The Islamic University of Gaza

Faculty of Arts

English Department

Metaphor as a Rhetorical Device: The Types, Meaning, and Ways of

Translation

Presented by:

Nizar Y. Al-Arqan

120160082

Supervised by:

Prof. Walid M. Amer

Date: 11/05/2017

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Table of content

No. Subject Page

No.

1. Abstract 3

2. Introduction 4

3. Terminology 4

4. Purpose of the study 5

5. Objectives 5

6. Methodology 5

7. Research Questions 5

8. Literature review 6

9. The traditional & the Modern theory of metaphor 6

10. The Modern theory of metaphor: 6

11. Differences between Metaphor and Simile 7

12. Components of metaphor in English 7

13. Types of metaphors 8

14. Metaphors in terms of its use and its meaning 8

15. Types of metaphors in terms of its concepts 11

16. Strategies of Translating Metaphors 14

17. Translating a metaphor by an identical metaphor in the target language 14

18. Choose an identical metaphor with different lexicon in the TL 15

19. 3-Metaphors of different mapping conditions: Demostication &

Foreignization

16

20. Recommendations 17

21. Conclusion 18

22. References 19

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Abstract

Metaphor is the flavor of language; the decoration that gives our language the taste. It

plays a significant role in understanding each other. It is a means for description that goes

beyond the ordinary way of describing things by using usual language. The aim of this paper is

to show that metaphor is not only a literal language but it is also part of our everyday

communication. The basis for this paper is the theory of Lakoff and Johnson who dealt with this

topic in their work “Metaphors we live by”. In addition to this, ways of translating metaphors are

mentioned along with types of metaphors. The researcher states some recommendations of how

to translate and what a translator should take into consideration such as the value and the culture

of the TL.

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Introduction

Metaphor is the flavor of language -the decoration that gives our language the taste. It

plays a significant role in understanding our world. It is a means for description that goes beyond

the ordinary way of describing things by using usual languages. Metaphor is used to describe a

state, thing, human, or anything else in a way that embodies a specific feature that gives more

credits to the thing described rather than mentioning usual features. People think that metaphor is

but a poetic and rhetoric language, neglecting the fact that it is also part of everyday speaking. It

is used in everyday ordinary language such as ceremonies, official meetings, literary works,

every-day communication, etc.

Terminology

Definitions of metaphor are different from one language to another. Figures like Aristotle

understood metaphor differently than did the modern linguists, philosophers, and rhetoricians.

By going back to Aristotle, he looked at metaphor as the language of the elites that needs special

abilities to be produced, whereas modern rhetoricians dealt with metaphor as a figure of speech

that needs some cognitive and linguistic abilities to be produced and that can be produced by

anyone. They consider metaphor as a machine that shapes our thoughts, understanding, and

reasoning (Kovecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2010).

Aristotle, as cited by (Cohen, 2003), understands metaphor in that one thing is given the

name of another.In addition, another researcher, Deignan, defines metaphor as “a word or

expression that is used to talk about an entity or quality other than that referred to by its core, or

most basic meaning. This non-core use expresses a perceived relationship with the core meaning

of the word, and in many cases between two semantic fields” (2005, p. 34)

It is understood that these definitions do not state explicitly whether one component of

metaphor must be hidden or not. Dickins, Harvey, and Higgins stated that metaphor is “a figure

of speech in which a word or phrase is used in a non-basic sense, this non-basic sense suggests a

likeness or analogy with another more basic sense of the same word or phrase” (2002, p. 147).

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Purpose of the paper:

1- To prove that the traditional way of understanding metaphor is not applicable nowadays

and to show that metaphor is nowadays used in everyday speaking.

2- To highlight elements of metaphors; the different types of metaphors; the meaning of

metaphor; and finally, how to translate metaphors into Arabic and vice-versa.

Objectives:

With the purposes mentioned above, this research tries to:

- Highlight the different views of metaphors; the traditional and the modern.

- Explain the different types of metaphors.

- Investigate the meaning of metaphors with examples and explanation.

- Explain how to translate metaphors.

Methodology:

The basis for this paper is the theory of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) who dealt with this topic in

their work “Metaphors we live by”.

Research questions:

1- What are the similarities and differences between the traditional and the modern view of

metaphors?

2- What are the key elements translators should undertake when translating metaphors?

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Literature review

Metaphor is used to describe a state, thing, human, or anything else in a way that

embodies a specific feature that gives more credits to the thing described rather than mentioning

usual features. People think that metaphor is but a poetic and rhetoric language, neglecting the

fact that it is also part of everyday communication. It is used in everyday ordinary language such

as ceremonies, official meetings, literary works, ordinary speaking, etc.

“We are in the midst of metaphormania. Only three decades ago, the situation was

just the opposite: poets created metaphors, everybody used them, and

philosophers . . . ignored them. Today we seem possessed by metaphor.”

)Johnson M. as cited in Benjamins, 1998, p. 2(

The traditional theory of metaphor:

The following characteristics of the traditional understanding of metaphor were proven to be

false by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). These characteristics, as mentioned by (Lakoff, The

Contemporary Theory of Metaphor, 1993) are:

1- Communication between people is literal, and never they use metaphorical language.

2- Any subject matter can be presented without any metaphorical language.

3- Not all definitions of grammar and lexicon are metaphorical.

The modern theory of metaphor:

Unlike the traditional way of understanding metaphor, the modern way of understanding

metaphor looks at it as a language that is used by everyone. Not only can adult people produce

metaphor, but also children can produce metaphor in their ordinary language. A farmer, a

teacher, a mechanic, a doctor, a philosopher, and even a young child can all develop a special

way of perceiving and producing the metaphorical language very efficiently and without exerting

any effort. Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in literary works only. In fact, we

speak, write and think in metaphors and we cannot avoid them. This new view of metaphor was

first introduced by (Lakoff & Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, 1980). In their masterpiece

“Metaphors We Live By”, they considered the human mind as a machine that produces

metaphors. They were first who understood metaphor in a very different way. They related the

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production of metaphor to our cognitive ability. This view shows that metaphors are already

exist in our way of thinking, emotions, and feelings. In the same sense, metaphor plays a vital

role in maintaining the social ties and making new friends the way we have now way but to use

them unconsciously. According to (Kovecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2010), the

modern metaphor is characterized by the following:

1- Metaphor is related to our cognitive ability rather that a sequence of words.

2- Metaphor helps understand each other and without using them, we will misunderstand

everything.

3- It is not essential for metaphor to take place when there is differences between the

elements of metaphor.

4- Metaphor is not only used by talented people, but it is also used by ordinary people

effortlessly in everyday life.

5- Human means metaphor.

Differences between Metaphor and Simile

If metaphor establishes a connection between “A” and “B” by saying that “A” is ”B”,

simile establishes a connection between “A” and “B” by saying that “A” is like or as “B”.

Metaphors are not only words

This means that a metaphor cannot take place by using only words, but it happens deep

inside our minds. That is why we have the ability to produce metaphors effortlessly and

abundantly in our everyday language. This means also that a metaphor is not the relationship

between words, but it is the concepts that are mapped in our cognitive abilities (Kant, 2007).

Components of metaphor in English

Linguists and philosophers do not have a clear cut agreement on elements of metaphors.

They have different classifications of the elements of metaphor. Some linguists consider them

two elements; others consider them three elements, and among those linguistics, there were who

considered that metaphors have four elements such as (Newmark, 1982). He says that metaphor

has four pillars. The first pillar is the object, which describes the metaphor. The second pillar is

the image, which is described by the object. Third, the sense, which shows the similarities

between the object and the image. Fourth, the metaphor; a word or words taken from the image.

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Example: - A sunny smile.

The object is the word 'smile', and the image is the word 'sun'. The meaning may be

cheerful, happy, warm. The metaphor is the word sunny i.e. sunny and bright.

Types of metaphors

1. Types of metaphors in terms of its use and its meaning according to (Nordquist,

2017):

No. Type Definition Example

1. Absolute:(known as a

paralogical

metaphor or

antimetaphor)

There is no relation between the

metaphorical elements.

We are the eyelids of

defeated caves.

Mea

ning

The meaning is misunderstood and may confuse the reader because the elements of

metaphor have no relation.

2. Active

( also known

as a live

metaphor)

Producing more elements of metaphors to

fit a speech or a piece of

Let me compare thee

to an artic day, sharp

and bright, forever

light...

Mea

ning If well-presented, it is understood well, if not, not all readers will understand it.

3. Complex It happens where a simple metaphor

“happily” is based on a secondary

metaphorical element “danced”.

Happily adds more to how the ball entered

the net.

The ball happily

danced into the net.

Mea

ning

The use of complex metaphor by using additional complex elements urges readers

to think more.

4. Compound Multiple elements are used to promote the Thick, primal, blind

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(Sometimes

called loose

metaphor)

metaphorical language such as (verbs,

nouns, adjectives, etc). Each element may

add more information.

fog descended before

his eyes.M

eani

n Punching the reader many times by using many different metaphorical elements that

add more to the meaning.

5. Dead

also called

frozen or

fossilized

metaphors

The metaphorical element is no longer

identified as a metaphor.

Head, foot, arm, eye.

-Head of the nail.

Mea

ning

When we say the word “Head”, the human head pops up to our mind, whereas It

may have a metaphorical meaning when we say The head of a hammer / The head of

a nail.

6. Dormant The relationship between the metaphorical

elements is not clear.

-He was rattled.

[Why? By what or

whom?

Mea

nin The metaphorical element loses its power because of the insufficient connotation the

element of metaphor

7. Dying

It is called a

cliché.

Unfashionable or lacking in eloquence to

use it.

New era business is a

whole different ball

game.

8. Extended Adding different forms of metaphors to

the main subject.

Let me count my

loves of thee, my rose

garden, my heart,

my beginning and

my end.

Mea

nin If it is used too much, it may annoy the reader. The writer may use it to elaborate

something.

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9. Implicit A reader can elicit the subject that is

hidden.

Roasting today!

Mea

ning We omit things we already know. If we know what we are talking about, we can

omit the subject.

10 Mixed The connection between metaphors is not

strong or inappropriate.

A rolling stone

gathers no bird in

the hand.

Mea

nin We have to be very careful when choosing metaphors. Moreover, we have to decide

how to connect between them appropriately or it will be a disadvantage.

11. Pataphor A powerful metaphor where the subject is

not mentioned but it can be implied in the

sentence.

Panting hard, he

hand-braked the

corner, power-

sliding into the

doorway. [running as

driving]

Mea

ning

We have to think deep in order to get the implied metaphor, so it is not clear. On the

other hand, the ability to produce such metaphors reflects how skillful the writer or

the speaker is.

12. Root A metaphor that is hidden deep inside a

sentence since it is part of the culture.

That is why it could be mistaken for not

being a metaphor.

Winning the

argument.

(argument as war)

Mea

nin People are used to producing such metaphors without realizing that it is a conceptual

metaphor.

13. Simple One single connection and meaning

between the metaphorical elements.

Cool down! [Cool =

temperature]

Mea

nin It needs low-order thinking skills to be understood, so it is used a lot by ordinary

people; less sophisticated.

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14. Submerged An element has some features that

signify another element, so the element

that is used signifies the intended

metaphor by some way.

Her thoughts were

on the wing. [wing >

bird > flight]

Mea

nin An element has some features that signify another element.

15. Synechdochi The part refers to the whole. I like your wheels,

man! [wheels = car]

Mea

nin The part refers to the whole.

2. Types of metaphors in terms of its concepts:

Conceptual Metaphor

A conceptual domain is understood in terms of another. Radden and Dirven (2007) state

that a conceptual domain is "the general field to which a category or frame belongs in a given

situation. For example, a knife belongs to the domain of 'eating' when used for cutting bread on

the breakfast table, but to the domain of 'fighting' when used as a weapon”.

Life is understood as journeys, arguments as war, love as journeys, theories as buildings,

ideas as food, and social organizations as plants. The former examples illustrate the idea that two

conceptual domains alternate the meaning or one refers to the other; (A) is (B).

The two conceptual domains as stated by Kovecses (2010) are:

1- Source domain: Is a conceptual domain to which the metaphor is derived. Example,

life, arguments, love, theory, ideas, social organizations are all source domains.

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2- Target domain: The conceptual domain that is percieved in terms of another domain.

Example, journeys, war, buildings, food, and plants.

Examples as stated by (Benczes, 2006) about love:

1- Love in terms of food: (I hunger for you)

2- Madness: (They are crazy about one another)

3- The lifecycle of plants: (Their love is in full bloom)

4- A journey: (We'll just have to go our separate ways)

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) identify three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors:

A) Orientational Metaphor:

It, as stated by (Nordquist, 2017), includes spatial relationships in which the ups have

positive connotations and the downs have negative connotations. This is what Kovecses said in

that upward orientation tends to go together with positive evaluation, while downward

orientation with a negative one (2010).

Examples:

1- More is up; less is down: Hurry up, please. Calm down, please.

2- Healthy is up; sick is down: He fell ill.

3- Conscious is up; unconscious is down: Wake up. He fell unconscious.

4- Control is up; lack of control is down: I am head and shoulder above them all.

Everything is under control.

5- Happy is up; sad is down: To be up in the air.. He's really low these days.

6- Virtue is up; lack of virtue is down: She's an upstanding citizen. That was a low-

down thing to do.

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7- Rational is up; nonrational is down: The discussion fell to an emotional level. He

couldn't rise above his emotions.

In orientational metaphors, the good things are linked with ups, but the bad things are linked

with downs. For example, a person who is ill is more likely to be sitting or sleeping, but when he

is at the peak of his health, he will be standing on his feet (Brown, 2003).

B) Ontological Metaphor: 

Giving the quality of substances to something that does not have this quality.

Personification can be considered as an ontological metaphor in which nonhuman objects or

entities are given the characteristics and qualities of human. Examples:

1- Life has cheated me.

2- Inflation is eating up our profits.

3- Cancer finally caught up with him.

4- The computer went dead on me.

C) Structural Metaphor:

“A structural metaphor is a conventional metaphor in which one concept is understood

and expressed in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept” (Knowles &

Moon, 2006). Example, Your claims are indefensible.

.

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Strategies of Translating Metaphors

Translators who want to find a SL that resembles the TL should be aware of the cultural

differences between both languages. Therefore, when translating from Arabic into English or

vice-versa, it is not enough for translators to master two languages without having a deep look

into the cultures of both Languages. Al-Ali (2004) stated that a translator must be not only

bilingual, but they should be also a bicultural. We have to look for culture-bound metaphors in

the SL and that meet the metaphor of the TL.

(Mandelblit, 1995)

Metaphors are formed and built up differently in different cultures. The meaning, the

structure, the form, the vocabulary, and the role of metaphors are different from one culture to

another (Mandelblit, 1995). Many studies have been conducted to relate metaphors to different

cultures since they are not the same. In this section, the researcher tries to explain ways and

strategies of translating metaphors from English to Arabic or vice-versa.

According to (Abu-Ssaydeh, 2004; Al-Hasnawi, 2007) a translator should take into consideration

the following steps when translating metaphors from the target language (TL) into the (SL) or

vice-versa.

1- Finding an identical metaphor in the TL.

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Author Translator Reader

Domestication

Foreignization

When there are some culturally shared features between the TL and the SL, a translator

should take into consideration to look carefully and to pick up the right metaphor in the TL

that is culturally identical with that of the SL. (Emanatian, 1995, p. 165).

No. SL TL Lit.

1. History repeats itself ?ttaariikhu yu'iidu nafsahu The history repeats

itself

2. In the twinkling of an eye Fi lamh elbasar In the twinkling of an

eye.

3. Actions speak louder than

words

?al?af'aal ?ablagh min ?

alaqwaal. (?ssaif ?mda

mina alkalimaat)

Actions more

rhetorical- than

sayings

4. A stone’s throw ‘ala marma hajar at a stone’s throw

5. Time is money ?alwaqtu min thahab The time from gold

6. Give him a free hand ?tliq yadahu Leave his hands

7. You make my blood boil ? innaka taj'alu ?adama

yaghlii fii 'uruuqii

You make blood

boils in my veins

8. This issue is the cornerstone / haathihi ?almas?alatu

hiyya Hajaru ?azzawiyyatu

This issue it the

cornerstone

2- Choose an identical metaphor with different lexicon in the TL

Metaphors related to beliefs and religion between English and Arabic have related to the

same conceptual domain but have different lexical choice.

No. SL TL Lit.

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1. A fox is not taken twice in the

same snare

laa yuldaghu ?alm?uminu

min ?aljuHri marraryin

No believer (in

Allah) stung from a

hole twice

2. when pigs fly 7ata dadkhulu ?ljamal fi

simu alkhayat

until the camel passes

through the eye of the

needle).

3. Many hands make light work. yadu ?allahi ma'

aljamaa'ah

Hand of Allah with

the group

3- Metaphors of different mapping conditions

(Dagut, 1976, p. 32) states that 'the translatability of any given SL metaphor depends on

(1) the particular cultural experience and semantic associations exploited by it, and (2) the

extent to which these can, or not, be reproduced non-anomalously in TL, depending on the

degree of overlap in each particular case.

3.1. Domestication: It means “negotiating the metaphorical elements of the source

text in terms of target language norms, values, and conventions” (Hatim, 1999, p. 214).

The metaphoric expression ‘to break the ice’ in English has no equivalent metaphoric

expression in Arabic. The translation of this image has come to be known as ( حاجز يكسر whereas ‘the ice’ is conceptualized as (يكسر) where part of the image is kept (الصمت

‘silence’. But, ‘break’ and ‘silence’ can not stand on their own to trigger the same effect

of the source language image on the recipient in the target language. Therefore, different

concept is introduced to shape, in full, the image. The barrier (حاجز) is the additional

component, which can be ‘broken’.

No. SL TL Lit.

1. History repeats itself ?ttaariikhu yu'iidu nafsahu The history repeats

itself

2. Warm the heart ?thlaj sadrahu cool the bosom

3. Rear its (ugly) head ?talla bi khatmihi its nose appears

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4. Between a rock and a hard

place

Kalmostajeer minal

ramda? bin nari

a cat with seven lives

3.2. Foreignization: It means, “negotiating these metaphorical elements in terms of

source language norms and conventions” (Hatim, 1999, p. 214). Other translators prefer

keeping the values of the SL and exposing audience to them.

No. SL TL Lit.

1. Keep his finger on the pulse Raqaba (alwad’a)

biddiqah

watch the situation

very carefully

2. Play ball Naffatha aw (ata’a)

alta’alimat

carry out or obey

instructions

3. Jump on the bandwagon Indamma ela lfariqi

elrabih

join the winning team

Recommendations

The meaning, the structure, the form, the vocabulary, and the role of metaphors are

different from one culture to another. Thus, Translators who want to find a SL that resembles

the TL should be aware of the cultural differences between both languages. Therefore, when

translating from Arabic into English or vice-versa, it is not enough for translators to master

two languages without having a deep look into the cultures of both Languages. a translator

must be not only bilingual, but they should be also a bicultural (Al-Ali, 2004). They should

be aware of cognitive and cultural issues when translating from Arabic into English or vice-

versa. Moreover, some translators unwittingly change the value of the metaphorical element.

This may lead to misunderstanding or may ruin the whole thing. In this case, translators can

domesticate the metaphor by using terms used by the SL or they can foreignize this element

by using terms used by the TL.

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Conclusion

The researcher viewed the traditional view metaphor which is the language of the elites;

then, he viewed the modern view of metaphor which is a cognitive and a conceptual view “The

contemporary theory of Lakkoff and Johnson”. After that, the researcher stated four Pillars of

metaphor which are the object which describes the metaphor; the image which is described by

the object; the sense which shows the similarities between the object and the image; and finally,

the metaphor which is a word or words taken from the image. Then, he stated the differences

between metaphor and simile. After that, he showed the types of metaphors, adding that

metaphors can be conceptual and linguistic. Conceptual metaphors involve two concepts and

have the form A is B, where concept A is understood in terms of concept B. Metaphors can be

classified in a range of different ways, based on various criteria, from complexity to level of

usage. The researcher classified them into three types according to the concept, function, and use

of metaphor. According to their cognitive function, conceptual metaphors can be of three kinds:

structural, orientational, and ontological. Structural metaphors map the structure of the source

domain onto the structure of the target domain. This allows speakers to understand one domain

in terms of another. Orientational metaphors include spatial relationships in which the ups have

positive connotations and the downs have negative connotations. Ontological metaphors give the

quality of substances to something that does not have this quality. Finally, this paper showed how to

translate metaphor from English into Arabic or vice-versa. The researcher highlighted the ways

in translation from TL to SL. Finally, the researcher states some recommendations translators

should take into consideration when dealing with metaphors.

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