with the meanings attached to situations and therefore favour more qualitative data which gives an in-depth (and they see as more valid) understanding

Structured interviews Simply questionnaires read out by

an interviewer The same q’s are read to everyone

in the same order

Semi-structured interviews The questions are in order but the

interviewer has the right to ask the respondent to elaborate on answers

Unstructured interviews These are more like a

conversation Rather than set questions there

are a list of topics to cover Q’s are open and the respondent

has space to answer as fully as they want

Group interviews The interviewer usually meets 8-10

people at one go Focus groups are a type of group

interview where the group discusses various pre-set issues

Structured interviews - advantages Many are the same as

questionnaires Good for :facts :Comparable data :quantitative data less interviewer bias than ones

below

Structured interviews - disadvantages

Limit answers Can’t elaborate

Semi-Structured interviews - advantages

Shares ads of structured interviews

Plus interviewer can probe for more info

Adds depth to interview

Semi-Structured interviews -disadvantages

Loss of standardisation & comparability

Probes make each interview slightly different

More chance of interviewer bias than above

Group interviews - advantages

Focus groups are becoming more popular

Can produce rich qualitative data

Group interviews - disadvantages

Individuals can be influenced by the group

Individuals may feel that they haven’t had a chance to give their own view

Unstructured Interviews- advantages

Sensitive issues can be researched Interviewee is put at ease Interviewee can open up more Not restricted to pre set answers Answers can be developed further Interviewer can ask further

questions

Unstructured Interviews- advantages

Gives rich indepth data Seen as more valid Good for opinions, values and

attitudes Skilled interviewers can help

explain and draw out more info than other types of interview

Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages

Interviewer bias is more of a problem

Age, gender, ethnicity etc of interviewer may affect reponses

Social desirability – interviewees want to present themselves in a certain way

Truth – some tell lies intentionally

Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages

Some genuinely forget details Validity can be questioned Comparability is difficult with the

qualitative data produced Difficult to code and quantify data Difficult to see correlations

Non-directive Interview

When Conducting interviews the standard advice is to be non-directive i.e do not lead the respondent.

However, Becker adopted a more aggressive approach when interviewing Chicago teachers and found as a result the answers given were more frank (1971 study of racism in schools)

Participant observation Participant is when the researcher

joins the group he/she is studying. This can be overt (i.e. the

participants know) or covert (they don’t!)

Participant Observation- Gaining Entry Getting in and staying in can be difficult –

particularly with covert observation See Humphreys – Tearoom trade Patrick – Glasgow gangs Even overt observation can cause

resentment Observers are seen as nosey parkers e.g Okley took a long time to be accepted by

traveller-gypsies she studied in 1984

Participant Observation- Conducting Research

Observers need to fit in and be as inconspicuous as possible

Watching and listening are crucial but sometimes q’s must be asked – but carefully

Some observers have key informants Whyte had Doc Patrick had Tim

Participant Observation- Conducting Research

This helped them to be accepted – but affected how their informants viewed the group

Recording findings can be difficult in the field

Marsh made notes on scraps of paper in toilets and shoved them down his jeans

Many researchers have to rely on memory and write up diaries at the end of the day

Participant Observation- Advantages Validity – people are observed in their

natural settings With covert obs they act naturally Insight – is given into worlds otherwise

closed Things are witnessed which could never

be unearthed by interviews or questionnaires

Participant Observation- Advantages Things are seen through the eyes of the

participants Sometimes it is the only practical

method – particularly with crime

Participant Observation- Disadvantages Time and money – these can be a lot as

many researchers spend years in the field

Personal cost – stress and danger in some cases –e.g Patrick

Loss of objectivity – researcher can become too involved – ‘going native’

Sometimes researchers see the group on a negative light

Non- Participant Observation-

This is where an individual observes without taking part. E.g. observing children playing in the playground from a classroom window.

Non- Participant Observation-

Compared to PO Non PO has a number of advantages and disadvantages

Non-Participant Observation- Advantages Observer less likely to influence group Researchers can use more aids for

recording info as it is open

Non-Participant Observation- Disadvantages Presence of researcher can affect group The group may not act naturally Researcher can’t ask further q’s etc Therefore can’t discover the meanings

attached to events Researcher’s are more likely to impose

their own subjective interpretations on events they witness