Skeleton Manual

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Poulton Research Project

Skeleton Manual

Compiled by Steve Crane & Ray Carpenter

Version 4 - April 2006

Copyright Notice

Copyright 2006. This manual is the Copyright of Stephen Crane and Raymond Carpenter who have asserted theirright to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patent Act 1988.


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Poulton Skeleton Manual -1- 05-May-2006

1 IntroductionThis manual started as an extension of the first edition of Poulton Project Field Manual [Emery & Gibbins,1995] and replaced pages 19 to 30 inclusive of that document. With revision of the Field Manual (now calledthe Site Manual) to its third edition, this Skeleton Manual is now a stand-alone companion volume. Itprovides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the archaeological process,including excavation, cleaning and storage, post-excavation analysis and disposal.

1.1 Legal and Ethical ConsiderationsThe overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with care and dignity. Always bear inmind that it is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being.

There are important legal restrictions on the excavation of human remains. A license is required since June2005 this has been issued by the Department for Constitutional Affairs(http://www.dca.gov.uk/corbur/buriafr.htm ). See Appendix G for a copy of the licence, which has to berenewed annually. More details of the legal position can be found in [Garratt-Frost, 1992].

1.2 Overview of Human Remains at PoultonThe majority of the human remains found so far at Poulton are from Christian inhumations dating to themedieval era and this manual concentrates on the processing of this type of material. However, somecremations from much earlier periods have also been found (see Section 7) and it is always possible thatmaterial from other epochs will be found in the future.

Human bones found at Poulton can be classified into two categories:

a) Articulated Burials: where bones are still recognisably in place in the correct position. A singlegrave may contain the remains of one or more individuals. Each articulated burial is assigned askeleton number.

b) Disarticulated Bones : where bones have been disturbed and can no longer be associated with anindividual burial. Disarticulated bones may be found completely out of context (e.g. where they have

been disturbed by ploughing), or in the fill of an articulated burial (e.g. where that burial disturbed anearlier one), or deposited in a specially dug charnel pit. Disarticulated bones are identified only bythe context in which they are found.

N.B. A skull is always treated in the same way as an articulated burial, even if no other bones can beassociated with it.

1.3 Disarticulated BoneWhere disarticulated bones are found in the fill of an articulated burial, they should be cleaned,photographed and recorded along with that burial (see Section 1.4).

Where significant quantities of disarticulated bone are found in their own charnel pit, they should be cleaned,

photographed and recorded as part of the standard context sheet for the fill of that pit.Where disarticulated bones are found in any other situation, they do not need to be recorded in detail, butshould be treated as ordinary finds and placed in the finds tray for that particular context.

Sometimes a disarticulated bone may be of special interest, e.g. if it shows some medical abnormalities or ifit appears to have been deliberately deposited in a disarticulated state (e.g. like material in Neolithic longbarrows). In this case, ask the supervisor if any special procedures are needed.

Animal bones are common at Poulton and care may be needed to differentiate them from human bones,particularly where the remains are fragmentary. Detailed guidance is given in [Brothwell, 1981: 36-43] and[Bass, 1995: 309-317].


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1.4 Articulated BurialsThe diagram below gives an overview of the process for handling an articulated burial.

Assign context nos to grave cut, fill &skeleton, and skeleton no

(section 2.2.2)

Clean burial(section 2.1)

Record burial - context sheets, plans,

photographs(section 2.2)

Lift & bag bones, clean grave cut,sieve spoil

(section 2.3)

Clean bones and place in store(section 3)

Basic post-excavation analysis - age,sex, stature, gross abnormalities

(section 4)

Disposal(section 6)

Optional: Advanced post-excavation analysis

(section 5)

Identify a burial and define edges

1.5 AcknowledgementsOur sincere thanks are due to: Mike Emery, Director of the Poulton Project. Those professional osteoarchaeologists who have provided information, advice and encouragement,

notably Gill Dunn, Lawrence Owens, Dave Pepper and Anthea Boylston.

All those members of the Poulton project, volunteers and students, who have been involved inexcavating and processing the human remains at Poulton.


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2 ExcavationWhen bones are first discovered in the ground, it may not be immediately obvious whether they are part ofan articulated burial, or whether they are disarticulated. The area should be carefully cleared to discover theextent of the bones and to try to identify the edges of the grave cut.

Once it is clear that an articulated burial is being dealt with, the following numbers need to be assigned:

Skeleton number from the Skeleton Register. Context numbers for the grave fill, skeleton and grave cut (preferably in that order) from the

Context Register.

Ideally, a skeleton should be excavated in a single day to minimise damage so avoid starting late in theday. If it is not possible to complete the excavation in a day, cover the skeleton with polythene overnight tokeep it damp.

Graves must be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order of deposition) and in plan:they must not be sectioned. They must be excavated by hand and the work kept scrupulously clean as itproceeds. Great care must be taken to recover all of the bones which are present, in as good a condition aspossible, as this directly affects the quality of the post-excavation analysis.

All the excavated spoil must be sieved to ensure that small bones, teeth, bone fragments and finds are notlost.

2.1 Cleaning In-Situ The skeleton must be carefully cleaned prior to recording, using a variety of tools such as a leaf trowel, smallpaintbrushes, dental tools and wooden sticks. The cleaning of small bones such as hands, feet and ribs cancause disturbance and it is often best to excavate only the minimum amount of soil necessary to show theirposition. If the soil is hard, it may be lightly sprayed with water to help soften it.

Individual bones may not always appear where you expect them! This may be a feature of the original burial,or due to later disturbance or deposition of disarticulated bone.

N.B . Always be aware that a grave could contain multiple burials, or that the remains of a foetus could bepresent with an adult skeleton.

Any metal nails that are found during excavation should be treated as potentially in-situ coffin nails. Theyshould be left exactly as found and their positions recorded on a plan.

2.2 RecordingPhotography is now generally accepted as the best way of recording a skeleton in-situ : it is both rapid andaccurate. The traditional approach of site drawings of skeletons at 1:10 is time-consuming and ofteninaccurate.

2.2.1 Planning

The skull, pelvis and long bones of the skeleton should be recorded precisely on the plan of the grave cut (atthe usual 1:20 scale). This will enable the photographs (see below) to be accurately located in relation to thesite grid.

2.2.2 Context Sheets

Each skeleton should have at least 3 associated context sheets: Standard cut-type sheet for the grave cut see worked example in Appendix E. Standard fill-type sheet for the grave fill see worked example in Appendix F. Specialised skeleton sheet see worked example in Appendix B.

If the remains of a coffin are found, this should have its own context sheet.Detailed notes on filling in the skeleton context sheet are given below:


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Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, e.g. POU/CHF/03.

Trench Number of the trench containing the burial.

SW Grid The south-western grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the grave issituated (if the grave spans more than one 5-metre square, give the SW co-ordinates of allthe squares).

Skeleton No Unique skeleton reference number.

Skeleton Context Context number of skeleton.Grave Cut Context Context number of the grave cut.

Grave Fill Context Context number of the grave fill.

Shade bones present Shade all the bones which are present in the grave (N.B. this may have to be updated asthe bones are lifted).Indicate any breaks in long bones.

Position Sketch the attitude of the skull and limbs in relation to the pelvis and spine.Define the orientation of the burial by indicating the end of the grave at which the head isplaced (e.g. W) and by drawing a North arrow.Prone = face down, lying on the frontSupine = face up, lying on the backExtended = laid out in approximately straight lineFlexed = leg joints bent by < 90 Crouched = leg joints bent by > 90 Contracted = knees brought right up against chest (foetal position)

Preservation Note the condition of the bone, e.g. well preserved, friable (crumbly), weathered.Disturbance by roots, animals, erosion, etc. should be noted and also shown on the sketchplan (see below).Truncation (cutting away by a later feature) where skeleton is truncated, indicate onbones diagram (above) and on sketch plan (below) with truncating context features.Post-mortem damage (e.g. breaks in long bones, crushing of skull) should be noted.

Additional Description Pathology any evidence of disease and/or ante-mortem fractures of the bones. At thisstage, it is only possible to identify obvious pathologies, which should be briefly

described. More detailed study of pathology will be performed during post-excavationanalysis.Shroud/Coffin: Presence indicate if there is any evidence for a shroud (e.g. pins) or a

coffin. If a coffin was present, then define:Type e.g. wooden (nailed), wooden (dowelled), lead, stone.Context No number assigned to coffin

Any other points of interest (e.g. assemblies of stones) any other aspects of the burialwhich may be of interest or are unusual, e.g. associated burials, female with foetus inplace, or any other complex burial situation. These should also be shown on the sketchplan (see below).Of particular interest are assemblies of stones, which have been found in several burials,predominantly around the skull. These should also be photographed before and afterlifting the bones.

Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the skeleton context in theHarris matrix.Those below (before) the skeleton context will include the grave cut context.Those above (after) the skeleton context will include the grave fill context.

Environmental Samples List the sample numbers and where they were taken from (see Section 2.3.4).

Sketch Plan Draw a sketch of the burial (with the skeleton in simple outline only), including itsrelationship to surrounding layers, features and other burials, associated finds and gravegoods.Ensure the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates of the gridsquares are shown (precise co-ordinates of specific points on the skeleton are shown in the

next section).N.B. This is not a substitute for accurate plans!


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Levels & Co-ordinates Wherever possible, the grid co-ordinates and levels of the skull, pelvis and ankle(s) shouldbe measured: the positions of these points are shown on the bones diagram above. Ifadditional points are measured, indicate these on the same diagram.TBM = Temporary Bench Mark heightBS = Backsight to Temporary Bench MarkIH = Instrument Height (TBM + BS)FS = Foresight to point of interest

RL = Reduced Level of point of interest (IH FS)Measure the overall length of the skeleton (as an approximation to the stature of theindividual, if the burial is extended).

Associated Finds andSmall Finds

Any finds associated directly with the burial (but not general constituents of the grave fillsuch as building rubble, which will be recorded on the fill context sheet). These finds willoften be treated as Small Finds and assigned their own numbers.

Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the skeleton (see Section 2.2.1).

Photos (Colour & Mono) The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the skeleton (see Section2.2.3).

Interpretation A brief interpretation of the burial as a whole, including comments about the coffin, graveand grave goods (if any).The estimated sex and age should only be recorded where this is obvious or where theperson completing the sheet has some expertise in this area. More detailed analysis will becarried out during the post-excavation phase.

Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.

Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.

2.2.3 Photography

The photographs are the primary visual record of the skeleton. Photographs should be taken as soon aspossible after the skeleton has been exposed. The usual site guidelines for photography apply, but inaddition:

If the bones are well preserved, then they can be cleaned with a small sponge and water to improvedefinition. If poorly preserved, a fine water spray may achieve the same result. However, skeletonsshould not be repeatedly wetted and allowed to dry, as this may result in disintegration of the bone.

Photographs of the entire skeleton should be taken from a not too oblique angle and from the feetend of the grave where possible.

Close-up photographs should also be taken of any abnormalities, particularly if the bone is fragileand may be damaged on lifting. Any stone assemblies associated with the burial should also bephotographed.

Each photograph must show the skeleton context and skeleton number. Both colour and monochrome photographs should be taken and their film and frame numbers

recorded on the skeleton context sheet.


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2.3 Lifting and Bagging the SkeletonOnce the skeleton has been cleaned and all recording completed, it can be lifted.

2.3.1 Equipment

1. Skeleton number and context number of fill

2. Finds tray (for finds within the fill) + label

3. Trowel, small tool, picks, etc.

4. Plastic bags 8 large (for long bones, skull etc.), 12 medium (for other bones and finds)

5. Permanent marker pen

6. Large cardboard boxes (for transporting filled bags)

7. Skeleton context sheet (in case it needs updating during lifting, e.g. if more bones are found)

2.3.2 Procedure

When in doubt, ask the supervisor!

1. Write the context number of the fill on the label (with all the other standard information) and place infinds tray.

2. Work systematically through the skeleton, as defined in Order of Lifting below (Section 2.3.3.).

3. Retain all the spoil from the excavation, as it must be sieved later (step 9).

4. Choose an appropriate size bag, write on the outside the skeleton number and description of bones,e.g. SK 102 RIGHT ARM.

5. Using the tools, fully expose and undermine the bones, gently lift, carefully remove any large clodsof attached earth and place bones in bag. If the soil is hard, it can be lightly sprayed with water tohelp soften it. As many fragments of bone should be recovered as possible.

N.B. Dont scrape the bones, or attempt to remove earth from holes (particularly from the skull!). Dont forget the epiphyses on juveniles & infants!Skulls must always be supported by both hands and never picked up by the eye orbits theweight of an earth-filled skull should not be underestimated.

Long bones should always be lifted by both hands to avoid breakage.

6. If additional bones are found during lifting, update the diagram on the skeleton context sheet.

7. When each bag is full, seal it (if possible) and place gently in a box.

8. Any finds within the fill should be placed in the finds tray. At the end, transfer the finds and the labelto their own bag.

9. At the end, gently trowel over the area where the skeleton laid, in case there are further small bonesor finds. All of the spoil from all stages of the lifting should be sieved and any bones or finds placedin the appropriate bags.

10. Fully excavate the grave cut (sieving the spoil) and record it on its own context sheet.

11. Transport the filled bags to the finds cabin.

2.3.3 Order of Lifting

There is no correct order, but a suggested order is given below (L = large bag, M = medium):

1. Right hand (M)

2. Right arm (L)

3. Left hand (M) if the hands cannot be easily separated, then bag together

4. Left arm (L)


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5. Right foot (M)

6. Right leg (L)

7. Left foot (M) if the feet cannot be easily separated, then bag together

8. Left leg (L)

9. Skull and hyoid cartilage (L)

10. Mandible (M) only if easily separated from the rest of the skull, otherwise bag together

11. Loose teeth (M)

12. Sternum & Manubrium (M)

13. Right Ribs (M)

14. Left Ribs (M)

15. Right Clavicle & Scapula (M)

16. Left Clavicle & Scapula (M)

17. Pelvis including Sacrum (L)

18. Vertebrae (L)

19. Miscellaneous loose bones (as necessary)

2.3.4 Environmental Samples and Other Organic Material

Environmental samples can tell us about the overall environment at the time of the burial (e.g. from pollenand snails), as well as about the individual (e.g. food remains and kidney stones).

The supervisor should determine whether or not environmental samples are required for each skeleton,depending on the needs of the research programme and the likelihood that organic material has beenpreserved. If required, they should be taken from some or all of the following areas: Skull Neck Chest Abdomen Pelvis

The usual guidelines for environmental samples apply, but in addition: Sample size should be 1kg. Sample numbers and locations should be entered on the skeleton context sheet.

The excavator should also be aware of other material which is associated with the skeleton and which shouldbe retrieved if not specifically included in environmental samples. These include:

a) Kidney, bladder, sinus and gallstones. These resemble small pebbles and are therefore difficult torecognise.

b) Hyatid cysts, produced as a reaction to the tapeworm parasite, can be found in many regions, mostcommonly in the abdomen, thorax and cranium. These are normally of a thin calcareous nature androughly spherical.

c) Biological material stomach contents and coprolites. These may contain cereal fragments, seeds offood plants and the eggs of intestinal parasites. These are most likely to occur in waterloggeddeposits and hence are rare at Poulton.


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3 Post-Excavation Cleaning and StorageMuch of the material in this section is taken from [Anderson, 1993a].

Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid post-excavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this isgenerally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed.

N.B. Bones must never be glued or consolidated with chemicals, as this can damage them.

3.1 Articulated SkeletonsAt Poulton, it is best to wash the bones before the clay soil dries out completely, as it then becomes too hard.The bones should be carefully washed in lukewarm water using a toothbrush, without being soaked, in thesame way as other finds. If there are incomplete and/or damaged bones, soil can be carefully removed fromthe broken ends using picks or other fine tools, but great care must be taken to avoid damaging the bone. Theskull may fall apart when washed (often it is only the soil inside which holds it together), but as long as allthe pieces are saved this is not a major problem. The facial bones in particular are very fragile. Care shouldalso be taken not to remove the brown tartar deposits on teeth.

When changing the water, ensure that small bones and bone fragments are not thrown away. Always changethe water before starting a new skeleton.The bones should now be laid out to dry in clean trays lined with newspaper and with the original bag (whichis the only form of identification) turned inside out so that it can dry thoroughly too. The drying process maytake a few days (depending on conditions). This needs a secure location with a fairly consistent and moderatetemperature dont leave the bones in direct sunlight or apply artificial heat.

The dry bones should be placed back in the original bags (turned the right way out), or if the bags are toodirty or damaged, in clean new bags. Each bag must contain a standard label showing site code, trenchnumber, skeleton number, skeleton context and description of bones. The same information should also bewritten on the outside of the bag with an indelible marker.

All the bags for a single skeleton should be placed in a separate box, preferably one of the standard 12" x 24"

x 4.5" boxes which can usually hold a complete skeleton. An additional box may be necessary if the skull islarge, or if there are environmental samples, which should be kept with the skeleton at this stage. In this case,ensure the boxes are labelled 1 of 2, 2 of 2, etc.. Occasionally (especially for incomplete or subadultremains), it may be permissible to store more than one skeleton in a single box.

The site code, skeleton number(s) and skeleton context(s) should be written on the top of the box with amarker. A standard label (see below) should be stuck onto the end of the box for each skeleton, giving theskeleton number and context number (again) and its status in terms of washing and post-excavation analysis.

SKELETON NO.:

CONTEXT NO.:

WASHED:

AGE DET:

SEX DET:

HT DET:

PHOTOS:

Finally, the box should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to skeletons awaiting post-excavation analysis, with the label visible. Boxes should not be stacked too high, to avoid crushing. Stackingdirectly on the floor should also be avoided as the boxes may become damp.


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3.2 Disarticulated BonesDisarticulated bones are processed in basically the same way as articulated skeletons, but note the following: All the bones for a single context should be kept together, with a label showing the context number

and DISARTICULATED BONE. Unstratified remains should be kept separate from stratified bones (and labelled accordingly). There may be several bags for each context: each bag should be uniquely identified with a sequential

number, e.g. for context 768 there would be bag numbers 768.001, 768.002, 768.003, etc. Unstratified remains are assigned the dummy context number 0, so the corresponding bags are

labelled 0.001, 0.002, 0.003, etc. Bones from a single context should be placed in the same box, unless more than one box is required.

Otherwise, it is quite acceptable to store several contexts in a single box, so as not to waste space.The site code, context numbers and DISARTICULATED BONE should be written on the top andone end of each box with a marker.

Unstratified remains should be placed in separate boxes from stratified bones. The site code,UNSTRATIFIED DISARTICULATED BONE and the range of bag numbers should be written onthe top and one end of each box with a marker.

Finally, the boxes should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to disarticulated bonesawaiting post-excavation analysis.


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4 Basic Post-Excavation AnalysisA basic level of post-excavation analysis must always be carried out for every excavated skeleton, beforedisposal.

This covers the fundamental analysis of the skeleton, including age, sex, stature and gross abnormalities.

An example of a completed form used to record the results of this analysis is shown in Appendix C.

Details of more advanced analysis are given in Section 5.

4.1 Sex DeterminationWithin any human population, adult male and female skeletons differ in general size and shape and this isthe basis for determining their sex. There are no generally agreed standards for determining sex in juveniles(apart from DNA analysis which we are unlikely to use at Poulton).

This can lead to problems with adolescent skeletons [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994]: Pelvis Immature pelvises tend to follow the male pattern. Hence female features are a reasonable

indicator of sex, but male features are ambiguous, since they may represent either a male or animmature female.

Skull Conversely, immature skulls tend to follow the female pattern. Hence male features are areasonable indicator of sex, but female features are ambiguous since they may represent either afemale or an immature male

So the evidence of sex should always be considered together with that of age (see later).

The two primary bones for determining sex are the pelvis and skull. The accuracy which can be achieved hasbeen estimated as follows [Dunn, 2002]:

Skull alone 80%

Pelvis alone 95%

Both skull and pelvis 98%

Many different attributes of the pelvis and skull have been proposed as a means of sex determination. Anumber of the most commonly used have been taken from [Brothwell, 1981: 60], [Buikstra & Ubelaker,1994: 17-20], [Sutherland and Suchey, 1991: 502] and [Mays, 1998: 34]. As many as possible of theseattributes should be used for each skeleton, since this increases the accuracy of sex determination. In somecases the skull or pelvis may not be available or may be in poor condition, which will limit the number ofattributes which can be assessed: it may sometimes prove impossible to determine the sex at all.

On the recording form (Appendix C), each attribute is scored using a range of 1 (most female) to 5 (mostmale), using as a guide the diagrams given below. Where diagrams are only given for values of 1 and 5, interpolate for the intermediate values.

Attributes more extreme than 1 and 5 should be scored as 1 and 5 respectively. If it is not possible to assess the attribute (e.g. because of damage to the bone), then assign a score of

0.

Finally, make an overall assessment based on all the available data and taking into account the varyingreliability of the different indicators (i.e. dont just average the scores!)


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4.1.1 Pelvis

The Greater Sciatic Notch tends to be broad in females and narrow in males. Hold the os coxae about 15cmabove the figure below and align it as closely as possible with the diagram (which shows the left side ).As a rule of thumb, place your thumb in the notch. If the notch is filled or only limited side-to-sidemovement is possible, it is male. If considerable side-to-side movement is possible, it is female.

The Sub-Pubic Angle (dotted line in figure below) tends to be wider and more U-shaped in females,narrower (generally less than 90 ) and more V-shaped in males.

1 5

The Preauricular Sulcus (location shown in the left figure below) is more consistently present in females,although sometimes poorly developed or present on one side only.

1 5


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There are three main attributes of the subpubic region, the area indicated in the figure below (the right side is shown):

The Ventral Arc is a slightly elevated ridge of bone across the ventral surface of the pubis, which tends to bepresent in the female (diagram shows view from front ):

1 5

The Subpubic Concavity (diagram shows left side viewed from rear ):

1 5 1 5

The Ischiopubic Ramus Ridge (diagram shows left side viewed end-on ):

1 5


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4.1.2 Skull

Males tend to have larger, more robust skulls than females, but the differences can be difficult to interpret.Four key aspects have been chosen and are illustrated below. Hold the cranium or mandible at arms length afew inches above the appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram.

Nuchal Crest:

Mastoid Process: The most important variable to consider is the volume, not the length.

Supra-Orbital Margin: Hold the edge of the orbit between your fingers to determine its thickness. To score1, the edge should feel sharp, like the edge of a slightly dulled knife. To score 5, the edge should feel thickand rounded like a pencil.

Supra-Orbital Ridge/Glabella:


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4.2 Age DeterminationAll techniques for determining age at death rely on relating changes in the skeleton to the age of theindividual concerned. Even where these relationships can be determined with some degree of accuracy formodern populations, there is no guarantee that they will be equally applicable to the population under study.Furthermore, individuals within a population can show great variability.

The chart below, taken from [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994:51], should be used to determine age based onoverall development of the teeth:


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4.2.1 Adults

There are no wholly satisfactory methods for determining the age of adult skeletons; it is only possible toassign skeletons to fairly wide age bands. The diagram below [Brothwell, 1981: 72] shows the pattern ofmolar wear in Neolithic to Medieval British skulls, which covers most of those expected to be found atPoulton.

N.B. The correlation between age and dental wear is greatest for first and second molars, and much lower forthird molars [Mays, 1998; 57].

N.B . It is possible for the third molar to be present on the mandible but not on the maxilla (or vice-versa) oreven more confusingly, to vary from side to side of the maxilla or mandible. In this situation, there would beminimal wear on the third molar, but this would give little or no indication of age. This should be borne inmind particularly when you are missing the mandible or maxilla.

While the development of the pubic symphysis is commonly used to determine age, we do not use it atPoulton:a) because these bones are often too damaged, andb) because it has been shown to perform poorly on archaeological material, especially when calibrated

using a different reference population, e.g. [Mays, 1998: 55] and [Molleson and Cox, 1993: 167-170].


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4.2.2 Children and Young Adults

Age at death can be most accurately determined for children and young adults, since age-related changes tothe skeleton are most distinct at this stage of development. In particular, the fusion of the epiphyses iscommonly used [Mays, 1998: 48] and [Bass, 1995:194].

Epiphysial Fusion

The diagram below shows the ages of epiphysial fusion. Use the recording form (Appendix C) to recordabsence or presence of fusion for each available epiphysis and then use the diagram to determine a boundingage for each one. For example: If the femur head (p) is fused in a male skeleton, then record age as >= 14. If the radius distal epiphysis (f) is unfused in a female skeleton, then record age as =< 20.

In cases where it is not possible to determine the sex, check the figures for both males and females and usethe least restrictive condition. For example: If the femur head is fused, it implies >= 14 (male) or >= 13 (female). Record age as >= 13. If the radius distal epiphysis is unfused, it implies =


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Diaphyseal and Epiphyseal Length

Where insufficient material is available to assess age based on dental development and/or epiphyseal fusion,then the table below (taken from [Scheuer & Black, 2000:289;299;308;394;416;426]) can be used to estimatethe age of subadults based on the length of the long bones. For bones where the epiphyses have not yetfused, this is the diaphyseal length (Di in the table below), i.e. the length of the diaphysis or shaft of thebone. For bones where the epiphyses have fused, this is the epiphyseal length (Epi in the table below). Thebones should be measured to the nearest mm using an osteometric board, and the lengths and derived agesrecorded on the form (Appendix C) under the Height Determination section.

Age Femur Tibia Fibula Humerus Radius Ulna

Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi Di Epi0 7.5 6.5 6.2 6.5 5.2 5.9

1 13.6 10.9 10.6 10.5 8.1 9.12 17.2 13.9 13.7 12.9 9.7 10.8

3 19.9 16.2 16.1 14.6 11.0 12.2

4 22.4 18.2 18.1 16.2 12.1 13.45 24.7 20.1 20.0 17.7 13.2 14.66 26.9 21.8 21.7 19.0 14.2 15.67 29.0 23.5 23.3 20.3 15.1 16.6

8 31.1 25.3 25.0 21.7 16.1 17.69 33.0 26.7 26.5 22.8 16.9 18.5

10 34.9 38.4 28.5 32.1 28.0 30.9 24.0 25.7 17.9 19.1 19.5 20.3

11 36.7 40.4 30.0 33.9 29.5 32.5 25.2 27.0 18.7 20.1 20.5 21.412 38.7 42.7 31.7 35.9 31.1 34.4 26.4 28.5 19.7 21.3 21.5 22.7

13 44.7 37.6 35.9 29.9 22.4 23.914 46.5 39.1 37.4 31.3 23.4 25.0

15 47.7 39.9 38.3 32.2 24.2 25.816 48.5 40.5 38.9 32.9 24.6 26.4

17 48.6 40.5 38.9 33.1 24.8 26.5

N.B. All bone lengths in cm.

4.2.3 Foetuses

Diaphyseal bone length is a good indicator of age in foetuses. Bone growth is less affected by externalfactors (e.g. malnutrition) than after birth, and the skeleton grows rapidly during this stage. Age can beestimated from long-bone length to an accuracy of approximately 2 weeks. The data in the table below istaken from [Chamberlain, 1998: 9] and [Mays, 1998: 43].

The bones should be measured using an osteometric board, and the lengths recorded on the form (AppendixC) under the Height Determination section.

Foetal Age (weeks) Femur Tibia Humerus Radius

20 3.1 2.8 2.5

25 4.1 3.7 3.230 5.2 4.5 5.0 3.835 6.2 5.4 5.9 4.4

40 7.3 6.3 6.8 5.145 7.7

N.B. All bone lengths in cm.


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4.3 Height DeterminationFor adults, the most reliable method of estimating stature is from the long bones: the femur, tibia, fibula,humerus, radius and ulna [Brickley & McKinley, 2004: 33]. Formulae can then be applied to calculate heightfrom the length of these bones. This technique cannot be applied to immature individuals (i.e. those withunfused bones) because the relative sizes of the bones change during development: in fact there is nogenerally agreed method for estimating height in this case.

Use the following procedure for an adult skeleton: Measure the lengths of all available bones to the nearest mm using an osteometric board. The

diagrams below [Brothwell, 1981] show how the bones should be positioned. Horizontal arrowsdenote movement from side to side, curved arrows circular movement.

Back of bone placed facedownward on board,rotate bone to findmaximum length.

Back of bone placed facedownward on board,long axis of bone parallelto long axis of board.

Head placed against fixed vertical, distalend against movable upright. Bone movedup & down and side to side untilmaximum length obtained.

(Ulna and fibula are also measured in thesame way).

Broken bones can generally be re-assembled and measured, provided that the breaks are clean and allpieces are present. The pieces should be held together by hand and not glued or fixed in any way.This requires two people, one to hold the bone and the other to operate the osteometric board.

The measurements are recorded on the form (Appendix C). Also record on the form the number of pieces of each bone and whether or not it is complete. Calculate the stature using the appropriate set of equations, Male American White or Female

American White, depending on sex (stature can only be determined if the sex is known).


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Each formula should be calculated separately for left- and right-side bones, and the results averagedwhere both values are available.

Examine and compare the various estimates and consider rejecting any outliers which appear toodifferent from the rest (e.g. might a bone from a different skeleton have been measured?).

The stature estimate based on the equation with the lowest standard error should be taken as the bestestimate, rather than averaging the estimates from all the available equations.

A spreadsheet is available which performs all these calculations (see Appendix D). Record the estimated stature and the standard error of the corresponding equation on the Post-

Excavation recording form (Appendix C). The stature should be recorded to a precision of 0.1cm and0.1", and the standard error to a precision of 0.01cm.


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4.4 AbnormalitiesAny obvious abnormalities of the skeleton should be noted on the recording form (Appendix C), for possiblefurther investigation either in-house or by an external expert (see Section 5). Only definite abnormalitiesshould be recorded be aware that changes to bones and teeth could be due to post-mortem factors such asroot marks, rodent gnawing, deformation through soil pressure, and soil erosion.

The following information should be recorded for each abnormality: Which bone/tooth is affected (including side)? Which part of the bone/tooth (e.g. proximal shaft)? What is the nature of the change has additional bone been formed (most common), has bone been

destroyed, or has the bone bent (least common)? If bone has been formed, is it disorganised (indicating active disease at the time of death) or

organised (indicating a healed lesion)? If bone has been destroyed, is there any sign of healing, e.g. rounding of the edges of the lesion? What is the distribution pattern if more than one tooth/bone is affected? Can the abnormality be measured and compared with a normal tooth/bone?

Photographs (both monochrome and colour) should be taken and the film and frame numbers noted on therecording form. Scales should be used, and preferably a normal bone or tooth should be included forcomparison. A dark background usually gives the best results for bones.

4.4.1 Types of Abnormality

The following list summarises the major types of abnormality which should be recorded, with the mostcommon type first.

Type Description & Examples

Arthropathy (jointdiseases)

Osteoarthritis (formation of new bone on and around joints) is most common.In severe cases, the cartilage is totally destroyed and bones directly abrade

each other.Dental Disease Wear on teeth leads to abscesses and loss of teeth.

Gum disease can lead to loosening of teeth.

Trauma Broken bones note whether any healing has occurred (can help to determineif damage is post-mortem).Trephining or trepanning.

Stress Indicators Stripey lines on teeth (enamel hypoplasia).Harris lines in long bones (visible only in radiographs).Cribra orbitalis (pitting in the tops of the orbits, due to anaemia).Rickets.Osteoporosis (thinning of walls of long bones and loss of bone mass difficult

to identify).Infection Generally leaves little evidence on the skeleton.

TB causes centres of vertebrae to collapse, leading to curvature of spine.Syphilis causes a gnawed effect on many bones, with rough edges.Leprosy bone is lost on the palate, front of maxilla, etc., with smooth edges.

Congenital/Developmental Cleft palate.Hip dislocation due to shallow acetabulam.Hydrocephalus (indicated by enlarged skull).Sacralisation of 5 th lumbar vertebra.Unusual formation of teeth.

Cancerous Growths Erosion of normal bones and growth of other bone.

[Roberts and Manchester, 1995] gives a comprehensive description of the most common diseases andtraumas which affect bone.


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4.5 Skeleton DatabaseBasic data about the skeleton and from the post-excavation analysis should be recorded in the computerisedSkeleton Database [Carpenter and Crane, 2003: 16]. This is not intended to replace the conventional paper-based recording system, but rather to assist in the rapid analysis of the considerable quantity of data that hasbeen collected and generated. For example, it has been used to automatically create plans showing thelocations of burials, and graphs of age and height distribution. One major advantage is that these analyses,

reports and graphs can be rapidly re-generated whenever new or modified data becomes available.

4.6 Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)All disarticulated bone (whether stratified or unstratified) should be analysed in order to assess the MinimumNumber of Individuals (MNI) represented. The numbers of various key bone portions in each bag should becounted, and the results recorded using a form similar to that illustrated in Appendix J, using separate formsfor Adults and Subadults. The key bone portions are: Skull Left & right mastoid processes, nuchal crest, left & right upper eye orbit Mandible Left & right sides, mental eminence Clavicle Left & right proximal & distal ends Sacrum proximal end Pubic Symphysis left & right sides Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia, Fibula left & right proximal & distal ends

These key bone portions have been chosen as those which:

a) Are generally well preserved in the Poulton material.

b) Are identifiable even for bones in bad condition.

c) Are distinctive enough to minimise the risk of double counting.

The total number of each portion is calculated by summing up the columns. The MNI is then determined asthe largest of these totals.

N.B. It is not valid to simply add the MNI figures from two or more different groups of bones from the samesite, when attempting to calculate the MNI for the combined set. This is because there may be overlapbetween the groups, i.e. bones from the same skeleton may be present in more than one group.


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5 Advanced Post-Excavation AnalysisThis section of the Manual is still under development.

There are two types of more detailed post-excavation analysis: In-house This covers more detailed analysis of parameters such as the numbers of individual bones

and the state of dentition. At Poulton, this level of analysis is not carried out routinely, but only whenrequired to address specific research issues.

External In exceptional circumstances where the skeleton is of special interest or importance, itmay be necessary to call upon the services of an external expert to carry out a professionalexamination of the remains. [Roberts, 1998] is an example of such a report.

It is essential that all basic post-excavation recording and analysis has been completed before any destructiveanalysis is performed (such as 14C dating).


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6 DisposalOne of the conditions of our licence to excavate human remains (Appendix G) is that the remains should bere-interred in a duly authorised burial ground.

The Poulton Research Project has arranged for our human remains to be re-buried at Mount St. Bernardmonastery, near Loughborough in Leicestershire. This is particularly appropriate as this is a Cistercian

monastery, maintaining the link with the chapels past history.Remains should only be sent to Mount St. Bernard when the Project Director and the Project HumanRemains Specialists confirm that all analysis and recording has been completed. A careful record should bekept of which skeletons are being re-buried and the context and bag numbers for any disarticulated bones.

The bones should then be removed from their plastic bags and emptied into cardboard boxes. All non-organic objects and any other material not suitable for burial, such as labels and environmental samples,must be removed. While the bones should still be treated with respect (e.g. they should not be crushed orbroken), there is no further need to keep different skeletons separate.

A convenient date and time should be arranged with Mount St. Bernard (see contact details below) and theboxes taken there by road.

Finally, the skeleton database should be updated to show the location of the skeletons concerned as MountSt. Bernard.

Contact Details for Mount St. Bernard

Abbot: Rt. Rev. Joseph DelargyMount St. Bernard,CoalvilleLeicestershireLE67 5UL

01530-832298/832022

Directions to Mount St. Bernard

Mount St. Bernard is located approximately 4km North-East of Coalville, at grid ref. SK 458 162.


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7 CremationsA cremation consists of the burnt remains of a human body. In most cases, only fragments of bones willremain. The average human body will reduce to about 3kg of ash, but it is rare to find this quantity. The bonewill often be fragmented (sometimes deliberately) and is very fragile.

Burnt bones are not necessarily human: animal bones may be found on their own or mixed with human bone.

However, unless it is obvious that the bones are animal, they should always be treated as human bone duringexcavation and recording, leaving differentiation to the post-excavation phase.

Although smoking is not permitted on site in any case, this ban is particularly important when working oncremations, as tobacco ash can easily contaminate the cremation material.

7.1 Cremation PitsMost cremations will have been deposited in a small hole in the ground, known as the cremation pit. As withinhumations, the burial should be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order ofdeposition) and in plan. Where a vessel is found containing the burnt bones, then the backfill round thisvessel will be excavated first: on the other hand, if the cremation pit has simply been backfilled with theashes, then they will be treated as a fill. Cremated bone is very fragile. Every effort must be made not to

break it during excavation, as this makes identification more difficult: frequent dampening of the soil canmake it easier to lift the bone.

All deposits removed from cremation pits should be treated as environmental samples and will be processedlater to remove all the burnt bone, carbonised wood and other materials. Where a vessel is broken or the soilis disturbed, great care may be needed to ensure that all the cremation material is recovered.

Sometimes the pit will contain grave-goods, which may or may not have been burnt together with the body.More frequently the fill will contain nails and fragments of carbonised wood, which may be from a coffin orthe funeral pyre. All of these should be collected along with the pit fill and noted on the appropriate contextsheet(s).

Special finds such as jewellery should be recovered separately and treated as ordinary small finds. Theyshould also be noted on the context sheet of the fill in which they were contained.

7.2 VesselsAny vessel (or urn) containing burnt bone is assigned a separate context number and the contents left intactfor later off-site excavation. The vessel must be completely exposed before any attempt to lift it. Sometimesthere will also be cremated bone outside the vessel; such bone should be collected as part of the cremation pitbackfill.

The cremation pit may also hold other vessels which do not contain any bone. These are also assignedindividual context numbers and their contents left intact as they may have contained food offerings to thedeceased. Again, they must be completely exposed before any attempt at lifting.

Extreme care is required if a vessel is broken, to ensure that none of its contents are lost. It may be helpful to

bandage the vessel to provide extra support. If the vessel is badly smashed, then it may have to be excavatedin-situ .

7.3 RecordingAn overall plan at a scale of 1:10 should show the general areas in which bone fragments are found, togetherwith larger individual fragments and the locations of vessels and other finds. However, there is no need toplan every bone revealed during excavation.

Both colour and monochrome photographs should be taken.

An appropriate standard context sheet should be completed for each of the following: Cremation pit (cut) one sheet

Each layer of fill in the pit one sheet for each layer Vessel(s) containing ashes and accessory vessels without ashes one sheet for each vessel


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In addition to the context sheets, a separate cremation record sheet should be completed, providing asummary of the contents of the burial. See Appendix I for a worked example. Detailed notes on filling in thecremation record sheet are given below:

Site Code POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, e.g. POU/CHF/03.

Trench Number of the trench containing the cremation.

SW Grid The southwestern grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the cremation is

situated (if the cremation spans more than one 5-metre square, give the SW co-ordinatesof all the squares).

Context No Context number assigned to the bone: this will be either the number of the pit fill (ifunurned) or the number of the cremation urn (if inurned).

Cremation Pit Context Context number of the cremation pit.

Fill Context(s) Context numbers of all the fills of the cremation pit.

Vessel Context(s) Context numbers of all the vessels in the cremation pit.

Inurned / Unurned Inurned = bones contained within a vessel (may also be bones outside the vessel)Unurned = no bones inside a vessel

Level at Surface Level at top of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).

Level at Base Level at base of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm).

Sketch Plans Draw a sketch of the cremation, including its relationship to surrounding layers, features,associated vessels and finds.Ensure that the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates of thegrid squares are shown.N.B. This is not a substitute for accurate plans!

Additional Description A written description of the cremation pit and its contents.Note any discolouration of the sides of the pit suggestive of burning or scorching.Interpretative comments should not be included here, but under Interpretation below.

Vessels Number of vessels in the cremation pit, the material of which they are made (pottery,glass, wood, etc.), their condition (whole, broken, crushed, burnt, etc.) and a description ofeach vessel.

Each vessel should be given a reference number keyed to the sketch plan.Material Outside Vessels Note type and quantity of any bone (burnt or unburnt), or other significant material such

as charcoal and slag, found in the fill outside of any vessels.Record maximum size of bone fragments prior to lifting.

Stratigraphic Matrix List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the bone context in theHarris matrix.Those below (before) the bone context will include the cremation pit context.

Environmental Samples List the sample numbers assigned to the fill(s).

Associated Finds &Small Finds

Any finds associated directly with the cremation (but not general constituents of the fillssuch as bone and charcoal, which will be recorded on the relevant fill context sheet).These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned their own numbers.

Plan Nos The drawing numbers of all plans which show the cremation.Section Nos The drawing numbers of all sections which show the cremation.

Photos (Colour & Mono) The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the cremation.

Interpretation A brief description of the cremation as a whole, including comments about the bone,vessels and finds (if any).

Excavation Method Cremations should be excavated in plan: give reasons if any other method was used.

Excavation Tools List all the tools used in the excavation.

Risk of Contamination Assess the risk of contamination of the bones as Low, Medium or High.

Recorded By / Date Name of person completing the form and date completed.

Checked By / Date Name of supervisor and date form checked.


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7.4 Post-Excavation TreatmentThe processing of cremated bone (including the emptying of vessels) is a specialised task which wouldnormally be performed by external experts. See [Brickley and McKinley, 2004: 9-13], [McKinley andRoberts, 1993: 7], [Brothwell, 1981: 14] and [Mays, 1998: 207].


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8 References and BibliographyThe most important reference book for anyone with a professional archaeological interest in human remainsis [Brothwell, 1981]. [Mays, 1998] is also essential reading. For those with a more general interest, [Stirland,1999] is an accessible and affordable introduction.

Anderson, S., 1993a Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of

Human Skeletal Remains. http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/digbone.htm .Date accessed 08-Jun-2003. Anderson, S., 1993b Skeletons in the Cupboard: What a Human Bone Specialist can tell from

your Bones. http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/hsrspec.htm . Date accessed 08-Jun-2003.

Applegate, D., 2002 Western Kentucky University Anth 300 Forensic Anthropology Lab 10:Stature Estimation. http://www.wku.edu/~appleda/forensic/lab10.html .Date accessed 25-Nov-2002.

Barker, P., 1993 Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. Routledge, London. Bass, W.M., 1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (4 th ed .). Special

Publication No. 2 of the Missouri Archaeological Society.

Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I.(eds.), 2004

Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. IFA PaperNo. 7, Reading.

Brothwell, D., 1981 Digging Up Bones (3 rd ed.). British Museum (Natural History),London/Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker,D.H. (eds.), 1994

Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. ArkansasArchaeological Survey Research Series, No. 44.

Carpenter, R.J., 2002 Dead Men Do Tell Tales. Chester. Carpenter, R.J. and Crane, S.A.,2003

Analysis of Human Skeletal Material from the Poulton Research Project,1995-2002 . Chester

Chamberlain, A., 1998 Interpreting the Past: Human Remains. British Museum Press, London.

Collis, J., 2001 Digging Up the Past: An Introduction to Archaeological Excavation.Sutton, Stroud.Cox, A. (ed.), 2001 Sedgeford Historical and Archaeological Research Project: Basic

Excavation and Recording Techniques Handbook. Sedgeford. Dunn, G., 2002 Personal CommunicationEmery, M. and Gibbins, D.,1995

Poulton Project Field Manual . Liverpool.

English Heritage, 2002 Human Bones from Archaeological Sites: Guidelines for Producing Assessment Documents and Analytical Reports. English Heritage,Swindon.

English Heritage and TheChurch of England, 2005

Guidance for Best Practice for Treatment of Human Remains Excavated from Christian Burial Grounds in England . English Heritage, Swindonand http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/16602_HumanRemains1.pdf . Date accessed17-Apr-2006.

Ferembach, D., Schwidetzky, I.and Stoukal, M., 1980

Recommendations for Age and Sex Diagnoses of Skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution, 9: 517-549 .

Garratt-Frost, S., 1992 The Law and Burial Archaeology . IFA Technical Paper No. 11,Birmingham.

Mays, S., 1998. The Archaeology of Human Bones. Routledge, London.McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C.,1993

Excavation and Post-Excavation Treatment of Cremated and Inhumed Human Remains. IFA Technical Paper No. 13, Birmingham.


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Molleson, T. and Cox, M., 1993 The Spitalfields Project Volume 2: The Anthropology. CBA ResearchReport 86. Council for British Archaeology, York.

Owens, L.S., 1998 An Analysis of Human Skeletal Material from the Mediaeval Site ofPoulton Chapel, Cheshire. M.Sc. Thesis, Liverpool University.

Parker Pearson, M., 1999 The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Roberts, C., 1998 Report on Skeletal Remains of One Individual from Poulton Chapel,

Cheshire. http://srs.dl.ac.uk/arch/poulton/skel.html . Date accessed 10-Nov-2002. Roberts, C. and Manchester, K.,1995

The Archaeology of Disease (2 nd ed.). Sutton Publishing, Stroud.

Scheuer, L. and Black, S., 2000 Developmental Juvenile Osteology. Academic Press, London. Stirland, A., 1999 Human Bones in Archaeology. Shire, Princes Risborough. Sutherland, L.D. and Suchey,J.M., 1991

Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination . Journal of ForensicSciences, 36(2): 501-511 .

Travers, C.T., 1998 Were They Shorter Back Then? http://www.plimoth.org/Library/l-short.htm . Date accessed 06-Oct-2002 .

Westman, A. (ed.), 1994 Archaeological Site Manual . Museum of London Archaeology Service,London.


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9 AppendicesA Bones of the Human Skeleton

B Skeleton Context Sheet: Worked Example

C Basic Post-Excavation Analysis Sheet: Worked Example

D Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis Sheet: Worked Example (not yet available) E Standard Context Sheet for Grave Cut: Worked Example

F Standard Context Sheet for Grave Fill: Worked Example

G Copy of Home Office Licence for Removal of Human Remains

H Estimating Age from Height

I Cremation Sheet: Worked Example

J MNI Record Sheet: Worked Example

Please note that the pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ slightlyfrom those shown in these appendices.


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Appendix A Bones of the Human Skeleton


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Bones of the Adult Skeleton from [Mays, 1998: 2-3]

Skull: 28 (including mandible & ear ossicles)

Hyoid 1

Spinal column: Vertebrae 24 (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar)

Sacrum 1Coccyx 1

Thoracic cage: Rib 24 (12 pairs)

Sternum 1

Pectoral girdle: Clavicle 2

Scapula 2

Pelvic girdle: Pelvic bone 2

Limb bones: Arm bones: Humerus 2

Radius 2

Ulna 2

Wrist/hand: Carpal 16

Metacarpal 10

Phalanx 28

Leg bones: Femur 2

Patella 2

Tibia 2

Fibula 2

Ankle/foot: Tarsal 14

Metatarsal 10

Phalanx 28

Total 206

In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the handsand feet.

Although this list shows the standard number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not uncommon,e.g. 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae.


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Appendix B Skeleton Context Sheet: Worked Example


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Appendix C Basic Post-Excavation Sheet: Worked Example


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Appendix D Stature Estimation Sheet: Worked Example


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Appendix E Standard Context Sheet for Grave Cut: Worked Example


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Appendix G Home Office Licence for the Removal of Human Remains


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Appendix H Estimating Age From HeightThe following table can be used to provide an approximate estimate of age at death for immature individuals,either where there is insufficient material available for a more accurate determination, or simply to provide aquick and dirty figure before the skeleton can be examined properly (e.g. while it is still in the ground).

Ideally the height should be estimated from an exposed interment, before the bones are lifted.

AgeHeight (cm)Male Female

50 0 - 1.5 mo

55 0 - 3 mo

60 1 - 5 mo

65 3 - 8.5 mo

70 4.5 - 12 mo

75 7.5 - 17 mo

80 11 - 22.5 mo

85 15 - 29 mo

90 19.5 - 35.5 mo

95 2.25 - 4 yr

100 2.75 - 4.75 yr

105 3.25 - 5.75 yr

110 4 - 6.75 yr

115 4.75 - 7.75 yr

120 5.5 - 8.75 yr

125 6.25 - 9.5 yr

130 7 - 10.5 yr

135 7.75 - 11.5 yr

140 8.5 - 12.5 yr

145 9.5 - 13.5 yr 9.25 - 13.5 yr

150 10.25 - 14.25 yr 10 - 15 yr

155 11 - 15 yr 10.75+ yr

160 11.75 - 15.75 yr 11.5+ yr

165 12.5 - 17.25 yr 12.25+ yr170 13+ yr 13.5+ yr

175 13.75+ yr

180 14.5+ yr

185 16+ yr

Notes: These figures are based on modern growth charts so should be used with caution. However,

according to [Travers, 1998], the average heights in medieval England were 171cm (male) / 158cm(female), which compare closely to the modern British equivalents of 174cm / 161cm.

There is a 90% probability that an individual with the stated height would be within thecorresponding age range.


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Appendix I Cremation Sheet: Worked Example


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Appendix J MNI Record Sheet: Worked Example

Skeleton Manual

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