Smart infrastructure: the future

Smart infrastructure: the future

© The Royal Academy of Engineering

ISBN 1-903496-79-9

January 2012Published byThe Royal Academy of Engineering3 Carlton House TerraceLondon SW1Y 5DG

Tel: 020 7766 0600 Fax: 020 7930 1549www.raeng.org.ukRegistered Charity Number: 293074

A copy of this report is available online at www.raeng.org.uk/smartinfrastructure

4 The Royal Academy of Engineering

Contents1 Foreword 5

2 Definition of smart infrastructure 6

3 Principles of smart infrastructure 7

4 Applications of smart infrastructure 8

5 Barriers to smart infrastructure 16

6 Conclusion 18

7 People who took part in the meeting 19

8 References 19

1 Foreword

'Smart infrastructure' and 'smart' systems are currently hottopics under discussion by government, the media andothers. 'Smart' meters are about to be rolled out across theUK and 'smart' cars are already on sale. In the future 'smart'technologies and systems will reduce journey-times,remotely monitor the sick, and help in the fight againstman-made climate change. 'Smart' appears to be apanacea that will improve society in a multiplicity of ways.However, although there is a universal thread to the way inwhich 'smart' is used, there is no common definition inusage. What is 'smart infrastructure'?

In October 2011, The Royal Academy of Engineering held aroundtable meeting to investigate the use and meaning of'smart' and 'smart infrastructure'. This report provides asummary of what was discussed. A working definition of'smartness' was agreed, applications of smartness that havebenefited different industries were identified and discussionheld on whether there were principles that could be sharedbetween sectors. Potential barriers to a smarter future werealso examined. The sectors specifically discussed at themeeting were energy, water, land and maritime transport,communications and the built environment.

Foreword

Smart infrastructure: the future 5

Smart infrastructureprovides the evidencefor informed decision-making.

2 Definition of smart infrastructure

A smart system uses a feedback loop of data, whichprovides evidence for informed decision-making. Thesystem can monitor, measure, analyse, communicate andact, based on information captured from sensors. Differentlevels of smart systems exist. A system may:

• collect usage and performance data to help futuredesigners to produce the next, more efficient version;

• collect data, process them and present information to help a human operator to take decisions (forexample, traffic systems that detect congestion andinform drivers);

• use collected data to take action without humanintervention

There are examples of each level of smartness alreadyoperating, but the same principles can be applied far morewidely across interconnected and complex infrastructures.


‘Smart infrastructure’responds intelligentlyto changes in itsenvironment, includinguser demands andother infrastructure, toachieve an improvedperformance.

Principles of smart infrastructure


3 Principles of smart infrastructure

3.1 Data

Data are at the heart of all smart technology. As smartinfrastructure is rolled out into different areas of our society,there will be a vast explosion of data generated and dataownership will become increasingly important.

3.2 Analysis

Selective sampling of this information, careful fusion of dataand interpretation through robust mathematical modellingwill provide highly reliable decision-making tools to benefitindividuals, organisations and governments alike.

3.3 Feedback

Smartness is about gathering information on the way anasset is used and using that information to improve theway that system operates. The data feedback loop isfundamental to any smart system.

3.4 Adaptability

There will be huge gains from making smart systems thatcan meet future needs and absorb future technologieswith much less replacement and expensive re-engineering.Redundancy is currently built into systems becauseassumptions about what may go wrong have to be made.If data can be collected to enable a system to be wellmaintained, designs that are more efficient can bedeveloped.

Data are turned intoinformation, into knowledge and theninto value.

Systems that are able toprocess these data andthen make appropriatedecisions will have to bedeveloped and put in place.

Feedback within a smartsystem providesopportunities to increaseits performance.

Smart systems andinfrastructure need tobe adaptable to varyingdemands andconditions, includingdeveloping technology.

4 Applications of smart infrastructure

4.1 Utilities

Utilities, including power and water, apply smartness totheir grids. Smart grids are:

• adaptive – they adapt and reconfigure in response tochanges of supply and demand (as in renewableenergy sources);

• predictive – models of the grids can be created andused to plan and operate systems;

• integrated – no longer a hierarchy from generatorthrough distribution network to consumer. Supply,consumption and control can occur at many locationson the grid;

• reactive – engaging with customers through smartmeters, rather than expecting customers to take whatthey are given;

• optimised – grids control themselves to maximiseefficiency in operation.

4.1.1 Energy

Monitoring, remote control and automation areincreasingly being implemented across the industry, which,coupled with the energy market and regulatoryframework, make the networks relatively advanced inworld terms. Smartness is key to facilitating a high level ofcooperation and interaction between consumers,generators and networks.

In the UK, it is the responsibility of National Grid, amongothers, to ensure that energy is delivered securely,efficiently and reliably. However, the move towards low


For the National Grid,smartness is all aboutthe timely use ofinformation – gettingthat information at theright time and place sothat informed decisionscan be made.

Applications of smart infrastructure


carbon and renewable forms of generation present issuesfor consumers and the National Grid alike. Consumers maysee energy bills rise, unless they choose to start using off-peak energy or use energy in more innovative ways. Muchmore uncertainty in terms of generation profile will exist forthe National Grid. To respond to this, data from smartmetering and monitoring will be fed into models to helpbalance demand and generation. The grid will have tobecome more automated and distributed, rather thancentral and manual, to be responsive to the wealth of datagenerated and participants involved. Being smarter will alsorelease the latent capacity within the network and, wherepossible, minimise the need for additional infrastructure.

At the consumer level, there is an increasing ability ofindividual consuming devices to negotiate for powerusage. A home may have a fridge, washing machine andheat pump which could be synchronised so they neveroverlap in their consumption cycle. This scales to officesand industrial sectors.

Smart meter roll-out

DECC and Ofgem have recently consulted the energyindustry on technical and regulatory requirements forsmart meter technology, installation, communicationsand data management to support the roll-out of over50 million electricity and gas smart meter units. Theconsultation sought stakeholder opinion to informfuture policy, legislation and commercial frameworks1.

4.1.2 Water

Water infrastructure has historically been ‘dumb’, relying onthe operation of the laws of gravity, assisted by human oranimal labour. Motor driven pumps have adapted suchsystems to unhelpful topography. The integration of suchtraditional systems with automated and remoteinstrumentation, control, feedback and communicationssystems has changed and is changing this picture.Consumers will be exposed to smart meters which willallow them to monitor and manage their own water use, aswith smart electricity and gas metering. This will lead themto become active players in water operations throughmore predictable and reduced demand as well aspotentially reduced bills. Smart metering is particularlyhelpful for industrial and commercial users, giving themeasier and simplified access to the information they needto control their water consumption. Future waterinfrastructure will be designed to adapt flexibly to changesin demand and supply patterns, which will also cut theenergy needed to pump water and wastewater.

New strategies currently being implemented or consideredaround the world include; smart closed-loop wastewatersystems with energy recovery, both small and large-scale(UK); water resource and flood information andmanagement response systems (Netherlands, China); andholistic catchment management integrated with watersupply and wastewater systems (USA).

Future smart water systems will commonly utiliseautomated meter reading with walk by, drive by, fly by orfixed network intelligent meters. There will be remotewater quality control and remote water quality adjustment,as well as remote control of water supply systems bysatellite. Smartphones will include water ‘apps’ for water billmonitoring and payment via the internet. Leaks in thewater grid will be detected automatically by live water


Smart water systems areimportant in deliveringmore integrated andresilient water,wastewater and floodprotection infrastructureto meet the current andemerging globalsustainability andclimate changechallenges.



consumption analysis using data from smart meters. Waterand wastewater treatment plants will be telemetricallyoperated by satellite (as is under consideration by ScottishWater for use on remote islands).

4.2 Transport

Twenty years ago, aviation, shipping and land transporteach had its own navigation technologies. Ships did notuse landing systems deployed by aviation; aircraft did notuse zebra crossings and traffic lights. But increasingly, thesame satellite navigation is serving them all.

4.2.1 Land transport

Land transport includes motorways, roads, trains andtrams. The road system is an open system; the rail system issubstantially a closed system. Those are fundamentaldifferences in the transport equation and therefore havedifferent requirements and challenges when it comes tosmarter infrastructure.

Transport infrastructure is already smart in many ways. Forexample, rail is currently managed with automatic sensorsand automatic route setting. In the future, the smartsystem will have to communicate with an individual thelevel of reliability of the journey they are undertaking andhelp people find alternative transport options if things gowrong. Much more could be done within the overallintegration of road and rail passenger transport networksto make these kinds of interactions possible.

Managed networks will be increasingly important aseventually drivers start to concede control to a network.There will be monitoring of energy consumption andmapping of energy access. Electric vehicles and car clubsare starting to push a different view of vehicle ownershipand maintenance, with managed maintenance andmaximum utilisation starting to come to the fore.

Transport being smartdoes not necessarilysolve all problemsbecause theinfrastructure operatorshave no control overwhen people want to usethe network – smartnessneeds to reach user level.

The European Rail Traffic Management System(ERTMS)

In its advanced forms, ERTMS will eliminate tracksidesignalling. It will increase passenger flow or train flowalong routes. It will have moving block signalling, sothat trains are spaced not at their maximum brakingdistance plus an extra margin, but at their actualbraking distance. To implement this in the UK,expensive new equipment would need to be fittedonto old and not standardised rolling stock. Largenumbers of train operators lease their trains from othercompanies, so ERTMS would be complicated andexpensive to install.

Running convoy operation

In the future, there is the potential to have convoys ofautomated road vehicles running immediately behindeach other, with just one metre between vehicles. Thiscould greatly increase the capacity of the roadnetwork. However, issues around governance, personalchoice and liability for accidents mean this is unlikelyto be deployed in the shorter term.

4.2.2 Maritime transport

The maritime sector has been the fastest of the regulatedareas of transportation to adopt the new tools of intelligentsatellite navigation and communications. A commercialshipping vessel will have half a dozen GPS receiversembedded in multiple systems. Systems can control a100,000 tonne vessel at 25 knots through complex seawaysin low visibility on autopilot; they can synchronise thecommunications systems that show shore control andother ships the identity of the vessel, where it is headedand what it is carrying; in an emergency they can transmit


The strongest benefitsmartness has broughtmarine transportationsystems is the deepintegration of vessels atsea into transportationsystems ashore.



alarms and guide rescuers. Container systems are so highlyautomated that the location of every item beingtransported by the vessel is known from factory toconsumer.

However, the dependence of shipping on one system ofsatellite navigation and timing has exposed it toconsiderable risk through the potential loss of that system.Interruptions have been experienced caused by satellitemalfunctions, solar events, radio interference andintentional jamming. These can cause all on-board systemsto fail at once.

The Enhanced Loran system (eLoran)

The shipping industry is currently pioneering a backupnavigation system. The eLoran system operatesindependently of GPS and so can take over seamlesslywhen the satellite system malfunctions. The systemwill use low frequencies and high powers tocomplement the high frequencies and low powers ofsatellites, removing single points of failure. It will alsobe able to be used for land and air navigation.

4.3 Communications

Operators and other organisations are providing smarterservice. Smart billing has been introduced, which can beorientated towards different customer needs, such asitemised billing per second, per cost centre or per location.Online customer care and mobile ‘apps’ are being provided,serving the customer when they want, by time or day orlocation. Data can be converted to voice, and voice to data,or from language A to language B.

By 2020, the number of connected devices on the planetwill be anything from 20 to 50 billion. Smarter networks willbe there to serve those machines, not just the people who

Most communicationsdevices and networks arerelatively smart already,however other smartinfrastructure dependsupon communications.

use them. A smart network could be a multiband or amultimode network (an example of a multimode networkwould be one that would work with both cellular and wifisystems/networks).

Crossover with other sectors

Smart metering and smart grid will be served in manycountries by wireless as well as ethernet technology.The communications industry envisages a largecrossover with transport and banking among others.Consumers and industry will see this in the form of‘smart money’ or paperless transactions, along withnear field communications inside a mobile device,such as a Transport for London Oyster card built into asmart phone.

One of the big impacts will be in healthcare where,with an ageing society, systems will involvemeasurement of vital signs at home, notification to theclinician and then an analysis and diagnosis at adistance. Knowing what medicines pharmacies have instock will also benefit patients, particularly those whohave to travel further.

4.4 The built environment

Built environments and many of the world’s societies donot function or even exist unless they are actually pluggedinto infrastructure. Architects understand the potential ofjoining up with smart infrastructure. However, design tools,although smart in themselves, are not currently able to linkinto and release the potential of the wider infrastructure.Increasingly architects are working with innovators tounderstand how that smart technology should bedeployed and to keep informed of what exists and whattechnologies are on the horizon.


Smartness is increasinglyseen as the ability ofbuildings and systemswithin buildings to talkto each other.



The built environment industry already creates some verysmart systems, but the people who then operate thebuildings very often do not have the benefit of anytraining, access, or explanation as to what the data mightmean and how they could operate the buildings moreefficiently. This is where smartness falls down. Bringing theend user, the engineer and the architect together to makeuse of these systems more intuitive will maximise the valuethat the smartness delivers. It will also be easier for majortechnology companies to articulate the value and explainwhy an item needs to be provided, so that the customerunderstands and accepts it. Ultimately, for the lifetime ofthe building it will be about ensuring that customersunderstand how to get the best from their smart systems.


5 Barriers to smart infrastructure

5.1 Smart government

Government is the best place to start with managing issuessurrounding smart infrastructure and creating the rightenvironment for investment in smarter technologies.Government needs to be sensitive in its procurementdecisions and recognise that smarter infrastructure,although possibly more expensive in the short term, willdeliver more for the nation in the future. Governmentcould, for example, mandate that major infrastructureprojects should include a data capture element. Withoutthis kind of procurement approval criterion, there is achance that providers will continue to overlook theimportance of data capture. In return for investment, theUK will get better infrastructure and skills that can beexported to boost economic growth.

5.2 Data quality and management

The quality of data from a source has to be known before itcan be used by a smart system. This allows assessment ofthe extent to which a system could reasonably base itsactions upon the data, as well as where any liability lies ifthose actions do harm. The government already operatesin this area and proposes to make more government dataopen to organisations, for the economic benefit of the UK.

5.3 Privacy

An abundance of information already exists out in theworld but it is unavailable to most smart systems. Itsrelative lack of availability derives from security and privacyconcerns as well as commercial considerations. InDilemmas of Privacy and Surveillance2, The Royal Academyof Engineering highlighted that there are genuinedilemmas in this area. The report argued that thecollection, storage and processing of personal data can be

No overarchinggovernmental structureexists currently tomanage multi-modal,multi-agency changesthat are currentlyproposed and underway.

With the increasing needto share information, it isimportant to come upwith standards to assessdata quality, and to dothis in ways that meetprivacy concerns.

There are manydifferent ways in which people give upinformation in order toget some value back.

Barriers to smart infrastructure


of great benefit to citizens, but that users' privacy concernsmust be identified and addressed.

5.4 Investment

It is not always clear that the investments that need to bemade in order to improve smartness will provide paybackto the companies that make the investment. Traditionalmethods of proving return on investment fail to take intoaccount the full complexity of a ‘system ofsystems’. Organisations need to work together to developnew ways of measuring value.

5.5 Vulnerability

Interconnected systems introduce more vulnerabilities,particularly in IT systems, potentially leading to a cascadeof system failures. The Stuxnet computer worm, forexample was developed to target Siemens industrialsoftware and equipment. The impact of the weather onnational infrastructure can also be significant and complex,particularly when the weather turns bad. Quantifying thecollective effect between more integrated smarter nationalinfrastructure could expose some interesting relationshipsaround disaster recovery.

5.6 Lifetime

Infrastructure can be designed to last 20, 40 or even 100years. If sensors start to be physically embedded into thisinfrastructure, will their lifetime match that of theinfrastructure itself? Designers need to be prudent aboutsensor placement to gather basic data in the field andleave the clever analysis to be carried out remotely. Whenprocuring smart technology, this is one of the things thatshould to be taken into consideration.

Greater smartnessinevitably involvesgreater integration,which inevitablymeans changes to theindustry structure.

The price ofconnectedness maybe vulnerability tonew kinds of attack,so security andresilience needs to bebuilt into systems.

Electronic sensorsembedded into thephysical environmentcan start to limit thelifetime of infrastructure.

6 Conclusion

The infrastructure found within the UK is becomingsmarter. Smartness presents many economic and societalbenefits; however there are barriers preventing furtherintegration and further smartening of systems. To ensurethat this smartening and integration continues smoothly,organisations need to develop better communication witheach other, with users and with government. Governmentalso needs to ensure that the UK keeps growing its skillsbase in order that smarter infrastructure can be developedin the UK, exported overseas and then continue to be well serviced.


7 People who took part in the meeting:ChairDr Martyn Thomas CBE FREng Martyn Thomas Associates

ParticipantsJulian Anderson Virgin MediaDr Paul Ashley Mott MacDonaldStephen Bagge IBMProf Tim Broyd FREng HalcrowAndrew Burrows i20 WaterChris Cooper IBMHeather Dunlop-Jones IBMPhilip Greenish CBE The Royal Academy of EngineeringSteve Hormsby IBMDr Stephen Huntington HR WallingfordProf Roger Kemp FREng Lancaster UniversityProf David Last Consultant to the General Lighthouse AuthoritiesPeter Lee Department for Transport Alistair Lenczner Foster and Partners ArchitectsAndy McVey BG GroupProf Campbell Middleton University of CambridgeMark Osborne National GridPhil Pettitt innovITSNeil Ridley Transport KTNDr Mike Short FREng O2Dr Scott Steedman CBE FREng BRE GlobalProf William Stewart FREng ConsultantHuw Thomas Foster and Partners ArchitectsDerek Turner FREng Highways AgencyJohn Wright Department for Business, Innovation and SkillsKirsten Xanthippe Independent consultant

People who took part in the meeting

8 References1 http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/tackling/smart_meters/smart_meters.aspx

2 www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/list/reports/dilemmas_of_privacy_and_surveillance_report.pdf

The Royal Academyof Engineering

As the UK’s national academy for engineering, we bring together the mostsuccessful and talented engineers from across the engineering sectors for a sharedpurpose: to advance and promote excellence in engineering. We provide analysis andpolicy support to promote the UK’s role as a great place from which to do business.We take a lead on engineering education and we invest in the UK’s world classresearch base to underpin innovation. We work to improve public awareness andunderstanding of engineering. We are a national academy with a global outlookand use our international partnerships to ensure that the UK benefits frominternational networks, expertise and investment.

The Academy’s work programmes are driven by four strategic challenges, each ofwhich provides a key contribution to a strong and vibrant engineering sector andto the health and wealth of society.

Drive faster and more balancedeconomic growthThe strategic challenge is to improve thecapacity of UK entrepreneurs and enterprisesto create innovative products and services,increase wealth and employment andrebalance the economy in favour ofproductive industry.

Lead the professionThe strategic challenge is to harness thecollective expertise, energy and capacity ofthe engineering profession to enhance theUK’s economic and social development.

Foster better education and skillsThe strategic challenge is to create a systemof engineering education and training thatsatisfies the aspirations of young peoplewhile delivering the high calibre engineersand technicians that businesses need.

Promote engineering at theheart of societyThe strategic challenge is to improvepublic understanding of engineering,increase awareness of how engineeringimpacts on lives and increase publicrecognition for our most talented engineers.

The Royal Academy of Engineeringpromotes excellence in the science,art and practice of engineering.

Registered charity number 293074

The Royal Academy of Engineering3 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5DG

Tel: 020 7766 0600 Fax: 020 7930 1549 www.raeng.org.uk


Contents1 Foreword 5

2 Definition of smart infrastructure 6

3 Principles of smart infrastructure 7

4 Applications of smart infrastructure 8

5 Barriers to smart infrastructure 16

6 Conclusion 18

7 People who took part in the meeting 19

8 References 19

1 Foreword

'Smart infrastructure' and 'smart' systems are currently hottopics under discussion by government, the media andothers. 'Smart' meters are about to be rolled out across theUK and 'smart' cars are already on sale. In the future 'smart'technologies and systems will reduce journey-times,remotely monitor the sick, and help in the fight againstman-made climate change. 'Smart' appears to be apanacea that will improve society in a multiplicity of ways.However, although there is a universal thread to the way inwhich 'smart' is used, there is no common definition inusage. What is 'smart infrastructure'?

In October 2011, The Royal Academy of Engineering held aroundtable meeting to investigate the use and meaning of'smart' and 'smart infrastructure'. This report provides asummary of what was discussed. A working definition of'smartness' was agreed, applications of smartness that havebenefited different industries were identified and discussionheld on whether there were principles that could be sharedbetween sectors. Potential barriers to a smarter future werealso examined. The sectors specifically discussed at themeeting were energy, water, land and maritime transport,communications and the built environment.

Foreword


Smart infrastructureprovides the evidencefor informed decision-making.

2 Definition of smart infrastructure

A smart system uses a feedback loop of data, whichprovides evidence for informed decision-making. Thesystem can monitor, measure, analyse, communicate andact, based on information captured from sensors. Differentlevels of smart systems exist. A system may:

• collect usage and performance data to help futuredesigners to produce the next, more efficient version;

• collect data, process them and present information to help a human operator to take decisions (forexample, traffic systems that detect congestion andinform drivers);

• use collected data to take action without humanintervention

There are examples of each level of smartness alreadyoperating, but the same principles can be applied far morewidely across interconnected and complex infrastructures.


‘Smart infrastructure’responds intelligentlyto changes in itsenvironment, includinguser demands andother infrastructure, toachieve an improvedperformance.

Principles of smart infrastructure


3 Principles of smart infrastructure

3.1 Data

Data are at the heart of all smart technology. As smartinfrastructure is rolled out into different areas of our society,there will be a vast explosion of data generated and dataownership will become increasingly important.

3.2 Analysis

Selective sampling of this information, careful fusion of dataand interpretation through robust mathematical modellingwill provide highly reliable decision-making tools to benefitindividuals, organisations and governments alike.

3.3 Feedback

Smartness is about gathering information on the way anasset is used and using that information to improve theway that system operates. The data feedback loop isfundamental to any smart system.

3.4 Adaptability

There will be huge gains from making smart systems thatcan meet future needs and absorb future technologieswith much less replacement and expensive re-engineering.Redundancy is currently built into systems becauseassumptions about what may go wrong have to be made.If data can be collected to enable a system to be wellmaintained, designs that are more efficient can bedeveloped.

Data are turned intoinformation, into knowledge and theninto value.

Systems that are able toprocess these data andthen make appropriatedecisions will have to bedeveloped and put in place.

Feedback within a smartsystem providesopportunities to increaseits performance.

Smart systems andinfrastructure need tobe adaptable to varyingdemands andconditions, includingdeveloping technology.

4 Applications of smart infrastructure

4.1 Utilities

Utilities, including power and water, apply smartness totheir grids. Smart grids are:

• adaptive – they adapt and reconfigure in response tochanges of supply and demand (as in renewableenergy sources);

• predictive – models of the grids can be created andused to plan and operate systems;

• integrated – no longer a hierarchy from generatorthrough distribution network to consumer. Supply,consumption and control can occur at many locationson the grid;

• reactive – engaging with customers through smartmeters, rather than expecting customers to take whatthey are given;

• optimised – grids control themselves to maximiseefficiency in operation.

4.1.1 Energy

Monitoring, remote control and automation areincreasingly being implemented across the industry, which,coupled with the energy market and regulatoryframework, make the networks relatively advanced inworld terms. Smartness is key to facilitating a high level ofcooperation and interaction between consumers,generators and networks.

In the UK, it is the responsibility of National Grid, amongothers, to ensure that energy is delivered securely,efficiently and reliably. However, the move towards low


For the National Grid,smartness is all aboutthe timely use ofinformation – gettingthat information at theright time and place sothat informed decisionscan be made.



carbon and renewable forms of generation present issuesfor consumers and the National Grid alike. Consumers maysee energy bills rise, unless they choose to start using off-peak energy or use energy in more innovative ways. Muchmore uncertainty in terms of generation profile will exist forthe National Grid. To respond to this, data from smartmetering and monitoring will be fed into models to helpbalance demand and generation. The grid will have tobecome more automated and distributed, rather thancentral and manual, to be responsive to the wealth of datagenerated and participants involved. Being smarter will alsorelease the latent capacity within the network and, wherepossible, minimise the need for additional infrastructure.

At the consumer level, there is an increasing ability ofindividual consuming devices to negotiate for powerusage. A home may have a fridge, washing machine andheat pump which could be synchronised so they neveroverlap in their consumption cycle. This scales to officesand industrial sectors.

Smart meter roll-out

DECC and Ofgem have recently consulted the energyindustry on technical and regulatory requirements forsmart meter technology, installation, communicationsand data management to support the roll-out of over50 million electricity and gas smart meter units. Theconsultation sought stakeholder opinion to informfuture policy, legislation and commercial frameworks1.