Smart Cities as Engines of Sustainable Growth
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Transcript of Smart Cities as Engines of Sustainable Growth
-
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Smart Cities as Engines of Sustainable Growth
Dennis Frenchman, Leventhal Professor of Urban Design and Planning
Michael Joroff, Senior Lecturer
Allison Albericci, editor
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
prepared for the World Bank Institute
June 14, 2011
The 21st century is witnessing urbanization at an unprecedented rate. New cities are rising to meet
the demands of expanding populations seeking a higher quality of life, just as city-builders worldwide
begin to realize the stark ramifications of reproducing outdated urban models on a global scale. How to
meet the challenges of doing better, for more people, using fewer resources? Recent trends in digital
technology may offer some clues toward harnessing our cities potential as the new engines of sustainable
growth.
This paper challenges city planners, policy-makers and developers to think about urban growth in
the context of powerful new forces and opportunities that didnt exist in the past. It draws upon current
research at MIT and elsewhere involving advanced, city-scale development, and the interrelationships
among sustainability, digital technology, and city design.
Overview
After three decades of alarm over climate
change and natural resource depletion, real
measureable progress towards sustainable
developmentremainselusive.Todate,theglobal
policy debate has primarily focused on how to
promote sustainable development, most often
defined as economic growth achieved through
ever-cleaner industrial andenergyproduction. In
this paper we also consider the other side of
development: the physical and functional
organizationofthecity that influencesallhuman
activity and the efficiency of resource
consumption. The way in which cities are
organizedandoperatedhasanenormousimpact
on economic growth, energy requirements,
natural systems, and quality of life, yet thus far
therehas been little policy discussion,and even
less action to impel more sustainable (and
ultimately more productive) forms of urban
development.
Thestakesare exceedinglyhigh.According
to UN-HABITAT, the worlds cities emit almost
80%ofglobalcarbondioxide(UN-HABITAT,2005),leading the UKs Tyndall Center for Climate
Change Research to declare, the fate of the
Earths climate is intrinsically linked to how our
citiesdevelopoverthecomingdecades.(Oliver,
2007) The operative word in this statement is
how since not all forms of urban development
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are equal some are more efficient, consume
less, and in the future will be more productive
than others. Over the long term, the total
productive potential of any city or industry is
inexorably linked to efficient use of resources,
withvitalimplications.
Ascity-buildersworldwidebegintowrestle
with such realizations, urbanization in the
developing world continues to accelerate. The
United Nations estimates that China alone will
needtobuildnewcitiesaccommodatingover350
million people in the next 20 years (McKinsey,
2009;32).Overthesameperiod,250millionnew
urban dwellers are expected in India (McKinsey,
2010; 37) and 380 million in Africa (UnitedNations, 2008; 4). The amount of development
needed to meet this demand will organize
patternsofhumanbehavior,movement,business
operations,andurbansystemsthatwillpersistfor
decades, if not centuries. Astonishingly, unless
newstrategiesareadopted,muchofthisgrowth
will be constructed using a pattern of city form
invented in the early 20th century when, fuel
wascheap,landwasopen,theairwasclean,and
global population was one fifth of what it isprojected tobe in 2050. The early 20th century
citywasalsodesignedforfundamentallydifferent
typesofeconomicactivity,modesofproduction,
employment,andlifechoices.
We understand from experience in
developed countries that this kind of city,
replicated on a mass scale, consumes vast
quantities of resources and is highly inefficient.
Overtime,thisexcessiveconsumptionwillaffecttheenvironment,butitwillalsosapthecapacity
ofcitiestoinvestinmoreeconomically-productive
21st century enterprises. If more sustainable
formscanbedeployed,citieswillreapenormous
environmental, social, and economic benefits at
virtually no additional cost (since development
wouldoccurunderanycircumstances).
In other areas of human development,
organizational structures are now changing
dramatically. Newmodels of business, logistics,social interaction, and planning are emerging in
part because of the failure of obsolete systems,
andinpartbecauseofopportunitiesprovidedby
21st century digital systems and advanced
communicationtechnologiesthatarevastlymore
potent. These technologies can and will
increasingly be applied to the planning and
organizationofcities,offeringanewparadigmof
more productive and sustainable growth. This
scenarioraisessomefundamentalquestions:
What does it mean to plan sustainablecitiesinthe21stcenturycontext?
Are new urban forms, information, andorganizationalarrangementsneeded?
Given the unprecedented rate of changeandcomplexchallengesthatcitiesnowface,
are traditional plans and processes
established in more stable times still
effective? Dothoseresponsibleforourcitiesnowand
in the future need merely to perform
currenttasksbetterordotheyneedtobe
doing something else, something
transformative, to achieve sustainable
growth?
Thesequestionshighlightthechallengesto
achieving large scale, sustainable urban
development in the21st century. Some concern
thephysicalqualitiesofenvironment,whileothers
speak to the nature of organizations and
businesses thatwillplan andoperate it,and still
others address the integration of new forms of
digitalinformationandfeedback.Inall,wehave
identifiedsevenkeychallengestoachievingsmart,
sustainable urban growth. These challenges
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address theevolving formand function of cities,
the processes employed in their planning and
operation, and neworganizational arrangements
requiredforcity-makinginthiscentury.
Challenge1:AbandoningtheModernistIdeal, inwhichresourceswereplentifulandefficiencywas
achievedthroughstandardization,repetition,and
segregation of functions typically oriented
around the automobile. The 21st century city
requires the integration of uses, the blending
physicalandvirtualvenues,andthebalancingof
complex interrelationships among building use,
spatialorganization,andtravelbehavior.
Challenge2:BuildingaNetworkedEnvironment,
inwhichproliferatingdigitaltechnologyenablesa
more efficient approachto citymaking,whereby
physical, social, and economic systems are
interrelated and interdependent. Digital
technology is changing both the city-making
processandthewayinwhichpeopleusecities
connecting them to infrastructure, enterprises,
andtheirenvironmentasneverbefore.
Challenge 3: City Making as a Platform of
Innovation,whereexperimentation,feedbackand
refinement processes are incorporated into
everyday development and urban operation.
Opportunities to integrate new, sustainable
technologies and to prototype new patterns of
work,socialnetworkingandserviceprovisionare
croppingupinallcityvenues.
Challenge 4: City Making as a Platform for
Meaning, where cities use local knowledge and
cultureasasourceofinspiration.Thistraditionis
enhanced by ubiquitous communications and
advancedinformationtechnology,wherebymedia
amplifies the unique narrative of a people and
their environment, cultivating meaning for
residentsandvisitors.
Challenge 5: Managing Risk through Agility,
when sustainable growth is pushed to the
forefrontbyrisksthatcitiesnowfaceintermsof
growth, resource depletion and climate change.
These factors must now be recognized by city
planners and managed through times of
uncertainty.
Challenge 6: City Planning in Fast Time, when
managing urbanization requires unprecedented
speed in marshaling forces of development,
organizing players, analyzing context, developing
conceptsandplans,incorporatingpublicfeedback,
and implementing projects. As this pace
intensifies, city planning and building processes
willbecompressedintoever-tightertimelines,forwhich traditional, sequential development
processesareinadequate.
Challenge7:GrowingtheCityMakingEnterprise,
tomeetthenewchallengesandthefasterpaceof
transformative urban development. Thisrequires
new, synergistic alliances among technology
companies and universities (both newcomers to
thecity-shapingprocess,andtraditionalplanning
and development entities. Such expandedalliances portend the emergence of a new city-
making industry, suited to the unique needs of
differentregionsandtheircities.
Thesechallengesarediscussedinmoredetailon
thefollowingpages.
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Challenge 1: Abandoning the
Modernist Ideal
By in large, the patterns of urbanizationwitnessed in the developing world today are
versions of the modernist city designed in the
1920storeflecttheidealsofindustrializationand
toaccommodatethe(thennew)technologyofthe
automobile. Rooted in the Fordist mindset
where efficiency was achieved through
standardization,repetition,andthesegregationof
functions modernist cities were planned with
separated housing estates consisting of identical
buildings, shopping centers, recreation parks,
officeandindustrialdistricts, allorganizedwithin
a vast undifferentiated spacewhere thecarwas
free to roam. In this paradigm whether
manifested as urban towers-in-a-park or
suburban sprawl it is machines that link
togetherthevariousactivitiesofdailyliving.
Itisnosurprisethenthatthisformofcityis
particularly wasteful in terms resource
consumption.AstudyfortheEnergyFoundation
onMakingtheCleanEnergyCityinChina,now
underwayatMIT (FrenchmanandZegras,2010),
hasdemonstratedtherelationshipbetweenurban
design and energy performance in prototypical
neighborhood developments (using the city of
Jinanasatestcase).Thestudyislookingforthe
firsttimeattheconsumptionofenergybypeople
livingin differenturbanforms, involving complex
interrelationships among building operations,
spatial organization, construction, and travel
behavior. All things equal, the modern high-rise
tower-in-a-park form that we see proliferating
across China (and elsewhere in the developing
world)consumesnearlytwiceasmuchenergyas
traditional mixed use neighborhoods at similar
densitiesdevelopedoncity blocks.Other studies
have shown that modernist, sprawled, low rise,
singleuse suburbandevelopmentsdependenton
the car are equally consumptive. In an era of
dwindlingresourcesandrisinggreenhousegases,
the modernist city (and lifestyle) conceived as
progressive in the 1920s is instead highly
inefficientandultimatelyuntenable.
Many developing countries are now
adopting ambitious policy goals for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and the impact of
economic activities on the environment. For
example, China aims to improve the energy
efficiency of its economic output by up to 45%
over2005bytheyear2020;India,by25%;Brazil
by39%;Mexicoby30%. (WRI,2010) Themeans
identified to reach these goals focus mainly on
cleaner energy and industrial production.However,whileconservationiscalledfor,thefull
impactofurbanformasthedriverofconsumption
has hardly been considered. This may be
attributed to a lack ofknowledge amongpolicy-
makers about the built environment in general,
but is primarily due to a blind embrace of the
modernist ideal as the only progressive way to
build. We will need to abandon the singular
adherence to this ideal in favorofmore diverse
modesof city-makingifthepolicygoalsaretobereached.
Left to market forces, a shift in the
dominantpatternofdevelopmentmayeventually
occur on its own, due to rising energy costs,
demographictrends,andchangingmodesofwork
and living.Buttodayweareina racewithtime,
since urbanization once built will establish
patternsofactivityandhumanbehaviorthatwill
last far into the future as long as theenvironment exists (retrofit is impossible at this
scale). Furthermore, we will have lost the
opportunity to improve sustainability at virtually
no cost, since growth will occur under any
circumstances.Tojumpstartthetransformation,a
newpolicyregimeisneeded.
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However, if we look at current policy and
practice related to sustainability and the built
environment, almost all effort has been focused
on the scaleof the individual building.Wehave
Energy Star in the US offering incentives for
insulated windows, for example, the voluntary
LEED rating system for sustainability, and other
efforts worldwide. While important, such
measures are on track to reduce total energy
consumption by just 1-2% (Block, 2004; 87-99).
Butsavingsfromeventhemostefficientbuildings
mean little if they are set within an inefficient
urbancontext.Toillustratethepoint,theenergy
savings offered by, say, more efficient air-
conditioners, amount to little if occupants must
useelevatorsandprivatecarsjusttogetaloafof
bread. To grow sustainable cities, we need to
widentheframeofpolicyandpracticetothescale
ofurbandevelopmentthatistheneighborhood
scale. This is the scale at which urbanization is
actuallyhappeningone(everlarger)projectata
time.
While we can argue to abandon the
modernist ideal of city making, from a policy
perspective what is there to replace it with?Atpresent,thereisnoidealmodelforthebestform
ofsustainablecitynor dowe advocate one. In
rush tourbanize, any modeldeemed to bethe
rightmodel stands tobe repeated endlessly, to
thedetriment of culturaldiversity, livability, and
we will argue later, to sustainability itself. The
concept that environmental policy should be
basedonmodeldevelopmentformsorminimum
designstandardsisinitselfamodernistinvention,
the limitations of which are clear when we
observetheuniformcharacteroflargescale,rapid
growth.Acrosstheglobefromroads,towater
systems, to housing the minimum standard
becomes the maximum provided and endemic
flawsarerepeatedoverandover.
Inthecaseofsustainabledevelopment,the
challengeistodevisemorewaysofachievingit
notfewerthatmayvaryfromsitetosite,cityto
city, climate to climate. In fact, there are many
avenues to sustainability, as shown in a global
scan of clean energy neighborhoods recently
conductedbyMIT(FrenchmanandZegras,2010;
38). The study identified six prototypical urban
forms with eleven variations, and more in the
making.Each prototype embodies a complexset
of tradeoffs among movement, materials,
operations, and organization to achieve
sustainability.Tofacilitatesuchdiversity,MIThas
proposedtocreateasetoftoolsandmeasuresof
developmentperformancesuchasanEnergyPro-
formathatcouldbebroadlyadopted.Thetools
willenabletheenergyperformanceofprojectsto
be quantitatively compared so that policy for
sustainable urban development may be
established, while leaving local communities,
developers and designers to create their own
place-specific solutions. Beyond the
environmental benefits, this is also a way to
encouragetestingandexperimentationleadingto
new approaches that are sorely needed at this
juncture. And,aswesuggestinthenext sections,
therealmforexperimentationandtheavenuesto
achieve sustainable urban development have
expandeddramaticallyfromthemodernistera.
ModernistdevelopmentinShanghai.(ThePerfectImage)
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Challenge 2: Building a Networked
Environment
The advent and proliferation of digitaltechnology offers an alternative, more efficient
approachtocitymaking,inwhichphysical,social,
and economic systems are interrelated and
interdependent.Intheprocess,digitaltechnology
changeshowpeople usecities, connecting them
to infrastructure, enterprises, and their
environmentasneverbefore.
Thisisincontrasttothe20thcenturyideal
of city-making based on spatial separation of
urbanfunctionsintodistrictsthatrequiretravelto
enableeventhemostbasicprocessesofdailylife
and the functioning of industry and commerce.
The21stcenturyparadigmistoconcentrateand
mix people in highly interconnected ways, both
physicallyanddigitally.Thishasmanyadvantages
forsustainabilityandproductivity:
Itreducestheamountoftravelneededfordaily life, since many functions from
shopping tobusinessmeetings tomedical
consultationscantakeplaceonline;
Itencourageswalkingasaprimarymodeoftransportation, since services and social
interactions that benefit from propinquity
canbelocatednearbyaspartoftheurban
mixaswasthecaseinpre-moderncities
andneighborhoods;
Urbansystemstrafficflow,wasteremoval,public lighting, etc. can be managed
digitallyinrealtimetoprovideservicesonly
whenandwhereneeded,ratherthanover-
engineeredtoaccommodatepeakdemands;
Builtspacesservedbydigitalmediabecomemoreagileandcanservemultiplefunctions,
intensifyingtheiruse.
Feedbackonperformancecanbebuiltintothe system, so that people and
organizationscanadjusttheirbehaviorand
consumptioninrealtime.
Iteliminatestheembodiedandoperationalenergythatwouldberequiredtoconstruct
and maintain partsof the city that are no
longerneededbecausetheirfunctionshave
been replaced by digital transactions in
virtualvenues.
The potential efficiencies to be gained by
suchintegrationsofthedigitalandphysicalrealms
are remarkable. For example, it has been
estimated that approximately 30% of the fuel
used by cars in cities comes from searching for
parking(SFMTA,2010).Smartparkingsystemscan
eliminate this inefficiency by assigning parking,which is dynamically priced, then guidingdrivers
to their spaces. Beyond this, managed street
systemscansensetheflowoftraffic,andchange
signageandlanemarkingstomaximizeutilization
of the system. In an MIT Media Lab project
sponsored by General Motors, electric vehicles
can fold and stack at the curb, where they are
recharged,andmobilityispurchasedondemand,
asfromavendingmachine.Thesesharedelectric
vehicles consume much less energy thanconventional cars, but also consume much less
parking and road space up to 25% less, since
theytakeuplessspace,andfewerareneededto
provide equivalent levels of service (Mitchell,
Borroni-BirdandBurns,2010).
Suchagileinfrastructurecanmakeourday-
to-day interaction with the city both more
efficient and more productive (in terms of land
andresourcesconsumed).Inexistingcities,digitalsystems canachievethesebenefitsat vastly less
cost than rebuilding or expanding physical
infrastructure theonlywaytoimproveservices
inthepast.Incontemporaryurbanization,digital
systems facilitate higher density environments
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that finely mix the functions of living, working,
learning,andrecreation.
WilliamJ.Mitchellcontrasted20thcentury
urban systems of distribution, processing, and
wastedisposalwhichdeliverstandardizedserviceson a mass scale, with 21st century digital
infrastructureswhicharesmall,unobtrusive,and
can respond individually to different people and
places (Frenchman, Amendola, Beamish and
Mitchell, 2009). The two generations of systems
satisfy urban functions in different ways the
formerbycoordinatedmovementsinwhichmost
peoplelive,work,andplayonthesameschedule
traveling to discrete areas of the city for each
separate function; the latter by disaggregatedmovements and locating the activities of life
simultaneously in space and time, linked by
asynchronous digital media. This time-share
strategyincreasesspatialproductivity,sincespace
maybeusedformultiplepurposesonamoreor
less continuousbasis, rather than dedicated toa
singularpurposeandthereforevacantmostofthe
time.
The enormous opportunities for costsavings, efficiency gains, and increased personal
satisfaction have not been lost on cities, or
technology companies. For example, Cisco
Systems has invested heavily in its Connected
Cities initiative and is partnering with several
citiesworld-widetobeginimplementation:
Cisco envisages a future where successful
communities and cities will run on networked
information, andwhere informationtechnology
willhelptheworldbettermanageitsenergyand
environmental challenges. Cities of the future,
andmanyinnovativecitiesnow,areaddressing
the issues andopportunities of this newworld
bythinking about the network asthe platform
for economic development, better city
managementandanimprovedqualityoflifefor
citizens.Everythingconnectedtothenetworkin
these smart+connected communities can be
greener.(WimElfrink,chiefglobalizationofficer
andexecutivevicepresident,2009)
The company projects that cities may reduce
overall energy consumption by asmuch as 30%
through online transactions and new forms of
collaboration.
IBM has made a similar business commitment
with its Smarter Cities program, advancing
solutionsforintelligenttransportation,education,
development, utilities, healthcare, and public
safety:
Rising to the challenges and threats to
sustainabilityrequiresacitytobemorethanjustfocused or efficient; it will require the next
generation of city to emerge one based on
smarter systems. These systems are
interconnectedpeopleandobjectscaninteract
in entirely new ways. These systems are
instrumented the exact condition of the
systemsdifferentpartscanbemeasured.These
systems are intelligent cities can respond to
changes quickly and accurately, and get better
results by predicting and optimizing for future
events.(DirksandKeeling2010,13)
Technology companies see cities as markets in
which they can: 1) build the wiredand wireless
infrastructure that make cities digital; 2) design
and manage infrastructure systems; and, 3)
provide applications that digitally enhance an
array government and private services to the
public. There should be little surprise in this
interest:theinvestmentbankCIBC,estimatesthat
citieswillspend$30trilliononsuchinfrastructureoverthenext30years(Boudreau,9June2010).
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Challenge 3: City-making as a
Platform for Innovation
As the pace of growth and changeaccelerates, thetraditionalwaysthatcitiesadapt
arebecominglessandlessviable.Inthepast,new
organizationsandnewformsofinfrastructure,like
theurbanexpressway,tookagenerationormore
to be designed, accepted, and incorporated into
cities. Today we find experimentation and
feedback being incorporated into the act of
everydaydevelopment.Notjustintheexotichigh-
end projects, but in common places as well.
Opportunities to integrate new sustainable
technologiesandbusinessesarecroppingupinall
venuesofthecity.
Evidenceofthisparadigmshiftcanbefound
in the growing network of cities that call
themselves living laboratories. Seeking greater
adaptability, cities see their urban fabric as a
testing ground for open-ended experimentation,
inviting businesses, institutions, even users to
proposeinnovations,testprototypesandevaluate
multiplesolutions.Amongtheearlylivinglabswas
Arabianranta in Helsinki, where residents,
businesses, andschools linked themselves into a
newformofdigital-physicalcommunitytermed
theVirtualVillageintegratingtheinternet,cell
phones, and digital TV. In three years, the
EuropeanNetworkofLivingLabshasgrownfrom
ahandfulofprojectsintoaformalassociationof
212cities,withastaffheadquarteredinBrussels
(ENOLL,2010).
Theideaofusingthecityasaplatformforinvention is not new. Urban innovation has
typically emerged during periods of rapid
technologicalandsocialchange.Inthe1820s,for
example,themilltownofLowell,MAembodieda
newformofcity,designedanddevelopedbyearly
corporations to facilitate water-powered
industrial production. Meticulously divided into
functional zones,with daily life regulated by the
clock, rawmaterialswere converted into printed
cloth in the worlds first modern factories. The
LowellSystemwasfedbyinventionssuchasthe
turbine and a sophisticated energy distribution
system, products of the first technology
laboratories.ThenewindustrialsysteminLowell
was paralleled by a new social order in which
institutions the earliest high school, savings
banks,andunionsweredevelopedtomeetthe
needsof mill girls separated fromtheir families
to work in the factories. This combination of
capital, energy, and technology, within a new
social and physical order created an engine of
economicgrowthunparalleledinitstime.Working
condition and labor exploitation issues
notwithstanding,Lowellbecameoneofthemost
competitivecitiesontheplanetdevelopingfrom
open fields to a city of almost 50,000 within 20
years.
Lowell,MA,c1875.
Today, urbanization is occurring morerapidly and on a much larger scale. Observers
pointinawetoChinaandIndia,whichwillneedto
buildthousandsofcitiesoverthenext20years.It
isnaturaltoassumethatthesewillbeplannedlike
themodernistcitiesweknowbutperhapsnot.If
weconsideranotherstatisticofurbanization,that
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India is adding 20 million mobile phones per
month, another picture begins to emerge (Lacy,
13 May 2010). The roll-out of this new urban
infrastructure is occurring at unprecedented
speed,yetremarkably,withoutanyplan.Aswith
Lowell, the new technology brings powerful
capabilitiestochangesocialinteractions,waysof
doingbusiness,andtheformofurbanlife.
Indications that business may not be as
usualinIndiacanbeseenintheurbaninnovations
that are multiplying along with the phones. To
pickanexample,SMSONEprovidesincomingtext
messagesonverylocalnewstopoorpeopleliving
in rural villages: The weather will be cool
todayscroppricesat themarketarelow thebusiscomingnowthewaterwillbeturnedon
in ten minutes. Information is supplied by an
entrepreneurial network of youth reporters,
providingthemasourceofincomesupportedby
local advertising, itself a service. Since its
establishmentjustafewyearsago,SMSONEnow
countsover400,000readersin400communities
(Lacy,30Nov.2009).
The success of SMSONE has been enabledby another new company, VNL which has
developedaverycheap,rocksoliddurable,solar-
powered microwave station that almost anyone
can assemble and deploy. The devices extend
existingmobileservicefootprints,enablingphone
serviceineventhemostremotelocationsatvery
low cost. Cited asone of the Worlds50Most
InnovativeCompanies by FAST Company,VNL is
now rolling out the technology in Latin America
and has plans to expand into major cities,challengingtraditionalproviders.
Examples such as these defy the notion
dating back toLowell that urban innovation is
controlledbythepowerfulandmustbedelivered
fromthetopdown.Digitalinfrastructureoffersa
different paradigmbecause it is ubiquitous. The
challengeforcitybuilderspublicandprivateis
to view the entire city as both a market and a
source for technological innovation. The extents
ofthischallengemultiplywhenoneconsidersthat
allurbansystemsarebecomingintelligentfrom
elevators to taxis, sewers to streetlights. Each
systemisbeingtransformedthroughtheaddition
of sensors and wireless access enabling
management and coordination in real time. Not
onlyis thisis a vastlymore efficient, sustainable
waytooperatethecity,butalsoitpresentsnew
paradigmsforservicesandproductsthatwenow
findbeingtestedinthepublicrealm.IntheSeoul
Digital Media City, for example, LG is
experimenting with intelligent streetlights that
respondtopeopleandevents;inZaragoza,Spain,
digitallyresponsivewaterhasbecomeanactivator
ofpublicspaces;andhighlyintelligentbussystems
are being deployed in cities from Bogota,
Columbia to Florence, Italy. Across the globe,
these scattered efforts are multiplying and will
accumulateovertimetoformadifferentkindof
city.
VNLbasestationandnetworkstrategy.(VNL)
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Challenge 4: City-making as a
Platform for Meaning
One of the persistent complaints aboutmodernist development is that it all looks the
samefromShenzhentoAbuDhabi,Bangaloreto
LA.Thisismorethananaestheticobservation.By
valuing the universality of standardized
appearanceandperformance, themodernist city
seeks to erase differences and eschew local
meaning.
Incontrast, the emerging digitalcityseeks
out local knowledge and culture as a source of
value and inspiration. This is a consequence of
ubiquitous communications andadvancedmedia
thatcantransmitlocalcontentimmediatelyacross
the planet. Through transmission, the unique
narrative of a people and their environment is
imbuedwithamplifiedmeaningbothforresidents
and for a potential global audience. As David
Harvey first observed, information technology is
encouraging communities to return to their pre-
modern roots, when environments were
individually shaped by local inhabitants and
culture(Harvey,1990;285-307).Thechallengefor
city-makersistoharnessthisrediscoveredsource
of value as an engine for positive economic
growth.
InresearchonNewCenturyCities,wefound
thatastrongnarrativeisakeytoolofintegration,
acentralfunctionofthenewcity-makingindustry:
As the urbanization, growth and development
processbecomesmorefragmented,theneedfor
a narrative to coalescethe enterprise becomes
more important. All of the advanced NCC
projectswehavestudiedhavesuchanarrative.
Moreflexiblethanamasterplan,moreinspired
thanguidelines,narrativesspeaktothepurpose
ofaprojectbeyondthebricksandthemortar.It
istheantidotetouniformityandstandardization
In the hands of a skilled integrator, the
narrativebecomesawell-springofcreativeideas
that serves the project as a whole, even as it
respects the objectives of individual
stakeholders. (Joroff, Frenchman and Rojas,
2009;9)
Contemporary urban narratives are moving
beyond traditional themes to produce rich and
varied resources for growth. The massive new
development twofour54 in Abu Dhabi, for
example,isdrivenbysuchanarrative:
...to enable the development of world class
Arabic media and entertainment content, by
ArabsforArabs,andtopositionAbuDhabiasa
regional center of excellence across all mediaplatforms, including film, broadcast, music,
digitalmedia,events,gamingandpublishingA
symbolofAbuDhabiscommitmenttodeliveron
the Emirates 2030 economic vision, (Joroff,
FrenchmanandRojas,2009;9)
which is to move beyond oil into more
diversified 21st century economic growth. This
narrative in turn has helped to shape the
institutions of the city and give meaning to its
innovativepublicrealm,whichisbeingconceivedasasettingnotonlyforday-to-dayactivitiesbut
alsoformedia productionengaging thosewho
live,work,andvisitthesiteinbothexperiencing
andmakingcontemporaryArabianculture.Sucha
participatoryundertakingisonlypossiblethrough
digitaltechnology.
Twofour54isjustoneofacollectionoflarge
scale, media themed projects now under
construction, including: Digital Media City inSeoul, on track to house 66,000 media workers
and20,000residentsby2014;MediaCity:UK,near
Manchesterwhere the BBC ismoving its central
operationsfromLondon;andtheDigitalCreative
City being planned around the film industry in
Mexico. Elsewhere, new communities and
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industry clusters are emerging around other
narratives:Arabianranta,mentionedearlier,grew
around the story of Finish art and design. One
North, in Singapore is being built around the
theme of life sciences. Masdar, in Abu Dhabi is
striving to become a global cluster of clean-
technologyindustriesandresearch.
The message of these projects is that to
create value in urbanization, the narrative
meaning counts on several levels. First, it can
assistindifferentiatingtheprojectfromtheseaof
anonymousdevelopment; second,it canshapea
cluster of businesses and industries that will
provide jobs and economic growth. Third and
perhaps most importantly, in an increasinglycompetitive global labor market, a strong
narrative canhelp attractskilledprofessionals to
liveintheplace,thuscultivatingsocialcapital.In
short, a strong narrative can help to unite
residents, businesses,students andothers into a
functioningcommunitywith sharedmeaningand
purpose.
It is relevant to note that the theme of
sustainability in one form or another isincreasinglyprevalentinnewurbannarratives.All
of the projects mentioned above describe
themselves as highly sustainabledevelopments,
withstrongjustification.SeoulDMCispoweredby
methanegasfromtheformerlandfillonwhichitis
built;MediaCity:UK is theworlds first BREEAM
community (a globally recognized assessment of
sustainability);andMasdarisproposedtobecome
the first zero emission city, powered by
photovoltaics, and excluding automobiles.Whileadmittedly these are specialized examples, they
suggestthattheintegrationofsustainablegrowth
into the place narrative is important if broad
advancement towardsmore efficient, productive
urbanizationistobeachieved.
Particularly important is the impact
narrativescanhaveonhumanandorganizational
behavior, a critical factor in the overall
sustainability equation. In MITs study of clean
energycommunitiesworld-wide,itwasfoundthat
themostsuccessfulcasesengagedpeopledirectly
in the program of reducing energy use
(Frenchman and Zegras, 2010; 48). To do this,
communities focused on making energy
consumption and performance visible in the
public realm, while obtaining feedback from
peopleontheirlevelofcomfortandsatisfaction.
Thesamedigitalmediaand communications that
are encouraging the development of local
narratives can simultaneously be harnessed as
mediumsoffeedbackandinteractiontoshapethe
attitudes and behavior of people and groups.
Many studies have shown that such real-time
engagementcanchangepeoplesenergybehavior
(Darby, 2006; 3). And so, for the sustainable
narrativetosucceed,itneedstobepersonalized.
Inhabitants need to feel that what they do
matters.
Advanceduserinterfaceforresponsiveenergyfeedback.(Masdar)
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Challenge 5: Managing Risk through
Agility
Thenarrativeofsustainablegrowthisbeingpushed to the forefront by the unprecedented
risksthatcitiesnowface.Foremostamongthese
isthesheerscaleofurbanization,itself.Thetask
ofdevelopinghomes,water,sanitation,transport
andemploymentwilleclipse allformerwaves of
city making. Another major risk is posed by
climate change, with its dual consequences: sea
level rise most urbanized areas are on the
seacoast and increasingly powerful weather
incidents floods, storms, and drought
(Rosenweig, et al , 2009; 24). The challenge of
confronting these intensified risks with
diminishing resources of land, water, food, and
fuelisunprecedented.
As cities grew in the past, they learned to
confront existential challenges through
increasingly large-scale engineering and
mechanical systems: higher flood walls, larger
landfills, wider highways, more extensive water
andsewersystems,tallerhousingprojectseach
designedandmanagedbyadifferentorganization
seekingtomaximize itsparticularobjectives and
minimize risk of failure. Many observers have
suggestedthatwemaynowbereachingthelimits
ofthisparadigm.FromtrafficgridlockinBeijingto
breeched levees inNewOrleans, there is ample
evidenceofthe limitationsinherent inmodernist
forms of infrastructure. Economic and political
forcesoften laybehind these situations,but just
as often they occur because engineering design
and location decisions are made from singular
points of view, without due regard to systemic
consequences. This same lack of regard for
interdependency among disparate functional
elementsmarkstheunderperformanceofmodern
citiesingeneral,evenastheynowseektobecome
moresustainable.
An alternative vision would see cities that
are integrated,agile, responsive andadaptive to
changingconditions,eitherdrasticorgradual,that
will inevitably come behaving more like living
systems than inanimate objects. But to achieve
this visionwould demandmuch greater levelsof
integrationinthedesign,management,andreal-
time operation of urban systems than we
currently have. This can only be provided by
insertingtheequivalentofanervoussysteminto
thecity.
In a sense, such systems are now being
devised and implemented as digital capabilities
are introduced across the whole spectrum of
urbanfunctions.Aswithlivingthings,thisnervoussystem will enable not only more agile
management of functions,but also amore agile
physical structure enhancing performance and
reducingrisk.
From a management perspective, agile
development aims to avoid both failure and
underperformance, not by seeking perfection in
plans or actions (indeed, agile approaches
understand that this is not possible) but bybuilding flexibility and resiliency into structures
andorganizationalresponses.Thekeyobjectiveis
to anticipate underperformance and missed
targets even if theirprecise nature and timing
cannot bepredicted and be ready to respond
andadapt.
Agile development also anticipates
continuous improvement. It begins with
stakeholderscollaboratinginarigorous,systemic
co-design of interrelated elements so that each
entity isaware of theassumptionsthatunderlay
theplanand the interrelations among elements.
This is the cornerstone of agility. Launching
prototypes and rehearsals in situ, and learning
fromtheoutcomes,preparesthepartiestoactin
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concert if problems arise, and strengthens their
abilitytoco-createasprojectsprogress.
The key ingredients of this paradigm are:
transparency, monitoring, feedback, and the
abilitytoquicklyadapttochangingcircumstances.Among these, transparency of information is the
most essential. Systemic interrelationships and
organizational interdependencies need to be
apparent to provide a base of mutually shared
knowledge around which disparate groups can
cometogethertodevelopstrategiesandtoactin
waysthatarelean,fast,andinnovative.
Co-creation similarly lays the groundwork
formultiplepartiestoengageoneanotheracross
functional and jurisdictional lines. Participants
gain common knowledge which helps to build
shared ability and responsibility for outcomes
among stakeholders andprovidesguideposts for
system operation and recovery. This knowledge
andsharedownershipof ideashelpstoeliminate
the fragmentation of interests that frequently
occurs between government and the private
sectororganizations.At thesametime,rolesand
responsibilities are clarified, making it easier toexecutetheagreementsandprocessesthatalign
interestsandpriorities.Alliancesareenhanced.
From a design perspective, agile urban
developmentoffersawayofsteppingbackfrom
the dilemma of ever-larger infrastructure,which
has become increasingly expensive to build and
maintain, and ever more intrusive as wider
highways cut up the landscape and taller dikes
separate people from their natural settings. By
contrast, agile development seeks tounderstand
andworkwith natureratherthanconfronting it;
to interconnect systems so they function more
efficiently; to make multiple use of space and
facilities so they aremore productive; to deliver
servicesonlywhenandwhereneeded;toproduce
locally rather than centrally, thereby minimizing
distribution; and to provide flexibility to evolve
withchangingcircumstances.
Using these principles, efforts are now
underway to make the infrastructure of existing
citiesmoreadaptabletochange.ArecentstudyoftheeffectsofclimatechangeonNewYorkCity,for
example, pinpointed anticipated impacts on
transit, water, sewer, power, and other
infrastructureandproposedstrategiestoadapt
(Rosenweigetal,2009).Theserangefrommoving
vulnerablefacilities,todesigningmoreintelligent
structures and response mechanisms that can
anticipateeventsandinitiateprecautions.
Innewgrowth,morefundamentalchanges
are possible from the start. Integrated sensor
networkscangiveagreaterunderstandingof the
functioning of complex natural systems and the
potential impacts of development. In extreme
cases, the same sensors can be used to track
failures as they occur, mitigating the
consequences by adjusting infrastructure (if so
designed) or warning potential victims. For
example, a Tsunami sensingsystemproposed by
MITsSENSEableCityLabwouldsendwarningsbymobile phone to all people in low lying areas,
givingthempreciousminutestoprepare.
In architecture and real estate, agile,
multipurposeuseoflandandfacilitiesisagrowing
theme,sinceitenhancesthevalueofbuiltspace
andreducesdevelopmentrisk.Thehomecanbea
workplace, a doctorsoffice, a place of learning,
andanentertainment venue.A sportsarena can
be a convention center, a shopping experience,
andthepublicsquare.Officescan accommodate
recreation, health care, even living space. Such
agility is enabled by advanced communications
andvisualmediathatcanvirtuallyconnectpeople
andplaces.Inthisnewrealm,physicalandvirtual
experiencesco-exist, sometimes substituting one
fortheother,sometimesblendingincontinuously
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evolving ways. This aspect of agility was not
possibleevenadecadeago.
On an urban scale, multi-use concepts of
city-making are gradually replacing the single
purpose districts promoted in 20th centuryplanning. Flexible spaces that accommodate
multiple activities can be used more intensively
thanthosededicatedtoasinglepurposesuchas
classrooms that are vacantmuch ofthe time. In
the same vein, districts that integrate multiple
uses are more efficient and livable, as well as
morediversifiedandthereforelessvulnerableto
long-term economic and social change. To
understand the limitations of single purpose
districts, one need only look at the vast formerindustrialareasabandonedincitiesaftertheshift
fromanindustrialtoaninformationeconomy.
Thenewinformationeconomyisinherently
more agile than the one it replaced, since
productioncanoccurandvaluecanbecreatedin
awidevarietyof disaggregated places indoors
andout.Thissuggestsaformformoresustainable
cities in which productive capacity is entwined
acrossanurbanfabricoffinegrainedmixeduse.Such agile environments are more efficient and
livable, since all activities areclose tohand, and
alsolessrisky,sincethefailureofanygeographic
area has less impacton thesystem.Encouraging
this alternative, agile form of urbanization in
developingcountriesisakeychallenge.
HurricanefloodriskinNewYorkCity.(Rosenweig etal,2009)
Challenge 6: City Planning in Fast
Time
TheKoreanshaveaphrasethatcapturesthe
rapid urbanization of their country: pali pali,
(translated as hurry, hurry). Pali pali also
expressesthechallengeofmanagingurbanization
inagrowingmultitudeofcitiesaroundtheworld.
In suchcities, thepace nowrequired tomarshal
theforcesof development toorganize players,
analyze context, develop concepts and plans,
incorporate public feedback, and implement
projectsonthegroundisunprecedented.Asthis
pace intensifies, city planning and building
processes are compressed into ever-tightening
timelines and feedback loops, rendering the
traditional, sequential development process
completely inadequate. The city founded on
modernist principles, planned today, designed
nextyear,andbuiltoverthecourseofadecade,
emerges already a century behind the curve. In
this context, conventional sequential planning
models are being abandoned in favor of
simultaneous, customized, and adaptive
processes. This same need for immediacy, also
serves to explain the desire in many cities to
harnesscommunicationstechnologyandreal-time
planning methods to engage and empower
citizens in the policy making processes
underpinning both environmental and social
sustainabilityinitiatives.
Information and communication
technologies are already accelerating many city-
buildingprocesses,allowingagrowingnumberof
decisionsanddesignmodificationstobemadeas
the need arises. The combination of
environmental sensors, wireless networks, radio
frequency ID tags, and CATV, coupled with
automated computer algorithms dramatically
changes the information milieu within which
planningtakesplace,enablingcity-makerstoview
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thephysical andvirtualformsandfunctioningof
the city in real-time and with a degree of
specificity that was previously impossible. Real-
time data reveals complex relationships and
interfacesamongpeople,including:
Publicandprivatemovementpatterns; Wastemanagementflow; Patterns of communication among people
within neighborhoods and between
neighborhoodsandothercountries;
Twenty-four hour patterns of shopping inretail districts and in the virtual
marketplace;
Individual, family and neighborhoodresourceconsumption;and
As digital technology uncovers the
multifaceted innerworkingsof thecity,including
the real time behavior of systems and people,
patternscanberecognized,studied,andactedon.
Furthermore,diversescenarioscanbemodeledto
test the impact of alternative development
options, using the city, itself. For example, in
Rome, MITs SENSEable City Lab is tracking the
movement of all buses, taxis, and pedestrianssimultaneously, enabling the city to dynamically
tunetransportationsupplytodemand,andtotest
newstrategiesinthereal-timecontext.Thedata
required for these tasks is derived from mobile
phoneusagewithnoneedfora special purpose
infrastructure. As such capabilities expand, the
sequential planning cycle data collection,
analysis, design and implementation is being
replaced by flexible strategies that observe,
launchandlearn.Asaconsequence,thenotionofa fixed master plan is giving way to a set of
strategic visions that initiate agile developments
whicharecontinuouslymonitored,evaluatedand
adjusted.
Inthespiritoflaunchandlearn,anumber
of city-scale projects have been initiated around
the world which involve integrative, future-
oriented planning. These are platforms for
innovationnow,evenbeforemoreencompassing
global,nationalandcitywidepolicies aredecided
or technology isavailable to fully implement the
vision. Many examples of such projects are
underway, launched under a variety of banners,
including: ubiquitous or U-cities; smart cities;
newcenturycities;connected,eco,orgreen
cities. Although each project has its own value
proposition, they are similar in testing new
approaches to technology integration, city
planning and management, and organizational
alliances.
Some of the most advanced examples ofthese projects may be the so called U (for
ubiquitoustechnology)-citiesinKorea,whichhave
been elevated to the level of a national
developmentpriority:
U-cities(e-cities)areseenastheeconomicfocus
and showcase for the next generation global
growthenginethatwillachieveworldleadership
for Koreas ICT industry and its construction
industryThishasledtoaplethoraofsmartcity
projects across the country. Seoul commenced
planningofitsSanghamDigitalMediaCity(DMC)
as far back as 1992, and completion is due in
[2014].SanghamDMCsgoalistobecometheIT
industrial center (global leadership) for digital
media and entertainment in NE Asia. This has
been followed by a cluster of developments
around Seoul Paju, Kwanggyo, Hwasung,
Yongin and one of the largest and most
ambitiousdevelopmentsofallthe$128billion
(15% of Koreas GDP) Incheon Free Economic
Zone(IFEZ),1HourSouthWestof Seoul This
massive development includes the Songdo
District ICT Hub, Cheongna Tourism Hub, and
YengjonGlobalLogisticsHubandisexpected to
embraceacombinedpopulationof2.66million
As a result, the Korean e-city strategy had by
2008 rapidly developed into a petri dish for
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urban planners, environmentalists and
technologists.(E-service-expert,2009)
TheseandotherU-cityprojectsacrossKorea
havebeenaidedbyanewU-cityplanningregime
(embodiedinlegislationsuchasthe2006U-KoreaPlan and 2008 Act on Ubiquitous Construction)
that promotes the convergence of government
agencies, construction companies, and IT
businessesessentialtotheprojects.Beyondthis,
guidelines fromtheNational Information Society
Agencyforu-planning, u-infrastructure,u-spaces,
and u-citizenship have helped to establish
common digital platforms at the local level that
avoid duplication of systems and technologies.
Withthissupport,KoreanChaebols(multinationalcompanies such asKoreaTelecom, LG, Samsung,
Posco,andDaiwoo)areinvestingheavilyinU-city
technology, financing, real estate, and planning
capabilities seeing these as the next technology
productstobeexportedfromthepeninsula.
Public support for the projects has been
relativelyeasytoobtaininKorea,whichhasalong
history of public investment in technology
industriesandjobcreation..Thecountrybenefits
fromamoreorlesshomogenousculturewiththe
highest broadband penetration and cell phone
usage in the world (Strategy Analytics, 2009). In
other countries, however, traditional planning
regimes may be more entrenched, and
constituencies for planning may be more
fractured,evenhostile,andlessempowered.
Insuch contexts,institutionsmaybemore
resistanttochange,butthechallengeofpalipaliis
no less urgent witness the spread of mobile
phones across the face of India. These phones,
and the internet capablephones that willfollow
them, can open a window on the workings of
urban life by tapping into the data streams and
debates being produced by the city. Where
enabled, ubiquitous information technology has
thecapabilityofmaking theworkings of thecity
more transparent, shedding light on the
collaboration of government and industry, and
providinganavenueforpublicresponse.
While its easy to be cynical about thiscapabilityarguingthatthoseinpowercanexert
control over the flow of information (as is
happening with Google inChina) inpractice it
becomes exceedingly difficult to maintain such
control if governments and businesses want to
takefulladvantageofthevaluecreationofdigital
networks.Forexample,itwasrecentlyannounced
by state media in Beijing that plans for the
controversial Time Cultural City have been
abandoned,inwhatmanyobserverscallaturningpoint for the city (Foster, 8 Sept. 2010). Like
preceding projects in Beijing, the development
wouldhavedemolishedblocksofancienthutongs
dating back to the Ming dynasty. This time,
however,opposition wasmobilized globallyover
the internet by individual citizens alongwith an
independent, largely volunteer non-profit
organization, the Beijing Cultural Heritage
ProtectionCenter.Examplessuchasthisillustrate
how,inthefaceofintertwininggovernmentandprivate sectors, digital technology also has the
potentialtoprotectandempoweramultiplicityof
grassrootsinterests.
Planning entities in industry and
government increasingly recognize the value of
continuousfeedbackamongstakeholderstoavoid
misadventures like the Time Cultural City and
encourageco-creation,whichismoreproductive.
In his book One Report, Charles Eccles of theHarvardBusinessSchoolchartsthegrowinguseof
Web 2.0 by companies to provide detailed,
integratedinformationtotheirstakeholderswhile
raising the level of dialog and engagement with
them(EcclesandKrzus,2010).Themethodsthey
describe go far beyond traditional financial
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reporting to include plans under discussion and
the performance of the company on important
social issues like sustainability. Contrary to
conventional wisdom, such openness can add
competitivevaluetobothorganizationsandtheir
stakeholders. The lessons for the global
developmentcommunity areclear:as interactive
technologies become universally available, the
city-making enterprise must transform to
incorporatefaster,moreintegrated,empowering,
and ultimately more equitable methods of
planning.
PedestrianmovementtrackedviamobilephoneinRome.
(SENSEableCityLab)
Challenge 7: Growing the City-
Making Enterprise
Thearrivaloftechnologycompaniesontheurban scene points to the changing nature of
organizationsresponsibleforplanning,developing
and managing the city. Today, as in the past,
individualfunctionsinmostcitiesarehandledby
an array of public agencies with their own
technologies,systemsandcultures,oftenfiercely
protective of their information and turf.
Coordinationdependsonamayororcityplanning
and development department with proactive
capacity. In this environment, privatedevelopers
areoftentheprojectinitiators.Inthiscase,they
select the security, energy, and movement
systemsthatunderpintheprojects,butevenhere,
systemsareindependentlydeployedandoftendo
notworktogether.Theadventofdigitalnetworks
has opened the door to interconnecting these
agentsandsystemsleadingtoneworganizational
structures and partnerships. These organizations
are likely to be less hierarchical and
compartmentalized, since information is
becoming increasinglytransparent,andthesame
cross-platform infrastructure can be used to
managemultiplesystemsfromtrainstotraffic.
Newplayersandpartnersinthebusinessof
planning and growing cities come with a wide
arrayofinterestsandcapabilities.Theyconstitute
whatmaybetermedanewCity-MakingIndustry.
One might say, since cities have emerged as
enginesofdigitallyenhancedgrowth,everyoneis
getting onboard. To give an example, the JC
DecauxGroup nowprovidesandmaintainsmost
of the street furniture benches, kiosks, rest
rooms,busstopsinhundredsofcitiesonseveral
continents, along with the widely popular bike
sharing program in Paris. These public amenities
andservicesareprovidedbyprivateenterpriseat
littleornodirectcosttotheuser,paidforthrough
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the digital advertising integrated into their
systems.
In a similar vein, technology and media
companies are expanding beyond their
conventional role of providing software andhardware to city agencies. These companies are
becoming active stakeholders in the city-making
enterprise,offeringurbansolutionsof theirown,
sharingknowledgefromcitytocityand,bringing
withthemthecultureofresearch,innovationand
horizontal decisionmaking that has undergirded
their business success. Standing out from the
array of firms are several global players, most
notablyCisco,IBM,Siemans,andSamsung.While
these companies continue to target specificinfrastructure and application markets, their
interests stretchmuch further. Ata fundamental
level,theyseektobeintegralplayersintheentire
processofdevelopingandmanagingthecity.
Manycitiesareeagertogetthemonboard.
Inaglobalera,whereurbancentersworldwidevie
for investment and labor, cities are under
increasing pressure to develop the digital
infrastructure necessary to remain economicallycompetitive and create the environmental and
socialcapitalneededtoattracttopindustriesand
workers.Insuchcases thetechnologycompanies
provide expertise, credibility, and cutting edge
concepts. Moreover, in a time of escalating
municipal austerity, citiesare financially stressed
and increasingly look to the private sector
(technology companies included) both to help
finance and build infrastructure and to generate
income. Recognizing the potential, technologycompanies, are partnering with cities to making
strategicinvestmentsthatwilljumpstartthenew
infrastructure. For example, IBM recently
inaugurateda $50million grantprogramtohelp
municipalitiesachievesuccessfulgrowth,better
delivery of municipal services, more citizen
engagement, and improved efficiency. This
follows $186 million in cash, technology, and
consultingservices,providedby thecompanyto
citiesin2009(IBM,9November2010).Similarly,
in2006,Ciscolauncheda5-yearprogramthathas
invested $15 million in people, research, and
equipment tohelp createa global community of
cities committed to addressing environmental
sustainability.Pressreleaseclaimstothecontrary,
suchprogramsarenotmerelyphilanthropicgifts,
but efforts to prime the emerging market for
digital urban systems and services with strong
potential for substantial financial return. The
combinationofintensifiedeconomicpressureand
new market opportunity has also brought
expanded interest in more complex financing
approachessuchaspublicprivatepartnerships,as
well the reemergence of infrastructure as a
distinct asset class with opportunities for both
privatelyheldandpubliclytradedinvestment.
Additional new players who have emerged
onthe city-makingsceneincludeuniversitiesand
other knowledge-based institutions, which are
rootedtoplaceandhavealong-termstakeinthe
effective functioning of a city. They too havebecomeactivestakeholdersin theprocessofcity
making, often producing plans and building key
pieces of development and infrastructure. In
project after project, universities and cultural
institutions have become the cornerstone of
urbangrowthandcompetitivenessbutnotasin
thepastfromwithincampusboundariesbutas
stakeholders in communities bringing their own
research and expertise to bear in the wider
process. Finally, community interests arecoming
to the tablewith renewedstrength, empowered
by the internet, which is providing new ways of
buildingstrongorganizationsthatcanintervenein
thedevelopmentprocess.
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Asthenumberofstakeholdersexpands,the
coordination of multiple contributors into
coherent patterns of sustainable growth is a
fundamental challenge. This issue is revealed in
ourstudiesof advancedurbandevelopments, so
called New Century Cities. Emerging worldwide,
these city-scale projects integrate technology to
developnewindustryand knowledgeclusters.As
illustrated by the Seoul Digital Media City, they
are being implemented by complex arrays of
partners with diverse objectives and varying
degreesofauthorityandpower.
In such cases, an individual or group is often
designatedorevolvesintoanintegratorofthe
NCC project. This integrator recognizes theobjectives of all key stakeholders, speaks the
technical or professional language of each,
works across boundaries to build consensus,
facilitates joint development, and brokers the
dealsthatmustbemadeforaprojecttomove
forward. The integrator understands the
projectsstoryandhelpskeystakeholdersshape
it in terms that others understand and accept.
(Joroff,FrenchmanandRojas,2009;34)
Another potential path to addressing the
integrationproblem is theemergence of holistic
city-building organizations. Either drawing from
divisions within their own company or working
with alliances among firms with different
expertise, these enterprises plan, develop and
manageurbanization acrossmultipledimensions.
TheseenterpriseslikeEmaarorMubadalainthe
UAE, Vanke in China, and Gale in the US are
global in reach, with projects inmore than one
country. Such enterprises can have access toglobalsourcesofcapitalsovereignwealth,real
estate investment trusts, international financial
support and talent. Some do their own
research,developtheirownknowledgeandapply
itacrossmultipleprojects.Theyarenotrealestate
developersordesignconsultantsinthetraditional
sense,sinceinadditiontobuildingthehardware
theymaybefocusedondevelopinghumansocial
capital, education, technology systems, business,
and global connections, as well as invention of
new systems, programs, and techniques all of
equalimportancetothesuccessoftheenterprise.
Furthermore, unlike traditional developers, they
areneither fully public nor fully privateentities,
butcombineaspectsofboth.Emaarforexample,
ispublicallytradedcompanyhalfownedbyglobal
investorsandpartiallybytheDubaigovernment,
which retains a significant stake in the firm
(Weikal,2008;183).
Thesenewventuretypesareallstill inthe
earlystagesofmaturity.Theirbusinessvisionsarecoming into focus; they are still forming their
strategies,alliances,andtestingbusinessmodels.
What is clear, however, is that city-making
organizations must transform themselves to
provide the expertise, to integrate across
functionallines,andtofinanceinfrastructurebuild
out in innovative ways. This portends the
emergenceofanewcity-makingindustrythatwill
deal with the challenges of future-oriented
deployment of technology and resourcesustainability for city development and
regenerationinthiscentury.
SeoulDigitalMediaCity.(DonyunKim)
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Conclusion
The cities we make are not inevitable or
beyond control. Their forms respond to social
ideals, available resources, and the technologies
we invent to make use of them. In many ways
urban ideals in developing countries are still
catchingupwiththeearly20thcentury,andthisis
reflected in thekind of citesbeing built. Butthe
resources available to make and operate such
cities are dwindling, so unless we are willing to
accept degraded living conditions for the vast
majorityof urbandwellers inthe future,wewill
needanidealthatconsumesfewerresourcesper
personyetstillallowsgrowthandimprovementin
quality of life. Current efforts to do better, to
improvetheperformanceofexistingcitiesofthe
typewearecontinuingtobuildwillfallfarshort
ofwhat is required to reduce greenhouse gases
andachievebroadsustainability.Whatcanwedo?
One way forward is to pursue a different
ideal of city in which digital technologies are
integrated into the urban fabric, creating an
intelligent andmore efficient form.This isnot a
utopianvision,itsasurvivalstrategy.
Inthispaperwehavetriedtoshowhowthis
new paradigm is already being implemented
through experiments, deliberate action, or
coincidentally as cities and industries seek more
efficient andproductive processes andproducts.
Someoftheexampleswehaveusedareconcrete
successes on the ground, others are ideas,
experimentsorproposals,andsomewillfail.We
arenotarguingthatanyoneoftheseexamplesisa model for sustainable development in a
particular situation. Our aim has been to look
acrossthemanytransformations(largeandsmall)
nowunderwayincities,andtoconnectthedots.
Whenthisisdone,thereisampleevidence
thatafundamentalshiftinthewaysweconceive,
design, and implement urban development is
underway.Wecanseetheoutlinesofanewcity-
making enterprise in which diverse stakeholders
co-create an urban fabric of fine-grained mixed
usewhereallactivitiesarephysicallyanddigitally
accessible.
This may suggest some priorities for
investment by the World Bank, which can
encourage transformation to more sustainable
models of growth. Priority could be given, for
example,toprojectsthatexpandaccesstodigital
networks and capabilities through bottom-up
innovationandentrepreneurship;orprojectsthat
enhance connectivity and deliver information to
more people and places; or developments thatintegrate living, working, learning and play. The
returnsonsuchinvestmentsmaybefargreaterin
thelongrunthanwideningaroadordike.Thisis
because digital infrastructure is vastly less
expensive than physical infrastructure andmuch
easier and faster to deploy. Of course,
communities will still need roads, water and
health services. Even there, however, digital
platforms can make traditional infrastructure
more efficient and enhance services andproductivity across all sectorsof human activity.
Most importantly, digital access can link
disadvantaged people toglobal sourcesof value,
enablingthemtoinnovatetheirownwaysoutof
poverty. This raises two key challenges for the
World Bank: first, how to expand digital
infrastructure and access to the new economy;
and second, how to encourage physical
development thatmaximizes thebenefits of this
infrastructure in the form and organization of
dailylifeincities.
Thenetworkedcityidealisnotasubstitute
for conservation or for the more-conventional
buildingefficiencymeasuresnowbeingdeployed
in existing cities, both of which will remain
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important. In fact, the urban forms and
technologies we are discussing are not typically
part of the sustainable conversation at all, but
they will have powerful impacts on resource
consumption, nevertheless. Simply stated,aswe
deploythisnewinfrastructurewewillbeableto
do more with less: less space to better house
activities, fewer roads and vehicles to provide
better transport, less consumptive patterns of
human behavior. Recall that the industrial
production responsible for the phenomenal
growthofLowellwasentirelydrivenbyrenewable
resources and carbon free. We are in the early
stagesofanothernewurbanidealwedonthave
all the answers we are searching for the 21st
centuryLowellthatwillputallthepiecestogether
forthechallengesofourtime.
2011DennisFrenchmanandMichaelJoroff,
MIT
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