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Transcript of Slide # 1 Cognition and Learning. Slide # 2 Phobias and Conditioning Phobias are irrational fears of...
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Slide # 1
Cognition and LearningCognition and Learning
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Slide # 2
Phobias and ConditioningPhobias and Conditioning
Phobias are irrational fears of specific objects, animals, or situations
People acquire phobias through conditioning
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Slide # 3
Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning A learning procedure in
which subjects make associations between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
Ivan Pavlov Tuning fork/salivation
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Slide # 4
The ExperimentThe Experiment A neutral stimulus can
replace a natural stimulus if it’s presented just before that stimulus
Food = unconditioned stimulus (US)
Salivation = unconditioned response (UR)
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Slide # 5
Other TermsOther Terms Conditioned stimulus
(CS) = tuning fork Salivation = conditioned
response (CR) Conditioned responses
are learned, not natural or reflexive
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Slide # 6
Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
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Slide # 7
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Slide # 8
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Slide # 9
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Slide # 10
Principles of Principles of Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningAcquisition of a conditioned response
occurs graduallyTiming is very importantThe intensity of the US
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Slide # 11
GeneralizationGeneralization Occurs when a subject
responds to a second stimulus similar to the original (CS) without any conditioning
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Slide # 12
DiscriminationDiscriminationThe ability to respond differently to
different stimuliGeneralization and discrimination are each
a part of everyday life
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Slide # 13
ExtinctionExtinctionThe gradual weakening and eventual
disappearance of a conditioned responseThe response disappears but is not forgotten
(spontaneous recovery)Reconditioning
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Slide # 14
Extinction and Extinction and Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery
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Slide # 15
John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson The case of
“Little Albert” Fear response Ethics
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Slide # 16
An ApplicationAn Application
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Slide # 17
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning and Pleasant Responseand Pleasant Response
Advertising campaigns use classical conditioning
Pairing a healthy, young, pretty model with a product
John Watson
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Slide # 18
Classical Conditioning and Classical Conditioning and Products that Pose Health RisksProducts that Pose Health Risks
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Slide # 19
Positive EmotionsPositive Emotions
A song on the radio Scent, fragrance, or
perfume Passing a bakery
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Slide # 20
Applications: Drug AddictionApplications: Drug Addiction
Withdrawal/“cold turkey”
Cues or triggers in the environment
Avoidance of cues
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Slide # 21
Taste AversionsTaste Aversions John Garcia explained
the role of classical conditioning in creating taste aversions
Timing/single instance
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Slide # 22
Taste Aversion: An ApplicationTaste Aversion: An Application
Aversions can have survival benefits
How to protect sheep from coyotes without killing the coyotes
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Slide # 23
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
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Slide # 24
Groundwork for Groundwork for Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
Edward Thorndike Thinking and reasoning
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Slide # 25
The Puzzle BoxThe Puzzle Box Thorndike used a hungry
cat who needed to learn a particular response (stepping on a pedal) which would unlock a door with food behind it
The law of effect/instrumental learning
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Slide # 26
ReinforcementReinforcement
B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments
The Skinner box Food = reinforcement
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Slide # 27
Superstitious BehaviorSuperstitious Behavior
Can be acquired through association of a response or reinforcement
Baseball players Commonly held
superstitions
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Slide # 28
Terms Related to Terms Related to Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningDiscriminative stimuliPositive reinforcementNegative reinforcement
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Slide # 29
Discriminative StimuliDiscriminative Stimuli
A cue that signals some type of reinforcement is possible if the subject makes a particular response
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Slide # 30
Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Increases the chance
that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way
Examples
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Slide # 31
Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement Involves removing
an unpleasant stimulus in order to increase the chance that an individual will continue to behave in a certain way
A two-way street Examples
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Slide # 32
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of ReinforcementFixed-ratio scheduleVariable-ratio scheduleFixed-interval scheduleVariable-interval schedule
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Slide # 33
Fixed-Ratio Fixed-Ratio
A set number of correct responses is needed before the reward can be obtained
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Slide # 34
Variable-RatioVariable-Ratio Rewards come
after an unpredictable number of responses
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Slide # 35
Fixed-IntervalFixed-Interval A specific amount of
time must pass before a response can produce a reward
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Slide # 36
Variable-IntervalVariable-Interval Changing amounts of
time elapse before a response will produce reinforcement
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Slide # 37
Response ChainResponse Chain
Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence
Each reaction produces the signal for the next
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Slide # 38
ShapingShapingA technique in which a desired behavior is
molded first by rewarding any act similar to that behavior, then requiring closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward
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Slide # 39
Social LearningSocial Learning A form of learning in
which an animal or person observes and imitates the behavior of others
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Slide # 40
Bandura’s ExperimentBandura’s Experiment Bobo doll,
the “model” 2 types of social
learning: cognitive, modeling
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Slide # 41
Cognitive LearningCognitive LearningA form of altering behavior that involves
“mental processes” It may result from imitation or observationCognitive map/latent learning
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Slide # 42
Learned HelplessnessLearned Helplessness A condition in which
repeated attempts to control a situation fail
A major cause of depression
Latent learning and learned helplessness are both forms of cognitive learning
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Slide # 43
Elements of Elements of Learned HelplessnessLearned HelplessnessStabilityGlobalityInternality
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Slide # 44
ModelingModeling Learning by imitating
others Observational learning Disinhibition
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Slide # 45
Applications of Applications of Observational LearningObservational Learning
Children see television as a “model”
Violence on television/violence in society
Television and ADD
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Slide # 46
1996 Mediascope National 1996 Mediascope National Television Violence StudyTelevision Violence Study
Viewers learn to behave violently
They become more desensitized to violence
They become more fearful of being attacked
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Slide # 47
Study (cont.)Study (cont.) Perpetrators go unpunished in 73% of all violent crimes
depicted on television About half of the time, television depicts victims of
violence as unharmed and/or showing no pain 25% of violent scenes involve handguns Only 4% of violent programs incorporate nonviolent
themes as well Less than 3% of violent scenes feature close-ups, and 15%
show no blood
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Slide # 48
Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification Systematic application
of learning principles used to change actions and feelings
Helpful in overcoming fears
Behavioral contracts
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Slide # 49
Human MemoryHuman Memory
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Slide # 50
Three Memory ProcessesThree Memory Processes Memory = the storage and retrieval of
what one has either learned or experienced
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
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Slide # 51
EncodingEncoding Transformation of
information so the nervous system can process it
Types of codes:
1. Acoustic
2. Visual
3. Semantic
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Slide # 52
StorageStorage The process by which
we remember material acquired over a period of time
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Slide # 53
RetrievalRetrieval The process of
obtaining information from storage
Memory championships
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Slide # 54
What is Memory Retrieval?What is Memory Retrieval? The process of
accessing stored information and making it available to our consciousness
Some memories are retrieved easily
Context-dependent memory effect
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Slide # 55
Memory StagesMemory Stages Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory
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Slide # 56
Sensory MemorySensory Memory
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Slide # 57
Sensory Memory (cont.)Sensory Memory (cont.)The storage system that holds memory of
sensory impressions is short-livedSensory registerIconic memory, eidetic imagery, echoic
memory
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Slide # 58
Short-Term Memory (STM)Short-Term Memory (STM) Allows for the brief
retention of newly acquired information, usually for a maximum of 30 seconds
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Slide # 59
George Miller’s StudyGeorge Miller’s StudyMagic 7Examples of magic 7
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Slide # 60
ChunkingChunkingThe process of breaking down a large
amount of information into smaller chunksChunking makes recall easier
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Slide # 61
A Simple TestA Simple TestRow 1 2937Row 2 78541Row 3 821374Row 4 3820961Row 5 18294624Row 6 9284619384Row 7 1992199319941995
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Slide # 62
Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal A system for
remembering which involves repeating information to oneself without looking for any underlying meaning
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Slide # 63
The Primacy-Recency EffectThe Primacy-Recency Effect Cheese Milk Eggs Shampoo Bread Catsup Jam Flour
We can best remember or recall information at the beginning and the end of a list
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Slide # 64
Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
The storage of information over an extended time
Information in long-term memory is organized by categories or features
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Slide # 65
Types of Long-Term MemoryTypes of Long-Term Memory
Semantic memory Episodic memory Declarative memory Procedural memory
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Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Knowledge of
language, including its rules, words, and meanings
Retaining facts Semantic memory is
not imprinted on our brains
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Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory Memories of one’s
own life (also includes the time experiences occurred)
Like a personal diary
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Declarative MemoryDeclarative MemoryHolds knowledge that can be called forth
consciously as needed“What” and “that”
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Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory Memory of learned
skills that do not require conscious recollection
We gradually lose the ability to describe what we are doing when we perform these skills
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Retrospective vs. Retrospective vs. Prospective MemoryProspective MemoryRetrospective memory: past experience or
events and previously acquired informationProspective memory: things you need to do
in the future
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Muscle MemoryMuscle Memory Relying on muscles to
perform complex motor skills such as riding a bike, dancing, typing, hitting a baseball
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Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories
What were you doing when…?
Usually involves stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events
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Flashbulb Memories (cont.)Flashbulb Memories (cont.)
Anderson & Conway (1997) coined the term “flashbulb memory”
Permanently seared into the brain
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Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony Memory does not
always work like a camera that records and retrieves snapshots of events
Eyewitness testimony can be flawed
Misinformation effect
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SchemasSchemas Conceptual
frameworks that a person uses to make sense of the world
Sets of expectations
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Schema ViolationSchema Violation
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Memory and the BrainMemory and the Brain How and where are
memories stored in the brain?
The striatum (deep in the frontal cortex)
The hippocampus and the amygdala
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The Biological Basis for MemoryThe Biological Basis for Memory
The human brain has billions of neurons and trillions of synapses
How to track down specific networks of cells where memories are stored
Aplysia
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Erik KandelErik Kandel A molecular
biologist/Nobel Prize winner
Experiments with sea snails Neurotransmitter released
into synapse
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Retrieval and Recognition Retrieval and Recognition Exercise Exercise
Look at the picture and name this dwarf from Walt Disney’s “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”
Write down or make a list of as many of the seven dwarfs that you can remember
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Seven DwarfsSeven DwarfsThe following list includes the names of all
seven dwarfs. Which ones are correct? Tubby, Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy,
Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful, Shy, Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy, Pop, Grumpy, Bashful, Cheerful, Shorty, Nifty, Happy, Doc, Wheezy
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ForgettingForgetting Decay Memory loss Interference
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AmnesiaAmnesia Often caused by a
traumatic injury to the brain, such as a concussion
Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia
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Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia
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Childhood AmnesiaChildhood Amnesia A normal phase of
development that accounts for the lack of memory before the ages of 3 or 4
Dissociative amnesia
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Thinking and Problem SolvingThinking and Problem Solving
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ThinkingThinking Changing and
reorganizing information stored in memory
Creates new information
Thinking = a mental representation and manipulation of material
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Mental ImagesMental Images Image: a mental visualization
of an object or experience Symbol: something that stands
for or represents a specific object or event
Abstraction: an idea unrelated to a specific object or event
Concept: a mental category for classifying people, things, or events
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Conceptual ThinkingConceptual Thinking Prototype: a
representation of a concept
Rule: a statement about relationships between concepts
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Mental RotationMental Rotation The ability to hold and
manipulate mental images helps us with many cognitive tasks
Mental imaging can spark creativity
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Kinds of ThinkingKinds of Thinking Direct/convergent
thinking Non-directed/
divergent thinking Insight
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Strategies for Problem SolvingStrategies for Problem Solving Algorithm: a step-by-
step technique used to solve a problem
Heuristic: a “rule of thumb” problem-solving technique
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A Heuristic ApplicationA Heuristic Application
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Obstacles in Problem SolvingObstacles in Problem Solving
Mental set Functional fixedness
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Rigidity Can Be OvercomeRigidity Can Be Overcome
Rigidity is less likely to occur with unusual problems
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CreativityCreativity The ability to use
information in new and original ways
All problem solving requires creativity
Creativity includes flexibility
Recombination and insight
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LanguageLanguage
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How We Acquire and Use How We Acquire and Use LanguageLanguage
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Early Language AcquisitionEarly Language Acquisition
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The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of LanguageFour rules
1. Phonemes
2. Morphemes
3. Syntax
4. Semantics
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PhonemesPhonemes Individual sounds that
are basic structural elements of language
100 different and recognizable sounds
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MorphemesMorphemesThe smallest unit of meaning in a given
languageMade up of one or more phonemesPhonemes are units of sound, morphemes
are units of meaning
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Slide # 103
SyntaxSyntax Language rules that
govern how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences
Syntax varies from language to language
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Slide # 104
SemanticsSemanticsThe study of meaning in languageThe same word can have different meanings
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How Do Children Learn How Do Children Learn Language?Language?
B.F. Skinner and operant conditioning
Behavior is reinforced with smiles and attention
Children understand before they speak
Children learn language through observation
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Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky A mental program LAD Infants possess an innate
capacity for language Transformational grammar
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Stages of Stages of Language DevelopmentLanguage Development
Birth/infancy: cries, distress
2 months: cooing 4 months: babble 9 months: babbling is
refined
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Stages (continued)Stages (continued) By 1 year: single
words are uttered By 2 years: two words
together (50–100 words)
By 4 years: complete sentences