State the characteristics of management.

Characteristics of Management:

Management is a distinct activity having the following salient features or characteristics:

1.Goal-oriented:

Management is a purposeful activity. It co-ordinates the efforts of employees to achieve the goals of the organization. The success of management is measured by the extent to which the organizational goals are achieved. It is imperative that the organizational goals must be well-defined and properly understood by the mangers at various levels.

2. Economic Resource:

Management is one of the factors of production together with land, labour and capital. It is the most critical input in the success of any organized group activity. It is the force which assembles and integrates other resources, namely, labour, capital and materials. These factors do not by themselves ensure production, they require the catalyst of management to produce goods and services required by the society. Thus, management is an essential ingredient of an organization.

3. Distinct Process:

Management is a distinct process consisting of such functions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. These functions are so interwoven that it is not possible to lay down exactly the sequence of various functions or their relative significance. In essence, the process of management involves decision-making and putting of decisions into practice.

4. Integrative Force:

The essence of management is integration of human and other resources to achieve the desired objectives. All these resources are made available to those who manage. Managers apply knowledge, experience and management principles for getting the results from the workers by the use of non-human resources. Managers also seek to harmonize the individuals’ goals with the organizational goals for the smooth working of the organization.

5. Intangible Force:Management has been called an unseen force. Its presence is evidenced by the result of its efforts-orderliness, informed employees, buoyant spirit and adequate work output. Thus, feeling of management is result-oriented. One may not see with the naked eyes the functioning of management but its results are apparently known.

People often remark of the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of management on the basis of the end results, although they can’t observe it during operation.

6. Results through Others:

The managers cannot do everything themselves. They must have the necessary ability and skills to get work accomplished through the efforts of others. They must motivate the subordinates for the accomplishment of the tasks assigned to them.

7. A Science and an Art:

Management has an organized body of knowledge consisting of well-defined concepts, principles and techniques which have wide applications. So it is treated as a science. The application of these concepts, principles and techniques requires specialized knowledge and skills on the part of the manager. Since the skills acquired by a manager are his personal possession, management is viewed as an art.

8. System of Authority:

Management as a team of managers represents a system of authority, a hierarchy of command and control. Managers at different levels possess varying degrees of authority. Generally, as we move down in the managerial hierarchy, the degree of authority gets gradually reduced. Authority enables the managers to perform their functions effectively.

9. Multi-disciplinary Subject:

Management has grown as a field of study (i.e. discipline) taking the help of so many other disciplines such as Engineering, Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Much of the management literature is the result of association of these disciplines. For instance, productivity orientation drew its inspiration from Industrial Engineering and human relations orientation from Psychology. Similarly, Sociology and Operations Research have also contributed to the development of management science.

10. Universal Application:

Management is universal in character. The principles and techniques of management are equally applicable in the fields of business, education, military, government and hospital. Henri Fayol suggested that principles of management would apply more or less in every situation. The principles are working guidelines which are flexible and capable of adaptation to every organization where the efforts of human beings are to be co-ordinated

OR

Management is a continuous, lively and fast developing science. Management is needed to convert the

disorganized resources of men, machines, materials and methods into a useful and effective enterprise.

management is a pipeline, the inputs are fed at the end and they are proceeded through management functions

and ultimately we get the end results or inputs in the form of goods, services, productivity, information and

satisfaction. Management is a comprehensive word which is used in different sciences in the modern business

and industrial world. In the narrow sense, it signifies the technique of taking work from others. In this way a

person who can take work from others is called manager. In the wide sense, the management is an art, as well

as science, which is concerned with the different human efforts so as achieve the desired objective.

Management has been defined by different authors in a number of ways. Some call it a process of managing.

Some call it a coordination of resources, some call it body of personnel challenged in the task of managing while

others call it as an organized distinct discipline. The following are some of the main definitions of management:

1. Management as process:

Kimball, koontz and O’Donnell, Newmann and Summer, Stanley Vance, Theo Haimann, F.C. Hooper and E.F.T

Breach they all call it a process. It is evident from the following definitions also:

I. According the Kimball-management may be broadly defined as the art of applying the economic principles that

underlie the control of men and materials in the enterprise under consideration.

II. According to Koontz, “Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally

organized groups.”

III. According to Theo haimann, “Management is the function of getting things done through people and directing

the efforts of individuals towards a common objective.”

IV. According to Sisks, “Management is the process of working of with and other to effectively achieve

organizational objectives by efficiently using limited resources in changing environment.”

2. Management as an Activity:

According to this approach management consists of those activities, which are performed by managers in

attaining the predetermined objectives of the business. This approach may be referred to Henry Fayol, who

classified management activities into the following categories:

• Technical – referred to production department.

• Commercial – relates to buying, selling and exchange.

• Financial concerned with maximum utilization of capital.

• Security concurred with protection of property and person.

• According concerned with maintenance of accounts, presentation and statistics and

• Management concerned to planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

3. Management as a group of personnel:

According to this approach human factor plays an important role in accomplishing business objectives.

management is concerned with those who have been managing the affairs of the business. ………….

OR

The main characteristics of management are as follows:

• Management is an activity: Management is an activity which is concerned with the efficient utilization of human and non-human resources of production.

• Invisible Force: Management is an invisible force. Its existence can be felt through the enterprise or institution it is managing.

• Goal Oriented: Management is goal oriented as it aims to achieve some definite goals and objectives. According to the Haimann, “Effective management is always management by objectives”. Managers and other personnel officers apply their knowledge, experience and skills to achieve the desired objectives.

• Accomplishment through the efforts of Others: Managers cannot do everything themselves. They must have the necessary ability and skills to get work accomplished through the efforts of others.

• Universal activity: Management is universal. Management is required in all types or organizations. Wherever there are some activities, there is management. The basic principles of management are universal and can be applied anywhere and in every field, such as business, social, religious, cultural, sports, administration, educational, politics or military.

• Art as well as Science: Management is both an art and a science. It is a science as it has an organized body of knowledge which contains certain universal truths and an art as managing requires certain skills which apply more or less in every situation.

• Multidisciplinary Knowledge: Though management is a distinct discipline, it contains principles drawn from many social sciences like psychology, sociology etc.

• Management is distinct from ownership: In modern times, there is a divorce of management from ownership. Today, big corporations are owned by a vast number of shareholders while their management is in the hands of paid qualified, competent and experienced managerial personnel.

• Need at all levels: According to the nature of task and scope of authority, management is needed at all levels of the organization, i.e., top level, middle and lower level.

• Integrated process: Management is an integrated process. It integrates the men, machine and material to carry out the operations of the enterprise efficiently and successfully. This integrating process is result oriented.

What are the 14 principles of management of Henri Fayol?

The 14 Management Principles from Henri Fayol (1841-1925) are:

1. Division of Work. Specialization allows the individual to build up experience, and to

continuously improve his skills. Thereby he can be more productive.

2. Authority. The right to issue commands, along with which must go the balanced responsibility

for its function.

3. Discipline. Employees must obey, but this is two-sided: employees will only obey orders if

management play their part by providing good leadership.

4. Unity of Command. Each worker should have only one boss with no other conflicting lines of

command.

5. Unity of Direction. People engaged in the same kind of activities must have the same

objectives in a single plan. This is essential to ensure unity and coordination in the enterprise. Unity of

command does not exist without unity of direction but does not necessarily flows from it.

6. Subordination of individual interest (to the general interest). Management must see that the

goals of the firms are always paramount.

7. Remuneration. Payment is an important motivator although by analyzing a number of

possibilities, Fayol points out that there is no such thing as a perfect system.

8. Centralization (or Decentralization). This is a matter of degree depending on the condition of

the business and the quality of its personnel.

9. Scalar chain (Line of Authority). A hierarchy is necessary for unity of direction. But lateral

communication is also fundamental, as long as superiors know that such communication is taking

place. Scalar chain refers to the number of levels in the hierarchy from the ultimate authority to the

lowest level in the organization. It should not be over-stretched and consist of too-many levels.

10. Order. Both material order and social order are necessary. The former minimizes lost time and

useless handling of materials. The latter is achieved through organization and selection.

11. Equity. In running a business a ‘combination of kindliness and justice’ is needed. Treating

employees well is important to achieve equity.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel. Employees work better if job security and career progress

are assured to them. An insecure tenure and a high rate of employee turnover will affect the

organization adversely.

13. Initiative. Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of strength for

the organization. Even though it may well involve a sacrifice of ‘personal vanity’ on the part of many

managers.

14. Esprit de Corps. Management must foster the morale of its employees. He further suggests

that: “real talent is needed to coordinate effort, encourage keenness, use each person’s abilities, and

reward each one’s merit without arousing possible jealousies and disturbing harmonious relations.”

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT? FIVE ELEMENTS

Fayol's definition of management roles and actions distinguishes between Five Elements:

1. Prevoyance. (Forecast & Plan). Examining the future and drawing up a plan of action. The

elements of strategy.

2. To organize. Build up the structure, both material and human, of the undertaking.

3. To command. Maintain the activity among the personnel.

4. To coordinate. Binding together, unifying and harmonizing all activity and effort.

5. To control. Seeing that everything occurs in conformity with established rule and expressed

command.

ORIGIN OF THE 14 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT. HISTORY

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a French management theorist whose theories in management and organization of

labor were widely influential in the beginning of 20th century. He was a mining engineer who worked for a French

mining company Commentry-Fourchamboult-Decazeville, first as an engineer. Then he moved into general

management and became Managing Director from 1888 to 1918. During his tenure as Managing Director he

wrote various articles on 'administration' and in 1916 the Bulletin de la Société de l’ Industrie Minérale, printed his

"Administration, Industrielle et Générale – Prévoyance, Organisation, Commandement, Coordination, Contrôle".

In 1949 the first English translation appeared: ‘General and Industrial Management’ by Constance Storrs.

USAGE OF THE 14 MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES. APPLICATIONS

Change and Organization.

Decision-making.

Skills. Can be used to improve the basic effectiveness of a manager.

Understand that management can be seen as a variety of activities, which can be listed and

grouped.

OR

1. DIVISION OF WORK: Work should be divided among individuals and groups to ensure that effort and attention are focused on special portions of the task. Fayol presented work specialization as the best way to use the human resources of the organization.

2. AUTHORITY: The concepts of Authority and responsibility are closely related. Authority was defined by Fayol as the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Responsibility involves being accountable, and is therefore naturally associated with authority. Whoever assumes authority also assumes responsibility.

3. DISCIPLINE: A successful organization requires the common effort of workers. Penalties should be applied judiciously to encourage this common effort.

4. UNITY OF COMMAND: Workers should receive orders from only one manager.

5. UNITY OF DIRECTION: The entire organization should be moving towards a common objective in a common direction.

6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS TO THE GENERAL INTERESTS: The interests of one person should not take priority over the interests of the organization as a whole.

7. REMUNERATION: Many variables, such as cost of living, supply of qualified personnel, general business conditions, and success of the business, should be considered in determining a worker’s rate of pay.

8. CENTRALIZATION: Fayol defined centralization as lowering the importance of the subordinate role. Decentralization is increasing the importance. The degree to which centralization or decentralization should be adopted depends on the specific organization in which the manager is working.

9. SCALAR CHAIN: Managers in hierarchies are part of a chain like authority scale. Each manager, from the first line supervisor to the president, possess certain amounts of authority. The President possesses the most authority; the first line supervisor the least. Lower level managers should always keep upper level managers informed of their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain and adherence to it are necessary if the organization is to be successful.

10. ORDER: For the sake of efficiency and coordination, all materials and people related to a specific kind of work should be treated as equally as possible.

11. EQUITY: All employees should be treated as equally as possible.

12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL: Retaining productive employees should always be a high priority of management. Recruitment and Selection Costs, as well as increased product-reject rates are usually associated with hiring new workers.

13. INITIATIVE: Management should take steps to encourage worker initiative, which is defined as new or additional work activity undertaken through self direction.

14. ESPIRIT DE CORPS: Management should encourage harmony and general good feelings among employees.

Define emotional intelligence. Explain Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait EI model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. Different models have been proposed for the definition of EI and disagreement exists as to how the term should be used. Despite these disagreements, which are often highly technical, the ability EI and trait EI models (but not the mixed models) enjoy support in the literature and have successful applications in different domains.

Goleman's framework of emotional intelligence

Goleman developed a framework to explain emotional intelligence in terms of five elements, he described as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. Each of these elements has distinctive characteristics, as outlined below:

1) Self-awareness: examining how your emotions affect your performance; using your values to guide decision-making; self-assessment - looking at your strengths and weaknesses and learning from your experiences; and being self-confident and certain about your capabilities, values and goals.

2) Self-regulation: controlling your temper; controlling your stress by being more positive and action-centred; retaining composure and the ability to think clearly under pressure; handling impulses well; and nurturing trustworthiness and self-restraint.

3) Motivation: enjoying challenge and stimulation; seeking out achievement; commitment; ability to take the initiative; optimism; and being guided by personal preferences in choosing goals.

4) Empathy: the ability to see other people's points of view; behaving openly and honestly; avoiding the tendency to stereotype others; and being culturally aware.

5) Social skills: the use of influencing skills such as persuasion; good communication with others, including employees; listening skills; negotiation; co-operation; dispute resolution; ability to inspire and lead others; capacity to initiate and manage change; and ability to deal with others' emotions - particularly group emotions.

Goleman claims that people who demonstrate these characteristics are more likely to be successful in senior management, citing research from various sources that suggests senior managers with a higher emotional intelligence rating perform better than those without. He gives several anecdotal case studies to illustrate ways in which emotional intelligence can make a real impact in the workplace.

Q. Explain the different leadership styles as per Managerial – Leadership Grid Theory.

Answer:

The Managerial Grid was the original name which was the modifications were made by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. After the modifications it was named as Leadership Grid.

Figure: Leadership Grid

Leadership Grid – an approach to understanding a leader’s concern for results (production) and concern for people

The five major leadership styles specified as per Managerial – Leadership Grid Theory:

1. The impoverished style (1, 1). The indifferent Leader (Evade & Elude)

In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use this style to avoid getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative decisions. A leader uses a “delegate and disappear”

management style. Since they are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance; they essentially allow their team to do whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles.

2. The country club style (1, 9). The accommodating Leader (Yield & Comply)

This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this would increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily that productive.

This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.

3. The produce or perish style (9, 1). The Controlling Leader (Direct & Dominate)

This believes in the authority-obedience. With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they provide their employees with money and expect performance back. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This is used in case of crisis management.

People who get this rating are very much task-oriented and are hard on their workers (autocratic). There is little or no allowance for co-operation or collaboration. Heavily task-oriented people display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is wrong and how to prevent it; they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone’s creativity), so it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.

4. The middle-of-the-road style (5, 5). The Status – Quo Leader. (Balance & Compromise)

It is Organization – man management approach, which believes that the adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out wprk with maintaining morale of people at satisfactory level. Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers’ needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to achieve acceptable performance.

5. The team style (9, 9). The Sound / Team Leader (Contribute & Commit)

This is based on the aspect that work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a common stake in the organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect. In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. As suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel as a constructive part of the company.

This type of person leads by positive example and endeavors to foster a team environment in which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally form and lead some of the most productive teams.

Q2. Mr. Suresh Kumar is the VP- HR of a leading Financial services company. Heis having a meeting with Ms. Rejani Chandran leading HR consultant. Mr. Sureshis concerned about creating an environment that helps in increasing the jobsatisfaction amongst employees. Assume that you are Ms. Rejani, the HRconsultant. What suggestions you will give to Mr. Suresh, for creating anenvironment that increases job satisfaction?

Ans: Below are the suggestions for creating an environment with increased jobsatisfaction from an HR perspective:

•Provide workers with responsibility-and then let them use it

•Show respect

•Provide a positive working environment

•Reward and recognition

•Involve and increase employee engagement

•Develop the skills and potential of your workforce

•Evaluate and measure job satisfaction

OR

Job satisfaction:

It is defined as an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice-a-versa.

Job satisfaction is the sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well. For an organization, satisfied work force ensures commitment to high quality performance and increased productivity Job satisfaction helps organizations to reduce complaints and grievances, absenteeism, turnover, and termination.

Job satisfaction is also linked to a healthier work force and has been found to be a good indicator

of longevity. And although only little correlation has been found between job satisfaction and

productivity, it has also been found that satisfying or delighting employees is a prerequisite to

satisfying or delighting customers, thus protecting the "bottom line (Brown, 1996).

The most important factors conductive to job satisfaction are:

i) Mentally Challenging Work:

Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and feedback on how well they are doing. Under conditions of moderate challenge, most employees will experience pleasure and satisfaction.

ii) Personality-Job Fit:

People with personality types congruent with their chosen vocations should find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the demands of their jobs; and because of this success, they have a greater probability of achieving high satisfaction from their work. It is important, therefore to fit personality factors with job profiles.

iii) Equitable Rewards:

Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that they perceive as being just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level, and industry pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result. Similarly, employees seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status. Individuals who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner are likely to experience job satisfaction.iv) Supportive working conditions: Employees prefer physical conditions that are comfortable and facilitate doing a good job. Temperature, light, noise and other environmental factors should not be extreme and provide personal comfort. Further, employees prefer working relatively close to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities and with adequate tools and equipment.

v) Supportive Colleagues:

Employees have need for social interaction. Therefore, having friendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisor's leads to increased job satisfaction. Most employees want their immediate supervisor to be understanding and friendly, those who offer praise for good performance, listen to employees' opinions and show a personal interest in them.

vi) Whistle blowing:

Whistle-blowers are employees who inform authorities of wrongdoings of their companies or co-workers. Whistle blowing is important because committed organizational members sometimes engage in unethical behaviour in an intense desire to succeed. Organizations can manage whistle blowing by communicating the conditions that are appropriate for the disclosure of wrongdoing. Clearly delineating wrongful behaviour and the appropriate ways to respond are important organizational actions.

vii) Social Responsibility:

Corporate social responsibility is the obligation of an organization to behave in ethical ways in the social environment in which it operates. Socially responsible actions are expected of organizations. Current concerns include protecting the environment, promoting worker safety, supporting social issues, investing in the community, etc. Managers must encourage both individual ethical behaviour and organizational social responsibility.

The following suggestions can help a worker find personal job satisfaction:

1. Seek opportunities to demonstrate skills and talents.2. Develop communication skills.3. Acquire job related skills and try to implement them.4. Demonstrate creativity and initiative.5. Improve team building and leadership skill.6. Learn to de-stress

List the importance of effective communication in the workplace

Communication is the nerve center of business today. As you go up the corporate ladder, you will find that communication skills are required, more than technical skills. Communication research has revealed that among the factors most important for managerial success, communication skills rank above technical skills. Several surveys conducted among people who have been successful in their professions have indicated that communication skills are more vital to job success than subjects taken in college.Communication has assumed even greater importance today, since the new model of business is based on teamwork, rather than on individual action. Teamwork requires greater coordination and communication.Communication is also required all the more in this age of information and technology. Without communication and human skills, technology will overwhelm an organization. Communication helps to make sense of technology and to manage all this information. For example, communication is required to explain a new computer program or software. While computers can perform routine tasks, jobs like responding to customers’ needs require a high degree of communication skills.

Effective communication serves the following specific purposes in an organization : Greater Awareness of Organizational Goals and Teamwork – When there is open

communication between superiors, co-workers and subordinates, there is smooth flow of information regarding the goals of the organization. Coordination between the different departments in particular, leads to greater motivation to work together towards achieving a common organizational goal, rather than working in isolation.

Better Employer-employee Relationships – By listening to employees, showing empathy and giving them the freedom to express their opinions without fear of being repressed, a manager can create a climate of openness that leads to better work relationships. Employees will then feel more comfortable in approaching their superiors and discussing any matter with them.

Problem-solving – Effective communication can help resolve conflicts between co-workers, work related and performance related problems. Face–to-face communication is especially suited for achieving this task, since it is one to one and highly personalized in nature.

Improved Performance – Effective communication by managers at the time of appraising the performance of their employees can point out areas for improvement. A constructive review of performance, through which a manager gives positive feedback and counsels the employee, instead of criticizing him for poor performance, can motivate the employee to perform better.

Stronger Link between Managers and the External Environment – Apart from internal communication within the organization, effective communication by managers with external audiences such as customers, government, bankers, media and suppliers leads to a better rapport with them.A manager will be able to understand the needs of his customers, be aware of the presence of quality suppliers of material, of government regulations and of the expectations of the community at large, only through proper communication

Explain the different aspects of non-verbal communication

Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important managers who serve as leaders of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:

To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him with one means to do so.

The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.

If the team members show a true awareness to non-verbal cues, the organization will have a better chance to succeed, for it will be an open, honest, and confronting unit. Argyle and his associates have been studying the features of nonverbal communication that provide information to managers and their team members. The following summarizes their findings:

Static Features

Distance.

Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.

Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.

Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

Dynamic Features

Facial Expressions.

Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.

Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.

Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.

The above list shows that both static features and dynamic features transmit important information from the sender to the receiver.

Tortoriello, Blott, and DeWine have defined non-verbal communication as:

. . the exchange of messages primarily through non-linguistic means, including: kinesics (body language), facial expressions and eye contact, tactile communication, space and territory, environment, paralanguage (vocal but non-linguistic cues), and the use of silence and time."

Let's review these non-linguistic ways of exchanging messages in more detail.

Kinesics

Lamb believes the best way to access an executive's managerial potential is not to listen to what he has to say, but to observe what he does when he is saying it. He calls this new behavioral science "movement analysis." Some of the movements and gestures he has analyzed follow:

Forward and Backward Movements. If you extend a hand straight forward during an interview or tend to lean forward, Lamb considers you to be an "operator"- good for an organization requiring an infusion of energy or dramatic change of course.

Vertical Movements. If you tend to draw yourself up to your tallest during the handshake, Lamb considers you to be a "presenter." You are a master at selling yourself or the organization in which you are employed.

Side-to-Side Movements. If you take a lot of space while talking by moving your arms about, you are a good informer and good listener. You are best suited for an organization seeking a better sense of direction. Lamb believes there is a relationship between positioning of the body and movements of the limbs and facial expressions. He has observed harmony between the two. On the other hand, if certain gestures are rehearsed, such as those made to impress others, there is a tendency to separate the posture and the movements. The harmony disappears.

Studies by Lamb also indicate that communication comes about through our degree of body flexibility. If you begin a movement with considerable force and then decelerate, you are considered a "gentle-touch." By contrast, if you are a "pressurizer," you are firm from beginning to end. The accuracy of Lamb's analyses is not fully known. However, it is important that

corporation executives are becoming so sensitive to the importance of non-verbal messages that they are hiring consultants, such as Lamb, to analyze non-verbal communications in their organizations.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than others. For example, the eyes tend to reveal happiness or sadness, and even surprise. The lower face also can reveal happiness or surprise; the smile, for example, can communicate friendliness and cooperation. The lower face, brows, and forehead can also reveal anger. Mehrabian believes verbal cues provide 7 percent of the meaning of the message; vocal cues, 38 percent; and facial expressions, 55 percent. This means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily on the facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind the message than his words.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. The superior in the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the subordinate. The direct stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and openness. It elicits a feeling of trust. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are associated with fatigue.

Tactile Communication

Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can create a more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build barriers and cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this type of communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used reciprocally, it tends to indicate differences in status. Touch not only facilitates the sending of the message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.

Personal Space

Personal space is your "bubble" - the space you place between yourself and others. This invisible boundary becomes apparent only when someone bumps or tries to enter your bubble.

How you identify your personal space and use the environment in which you find yourself influences your ability to send or receive messages. How close do you stand to the one with whom you are communicating ? Where do you sit in the room ? How do you position yourself with respect to others at a meeting ? All of these things affect your level of comfort, and the level of comfort of those receiving your message.

Goldhaber says there are three basic principles that summarize the use of personal space in an organization: The higher your position (status) in the organization,

(a) the more and better space you will have,

(b) the better protected your territory will be, and

(c) the easier it will be to invade the territory of lower-status personnel.

The impact of use of space on the communication process is related directly to the environment in which the space is maintained