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GROUP DYNAMICS

The Sociology of Small Groups

Importance of Small Group Studies

groups are biggest part of life

most work is done in and with groups

knowing how and why groups function, or fail to function is a key to

success

Why Do People Form Groups?

safety

preservation

many other reasons

What Is a Group?

interaction with expectation about others behavior

sense of belonging

are two people a group?

What Makes a SMALL Group?

how many is small?

importance of size

MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Recurring Phase Model

Equilibrium Model

Sequential Stage Model

RECURRING PHASE MODEL

certain issues dominate group life

over time the main issues resurface in predictable phases

knowing the phases and the recurrence rate improves participation

EQUILIBRIUM MODEL

groups fluctuate between task and relationship behaviors

natural tendency for the living group to seek balance

success and longevity related to the balance

SEQUENTIAL STAGE MODEL (task group development model)

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there is a typical order that all groups pass through

forming - storming - norming - performing - adjourning

orientation - conflict - emergence - reinforcement - adjourning

The Science of Group Dynamics

What is a group?

Interdependence among members

Shared expectations about behavior

Sense of belonging

A group defined:

two or more people who interact on the basis of shared expectations

about each others behavior and have a sense of belonging.

Common Features of Groups

Communication

Face to face communication over a period of time.

Influence The group influences the individual and individual has influence on

the group.

Interaction

Regular interaction in ways that develop a group identity.

Interdependence

Each member depends to a degree on the others to accomplish goals

Interrelations

Dynamic interrelations means that the personal relations among

members is constantly changing. Psychological significance

The group has an impact on the psychology of the individual identity

Shared identity

The group identity is or can be separated from the individual

Structure

Consisting of status and role differentiation between and among the

members

Primary Group

Relatively small in size

Intimate interaction Long lasting

Do not necessarily need a goal or purpose for association

No leadership requirement

Secondary Group

Relatively large in size

Individuals can remain anonymous

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Little or no face to face interaction

A goal or purpose

Leadership requirement

Last a short period of time

Groups disbands (or reorganizes) after the goal is accomplishedAre Groups Real?

Some say NO:

No concrete nervous system

Actions of all are nothing but the sum of individual inputs

Some say YES:

Field Theory

The behavior of people in groups is based on the individuals in

interaction with the environment

Interactionism formula

B=f(P,E) Behavior = function of interaction of personal characteristics with

environmental factors.

Group Development

Bruce Tuckerman

Group Development Theory

Groups develop through five basic stages:

Forming - apprehension

Storming - conflict

Norming status and role attainment Performing goal striving and accomplishment

Adjourning disbanding or re-organizing

STUDYING GROUPS

Research Design and Theory

Observational Techniques

Participant Observation

Direct Observation

Case Study

Participant Observation Researcher roles

Complete participant

No separation between the researcher and the members of the group.

The researcher is a complete functioning member of the group.

Participant as observer

Participates with group knowledge of the researcher role.

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Observer as participant

Group is aware of researcher role, but researcher does not participate

Complete observer

Group is unaware that the researcher is observing

Direct Observation

Types of Observation

Unstructured observations made in the natural setting. No formal

content to the observations.

Semi-Structured Observations made in the natural setting using an

observation instrument (i.e. IPA)

Completely Structured Researcher completely controls the

environmental setting.

Case Studies

Refers to an in-depth examination of a single group.

Pros Good for exploratory investigation of group processes

Detailed information is helpful to all future researchers

Cons

Limited generalizability

Researcher bias

Experimentation

Refers to situations where the researcher directly controls extraneous

variables and at least one independent variable. Independent variable

Dependent variable

Pros

Casual relationships

Small researcher bias

Cons

Generalizability

Hawthorne effect

Quasi-experimental Studies

A non-experimental technique that uses statistical data to comparevariables.

Causation criteria must be checked

No manipulation of naturally occurring variables is done

Examples: correlational studies, questionnaires, existing data analysis

Causation Criteria

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Time-order sequence

Correlation between variables

No third variable explanation

Theory in Small Group Research

Motivational Theories

Stress the role played by the group members motivations; habits,

goals, expectations, etc.

Behavioral Theories

Stress the role of external social forces on the behavior of individual

group members; rewards, punishments, power dynamics, etc.

Systems Theories

Stress the role of organizational systems and inter-relationships

between members on the behavior of people in groups.

Cognitive Theories

Stress the role on individual mental processes used to organize andgive meaning to environmental factors acting upon the group.

Biological Theories

Stress the role of individual biology on the behavior of members of a

group.

The Individual and the Group

Do People Need Groups?

Isolation to Belonging

Isolation

Alone as good

Introspection

Rejuvenation

Meditation

Alone as torture

Depression

Confusion

Survival

Isolation to Belonging Belonging

Inclusion as good

Need to belong

Natural selection and genes

Survival

Inclusion as torture

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Disease transmission

Predators

Value and culture clash

Individualism to Collectivism

Individualism a world view based on the idea that people are

autonomous and must be free to act and think in ways they prefer, rather

than submit to the demands of the group.

Collectivism a world view based on the idea that the group needs

and goals are more important than any idividual

Individualism to Collectivism

Individual or collective orientations generate vastly different

perceptions of the world around us.

Ingroup v. outgroup orientation

Ingroup the people we associate with are the focus of attention,effort, and energy.

Outgroup the group or groups other people belong to. Particularly

those that are different or inferior to my group.

Exchange v. communal relations

Exchange relations focus on the individual inputs to the group. Each

member strives for the highest reward and the lowest input. Self-serving

(egocentric) means max reward, and lowest contribution.

Communal relations focus on the rewards the group receives rather

than the individual. Work is viewed as a group effort. Group serving

(sociocentric) means concern only for the well-being of the community.

Individualism to Collectivism

Worldview also influences the norm structure of the individual and

group.

Equality is a norm that requires the equal division of rewards to all

members of the group, regardless on personal input.

Equity is a norm that requires a division of rewards that is based on

each members input to the group rewards.

GROUP FORMATION THEORIES

Psychodynamic Theories

Replacement Theory

FIRO

Social Theories

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Social Comparison

Social Exchange Theory

Psychodynamic Theories

Replacement Theory The theory says that people join groups to fulfill some biological or

psychological needs that would not otherwise be satisfied.

The Basis for the Theory: two interrelated concepts

Identification refers to the tendency of a person to use role models as

a guide to the formation of their own conscious personality.

In short people find someone to admire or look up to and then try to

become like the model.

The more successful the person is at emulating the model the better

the person feels about him/herself. Transference refers to the tendency of people to replace the

identification once directed toward the parental figure with the identification

now directed toward a central authority figure (leader).

If a number of people transfer identification to the same person a

group is formed.

Groups are the way people replace the original family group.

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO)

William Schultz suggests that there are three basic needs satisfied

through group formation. Inclusion

Control

Affection

Inclusion

People have a basic need to be accepted by others and to accept

others.

People want to be accepted by the people they accept.

Control

People who have a high need for control, want to control the members

and directions of the groups.

People who are low need for control, want to be controlled by others.

Affection

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People need to establish and maintain emotional relations.

A desire to love others and be loved by others.

FIRO and the Formation of Groups Groups will form and be effective when there is Originator

compatibility and Interchange compatibility.

Originator compatibility means that there has to be some

complementary quality among the potential group members.

The members share a need for inclusion, control, and/or affection.

Interchange means there must be agreement about how much control,

inclusion, and affection should exist between the group. Someone may want

to be controlled but not want to be controlled all the time

SOCIAL THEORIES

Social Comparison Theory

The main tenet of the theory is that humans form groups because they

need information about themselves and their environment.

Information about the self and the environment can only be acquired

from other people.

The Human Need for Information

Belief Confirmation

In some cases we form groups because we want to feel that the waywe believe and our attitudes about things are right.

Reality Test

Sooner or later we must test the reality of our attitudes, in order for

adult personality development.

The reality test can only be done through other people.

Self Esteem

Our attitudes are judged to be good if they correspond to the attitudes

of significant others.

Social Comparison People come together because they want information and we get that

information through social comparison.

Social Comparison Propositions

1. Individuals will affiliate when their attitudes and beliefs are shaken.

2. Un-interpretable events provoke people to seek reality information.

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3. Affiliation with others is the only successful method to satisfy the need

for information.

Birth Order Effect

Those who are first born receive more close attention from parents.

First born and only children develop a greater need for socialcomparison cues.

The first born has stronger need for affiliation.

Social Exchange Theory

The main principle of the theory is that people carry out their social

interaction in the very same way that businesses carry out economic

exchange.

People make decisions about whether or not to engage in social

interaction with someone on the basis of the judged value (or desirability) ofthat interaction.

The value of any social interact is determined by the persons mental

calculation (cognitive calculus) of the costs and rewards.

Value = Anticipated Rewards Expected Costs

Minimax Principle maintains that people will join groups that provide

them with the maximum number of valued rewards while incurring the

fewest numbers of costs.

Comparison Levels Determine Group Membership

Operates on two interrelated levels of comparison:

The comparison level refers to the standard by which the individualevaluates group membership.

Heavily influenced by past experience with the most similar groups.

The CL is the lowest level of reward acceptable for the person.

The CL is determined by assessing all the known costs and rewards

incurred with the membership.

The alternative comparison level (AC) refers to the comparison of

one specific group to other available groups.

The AC is really the best rewards available to someone given the

available alternatives. The AC is the main factor determining group membership.

The CL is the main factor determining satisfaction with group

membership.

Individuality V. Collectivity

Personal Identity

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The part of self concept that is derived from individualistic qualities

like traits, beliefs, and skills.

Social Identity

The part of self concept that is derived from belonging to social

groups. Self conceptions that are shared by members of the same group. i.e.

Americans

Which identity type is most preferable?

Individualism V. Collectivism

Individualism refers to an orientation that places greater emphasis on

the individual (rights, independence) and less emphasis on the rights of the

group.

Examples included the USA, Great Britain, Australia

Collectivism refers to an orientation that places greater emphasis on

the similarities of the group rather than the individual characteristics of the

members.

Examples include Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela

Variations in Individualism and Collectivism

Just as nations vary on the emphasis of individualism and

collectivism, so do individuals.

Some people are interdependent.

Dispositionally predisposed to place greater emphasis on group goal

rather than their personal needs. Some people are independents.

Dispositionally predisposed to place greater emphasis on their

personal needs rather than group goals.

What situational and/or environmental factors influence a person to be

interdependent or independent?

Group Serving V. Self Serving Bias

Group Serving Bias refers to the tendency to highlight the groups

responsibility for a success. We all did well! We all worked hard for the

success! Further, the bias downplays the group responsibility for failure,

blaming external situational factor for failure.

Self Serving Bias refers to the tendency to claim individual

responsibility for success, while blaming negative outcomes on external

social forces beyond individual control.

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People who do well on a test give credit to themselves for the success,

but people who do poorly on a test blame the professor, the test, their

friends, their family, the class, etc.