significant canadian earthquakes of the period 1600–2006€¦ · Seismological Research Letters...

211 Seismological Research Letters Volume 79, Number 2 March/April 2008

INTRODUCTION

Raising earthquake awareness is an important goal of seismolog-ical research. In this respect, the effect of past local earthquakes is an excellent means to raise the local population’s awareness. For this reason, Natural Resources Canada has put numerous photographic examples of impacts of local earthquakes on its Web sites (see, for example, http://www.earthquakescanada.ca). The information the site contains is used in the production of various publications and Web pages and is an important source of information for the public.

Another much-used public awareness tool is the Atlas of Canada, formerly on paper but now online, which provides authoritative, current, and accessible geographic informa-tion products. The atlas facilitates the integration and analysis of diverse data in order to increase overall knowledge about Canada. One much-consulted component of the Web-based atlas (http://www.atlas.gc.ca) is the natural hazards maps (floods, forest fires, landslides, volcanoes, avalanches, hurri-canes, tornadoes, tsunamis, and earthquakes). The information is used by the public as well as by emergency organizations that seek information on the threats faced by their communities.

Before 2007, the Atlas of Canada provided very limited information on earthquake activity in Canada. Thirty earth-quakes were briefly described in a nonsystematic manner that did not truly reflect the distribution of earthquakes across the territory or the recent advances in descriptions of historical earthquakes. To update the Atlas of Canada pages on earth-quakes, the authors decided to create a list that would include up-to-date information on significant earthquakes in Canada. The authors also decided to publish the results and method-ology in a Geological Survey of Canada Open File Report (Lamontagne et al. 2007) as a means of properly documenting each earthquake and ensuring peer review by Geological Survey of Canada seismologists. The new list could also update other existing sites including the EarthquakesCanada Web site.

This paper details how the information on significant Canadian earthquakes was gathered and the results and inter-pretation of this new view of Canada’s earthquake activity. A subset of significant Canadian earthquakes (and the impact of those earthquakes) is presented herein (see Lamontagne et al.

[2007] for the complete list of 160 events). The paper is of obvi-ous interest to people wishing to learn more about Canadian earthquakes and to researchers interested in methods used in earthquake compilations.

SELECTION OF EARTHQUAKES

To decide whether an earthquake is “significant,” criteria such as number of deaths, damage, magnitude, or maximum inten-sity could be used. Each category sets limits on the number of events and on the completeness of the list. Since the list was aimed at enhancing the awareness of the Canadian public about earthquake hazards, the authors decided to choose events that caused some minimum level of damage (such as cracked chim-neys), or could have caused damage had they occurred close to inhabited regions. For this reason, the authors selected histori-cally or instrumentally recorded earthquakes larger than magni-tude 6, as well as some smaller ones felt by many Canadians.

Each earthquake on the list met one or more of the follow-ing criteria.

The preferred magnitude (either instrumental magnitude 1. or estimated magnitude from damage or felt-area infor-mation) is 6.0 or greater. See the discussion below on the choice of the preferred magnitudeThe earthquake had some impact on the built environ-2. ment (starting from light damage such as broken pipes or chimneys, i.e., Modified Mercalli Intensity VI) or on the natural environment (liquefaction, landslides, rock falls, tsunamis).The earthquake was felt by a significant number of 3. Canadians. This characteristic brought about the inclusion of some earthquakes within U.S. territory that were felt on the Canadian side of the border.The earthquake occurrence is supported by paleoseismo-4. logical evidence (only the 1700 Cascadia earthquake met this criterion, since other paleoearthquakes are too uncer-tain in location, origin time, and magnitude).

In addition to these criteria, we subjectively qualified the sig-nificance of the earthquake from damage information and mag-nitude. We rated them from major (14 events), very significant (14 events), significant (23 events), or weakly significant (109 events generally remote from inhabited areas, weakly or not felt). Table 1 provides the list of events that were in the first two categories (major and very significant).

significant canadian earthquakes of the period 1600–2006M. Lamontagne, S. Halchuk, J. F. Cassidy, and G. C. Rogers

M. Lamontagne1, S. Halchuk2, J. F. Cassidy3, and G. C. Rogers3

doi: 10.1785/gssrl.79.2.211

1. Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa2. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa3. Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C.

Seismological Research Letters Volume 79, Number 2 March/April 2008 212

TAB

LE 1

List

of m

ajor

and

ver

y si

gnifi

cant

ear

thqu

akes

. Dep

th o

f the

focu

s (h

ypoc

ente

r) is

giv

en in

kilo

met

ers

belo

w s

ea le

vel.

If th

e ex

act f

ocal

dep

th c

anno

t be

dete

rmin

ed, i

t is

fixe

d to

a v

alue

repr

esen

tativ

e of

eve

nts

in th

e ar

ea a

nd g

iven

with

(F).

An

“x”

mea

ns th

at th

e ex

act v

alue

is u

nkno

wn.

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1663

-02-

0522

:30

Char

levo

ix-

Kam

oura

ska,

Qu

ebec

47.6

–70.

17

Yes

No

Yes

0Ep

icen

ter m

ost l

ikel

y in

the

Char

levo

ix-K

amou

rask

a se

ism

ic zo

ne, Q

uebe

c; fe

lt in

mos

t of N

ew F

ranc

e (Q

uebe

c Ci

ty, T

rois

-Riv

ière

s, M

ontre

al) a

nd p

arts

of

New

Eng

land

(Bos

ton)

and

New

Am

ster

dam

(New

Yo

rk C

ity).

Som

e da

mag

e to

mas

onry

in Q

uebe

c Ci

ty,

Troi

s-Ri

vièr

es, a

nd M

ontre

al. L

ands

lides

repo

rted

in

the

Char

levo

ix re

gion

and

alo

ng th

e St

. Law

renc

e,

Ship

shaw

, Bet

siam

ites,

Pen

tecô

te, B

atis

can,

and

Sa

int-M

auric

e riv

ers.

Num

erou

s af

ters

hock

s fe

lt in

Qu

ebec

City

dur

ing

the

follo

win

g m

onth

s.17

00-0

1-27

05

:00

Casc

adia

Su

bduc

tion

Zone

, Br

itish

Col

umbi

a

48.5

–125

9Ye

sYe

sYe

s (in

Ja

pan

from

ts

unam

i)

Unkn

own;

na

tive

villa

ges

dest

roye

d ac

cord

ing

to

oral

trad

ition

s

Casc

adia

sub

duct

ion

zone

, offs

hore

of V

anco

uver

Is

land

, Was

hing

ton,

and

Ore

gon.

Rec

orde

d w

idel

y in

or

al n

ativ

e ac

coun

ts a

nd b

y ge

olog

ical

evi

denc

e fo

r su

bsid

ence

and

a ts

unam

i alo

ng th

e ou

ter c

oast

; con

-fir

med

by

a ts

unam

i rec

ord

in J

apan

. Ext

ent o

f dam

age

unkn

own.

17

32-0

9-16

16

:00

Nea

r Mon

treal

, Qu

ebec

45.5

–73.

65.

8N

oN

oYe

s0

Prob

able

epi

cent

er n

ear M

ontre

al, Q

uebe

c. F

elt

in N

ew F

ranc

e fro

m L

ouis

bour

g to

the

Jam

es B

ay.

Cons

ider

able

dam

age

in th

e ci

ty o

f Mon

treal

whe

re

hund

reds

of c

him

neys

wer

e da

mag

ed a

nd w

alls

cr

acke

d. N

o in

jurie

s do

cum

ente

d. A

fters

hock

s fe

lt in

M

ontre

al.

1791

-12-

06

20:0

0Ch

arle

voix

-Ka

mou

rask

a,

Queb

ec

47.4

–70.

56

No

No

Yes

0Fe

lt st

rong

ly in

Cha

rlevo

ix, Q

uebe

c, a

nd in

Que

bec

City

. Dam

age

to h

ouse

s an

d ch

urch

es in

Bai

e-Sa

int-

Paul

, Les

Ébo

ulem

ents

, and

on

Île a

ux C

oudr

es.

1855

-02-

08

18:0

0M

onct

on, N

ew

Brun

swic

k46

.0–6

4.5

5.2

No

No

Yes

0M

inor

dam

age

was

repo

rted

for t

his

earth

quak

e.

Chim

ney

dam

age

repo

rted

in M

onct

on, N

ew

Brun

swic

k. In

Hop

ewel

l, ne

ar th

e ep

icen

ter,

the

shoc

k cr

acke

d th

e pl

aste

ring

of w

alls

. 18

60-1

0-17

11:1

5Ch

arle

voix

-Ka

mou

rask

a,

Queb

ec

47.5

–70.

16

No

No

Yes

0W

idel

y fe

lt in

Que

bec

and

felt

as fa

r as

New

Br

unsw

ick,

eas

tern

Ont

ario

, and

New

Eng

land

. Da

mag

e in

the

epic

entra

l reg

ion

on b

oth

shor

es o

f th

e St

. Law

renc

e Ri

ver:

Nor

th s

hore

: Bai

e-Sa

int-P

aul;

La M

alba

ie; S

outh

sho

re: R

iviè

re-O

uelle

. Als

o fe

lt st

rong

ly in

Que

bec

City

.

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1870

-10-

2016

:30

Char

levo

ix-

Kam

oura

ska,

Qu

ebec

47.4

–70.

56½

Yes

No

Yes

Poss

ibly

2

in L

es

Ébou

lem

ents

Felt

over

mos

t of t

he P

rovi

nce

of Q

uebe

c, in

Ont

ario

, N

ew B

runs

wic

k, a

nd in

New

Eng

land

. Con

side

rabl

e da

mag

e to

hou

ses

in C

harle

voix

, esp

ecia

lly in

Bai

e-Sa

int-P

aul,

Les

Ébou

lem

ents

, and

alo

ng th

e so

uth

shor

e of

the

St. L

awre

nce

Rive

r. Da

mag

e to

chi

mne

ys

repo

rted

in lo

wer

tow

n in

Que

bec

City

. Pos

sibl

e ro

ck

slid

e al

ong

the

Sagu

enay

Riv

er.

1872

-12-

1505

:37

Was

hing

ton-

Briti

sh C

olum

bia

bord

er

47.7

6–1

19.9

06.

8N

oYe

s (U

SA)

Yes

0La

ke C

hela

n, W

ashi

ngto

n. S

trong

sha

king

felt

in s

outh

-er

n Br

itish

Col

umbi

a. T

he s

haki

ng w

as s

trong

eno

ugh

to fr

ight

en p

eopl

e an

d ca

use

them

to ru

n ou

t of b

uild

-in

gs in

Vic

toria

, New

Wes

tmin

ster

, and

Yal

e, B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia,

and

in S

eattl

e, W

ashi

ngto

n. T

he e

arth

quak

e w

as re

porte

d fe

lt fro

m c

entra

l Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a in

the

north

(Que

snel

) to

cent

ral O

rego

n in

the

sout

h (S

alem

) an

d ea

st in

to p

rese

nt-d

ay A

lber

ta a

nd M

onta

na.

1899

-09-

1021

:41

Yuko

n-Al

aska

bo

rder

59.3

9–1

39.5

8.0

Yes

Yes

Yes

(USA

)0

Yuko

n-Al

aska

bor

der.

Firs

t of t

hree

gre

at e

arth

quak

es

in th

is re

gion

in th

e sp

ace

of e

ight

day

s. S

trong

ef

fect

s ex

perie

nced

in m

any

parts

of n

orth

ern

Briti

sh

Colu

mbi

a an

d so

uthe

rn Y

ukon

Ter

ritor

y. F

ollo

wed

by

a se

ries

of s

trong

afte

rsho

cks

the

follo

win

g da

ys.

Phen

omen

a ob

serv

ed in

clud

ed s

urfa

ce fa

ultin

g,

aval

anch

es, fi

ssur

es, s

pout

ing

from

san

d cr

ater

lets

, an

d sl

ight

dam

age

to b

uild

ings

. A d

estru

ctiv

e ts

unam

i 10

.6 m

eter

s in

hei

ght o

ccur

red

in Y

akut

at B

ay, a

nd

tsun

amis

als

o w

ere

obse

rved

at o

ther

pla

ces

alon

g th

e Al

aska

n co

ast.

1904

-03-

2106

:04

Pass

amaq

uodd

y Ba

y, N

ew

Brun

swic

k

45.0

–67.

25.

9N

oN

oYe

s0

Stro

ng e

arth

quak

e fe

lt th

roug

hout

the

Mar

itim

e pr

ovin

ces,

the

St. L

awre

nce

low

land

s, a

nd th

e N

ew

Engl

and

stat

es. M

inor

dam

age

to b

uild

ings

was

re

porte

d fro

m s

ever

al c

omm

uniti

es a

long

the

coas

ts

of N

ew B

runs

wic

k an

d M

aine

, and

chi

mne

ys w

ere

thro

wn

dow

n at

St.

Step

hen

in s

outh

wes

tern

New

Br

unsw

ick

and

East

port

in s

outh

east

ern

Mai

ne.

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1918

-12-

0608

:41

Vanc

ouve

r Is

land

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a

49.4

4–1

26.2

26.

9N

oN

oYe

s0

The

exac

t epi

cent

er is

unc

erta

in, b

ut it

occ

urre

d ne

ar

the

wes

t coa

st o

f Van

couv

er Is

land

and

was

felt

very

st

rong

ly a

t Est

evan

Poi

nt li

ghth

ouse

and

at N

ootk

a lig

htho

use

on th

e so

uthe

rn ti

p of

Noo

tka

Isla

nd. T

here

w

as s

ome

dam

age

to th

e Es

teva

n Po

int l

ight

hous

e an

d to

a w

harf

at U

clue

let.

This

ear

thqu

ake

awak

ened

pe

ople

all

over

Van

couv

er Is

land

and

in th

e gr

eate

r Va

ncou

ver a

rea.

It w

as fe

lt in

nor

ther

n W

ashi

ngto

n St

ate

and

as fa

r eas

t as

Kelo

wna

, in

the

inte

rior o

f Br

itish

Col

umbi

a.

1920

-01-

24

07:1

0Gu

lf Is

land

s,

Briti

sh C

olum

bia

48.6

–123

5.5

No

No

Yes

0In

Vic

toria

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a: fa

llen

plas

ter,

brok

en

chin

a. In

Bre

ntw

ood,

20

km n

orth

of V

icto

ria, t

he c

on-

cret

e ch

imne

y an

d w

all o

f an

elec

tric

pow

er s

tatio

n w

ere

crac

ked.

In V

anco

uver

: a fe

w b

ricks

fell

from

th

e to

ps o

f chi

mne

ys. M

inor

dam

age

also

in s

ever

al

Was

hing

ton

Stat

e co

mm

uniti

es. N

o re

porte

d af

ter-

shoc

ks.

1925

-03-

01

02:1

9Ch

arle

voix

-Ka

mou

rask

a,

Queb

ec

47.8

–69.

86.

2Ye

sN

oYe

s6

(hea

rt at

tack

s)Ch

arle

voix

-Kam

oura

ska

seis

mic

zone

, Que

bec,

nea

r Île

aux

Liè

vres

. The

ear

thqu

ake

was

felt

over

mos

t of

east

ern

Cana

da a

nd n

orth

east

ern

U.S.

It c

ause

d da

m-

age

to u

nrei

nfor

ced

mas

onry

(chi

mne

ys, w

alls

) in

the

epic

entra

l reg

ion

on b

oth

shor

es o

f the

St.

Law

renc

e,

and

in Q

uebe

c Ci

ty (i

nclu

ding

dam

age

to p

ort f

acili

-tie

s), T

rois

-Riv

ière

s, a

nd S

haw

inig

an. P

ossi

ble

liq-

uefa

ctio

n ne

ar S

aint

-Urb

ain,

Que

bec.

Num

erou

s fe

lt af

ters

hock

s fo

llow

ed.

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1929

-05-

26

22:3

9Qu

een

Char

lotte

Is

land

s, B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia

51.5

1–1

30.7

47.

0Ye

sYe

sYe

s0

The

epic

ente

r of t

his

trem

or w

as in

a re

gion

that

was

no

t hea

vily

pop

ulat

ed. T

he e

arth

quak

e w

as fe

lt as

fa

r nor

th a

s Ke

tchi

kan,

Ala

ska,

and

Any

ox, B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia,

and

to th

e ea

st a

s fa

r as

Terr

ace,

Ske

ena,

an

d La

kels

e. P

rince

Rup

ert d

oes

not a

ppea

r to

have

be

en in

the

area

of m

axim

um d

amag

e, b

ut a

t Hay

spor

t, a

shor

t dis

tanc

e so

uthe

ast o

f Prin

ce R

uper

t, go

ods

wer

e kn

ocke

d of

f she

lves

. Cen

ters

on

the

Quee

n Ch

arlo

tte Is

land

s su

ffere

d gr

eatly

. At M

asse

tt, w

ater

w

as s

plas

hed

out o

f tan

ks, t

rees

wer

e re

porte

d to

ha

ve s

way

ed, a

nd h

ouse

s sh

ook

viol

ently

. The

Prin

ce

Rupe

rt pa

per s

tate

d th

at p

eopl

e w

ere

thro

wn

to th

e gr

ound

. At Q

ueen

Cha

rlotte

City

dis

hes

wer

e br

oken

, cl

ocks

wer

e st

oppe

d, a

nd a

foot

-hig

h (3

0 cm

) tsu

nam

i w

ave

was

repo

rted.

Nea

rby

at S

kidg

ate

ther

e w

as a

ts

unam

i wav

e, a

nd th

ere

wer

e fis

sure

s on

the

beac

h.

At S

ands

pit 5

00 fe

et (1

60 m

) of t

he b

each

was

repo

rted

to h

ave

disa

ppea

red

into

the

sea.

Fur

ther

sou

th a

t Lo

ckep

ort t

he c

rest

of a

hill

was

dis

lodg

ed, a

nd c

lose

by

at R

ose

Harb

our c

him

neys

wer

e to

pple

d. F

rom

th

ese

repo

rts it

wou

ld a

ppea

r tha

t the

maj

or d

am-

age

was

alo

ng th

e ea

st s

hore

of t

he Q

ueen

Cha

rlotte

Is

land

s, b

ut th

is is

pro

babl

y be

caus

e th

at w

as th

e on

ly

settl

ed p

ortio

n of

the

regi

on.

1929

-11-

18

20:3

8La

uren

tian

slop

e, o

ffsho

re

New

foun

dlan

d an

d N

ova

Scot

ia

44.6

9–5

67.

2Ye

sYe

sYe

s28

(27

drow

ned

by

the

tsun

ami,

one

child

su

ccum

bed

to h

er in

jurie

s a

few

yea

rs

late

r)

Laur

entia

n Sl

ope

sout

h of

New

foun

dlan

d; o

ffsho

re

earth

quak

e fe

lt ov

er m

ost o

f the

Mar

itim

es, e

aste

rn

Queb

ec a

nd N

ew E

ngla

nd. O

n la

nd, d

amag

e du

e to

ea

rthqu

ake

vibr

atio

ns w

as li

mite

d to

Cap

e Br

eton

Is

land

whe

re c

him

neys

wer

e ov

erth

row

n or

cra

cked

an

d w

here

som

e hi

ghw

ays

wer

e bl

ocke

d by

min

or

land

slid

es. O

ne c

him

ney

also

fell

in F

rede

ricto

n, N

ew

Brun

swic

k. T

he e

arth

quak

e ge

nera

ted

a m

assi

ve

subm

arin

e sl

ump

(land

slid

e) a

nd a

larg

e oc

ean

wav

e (ts

unam

i) w

hich

kill

ed 2

7 pe

ople

whe

n it

stru

ck th

e Bu

rin P

enin

sula

. Tot

al p

rope

rty lo

sses

wer

e es

timat

ed

at m

ore

than

$1

mill

ion

1929

dol

lars

(est

imat

ed a

s ne

arly

$20

mill

ion

2004

dol

lars

).

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1933

-11-

20

23:2

1Ba

ffin

Bay,

N

unav

ut T

errit

ory

73–7

0.75

7.3

No

No

No

0As

of 2

006,

the

larg

est e

arth

quak

e ev

er re

cord

ed

insi

de th

e Ar

ctic

Circ

le. N

o da

mag

e be

caus

e of

its

offs

hore

loca

tion

and

the

spar

se p

opul

atio

n of

the

adja

cent

ons

hore

regi

ons.

19

35-1

1-01

06

:03

Regi

on o

f Té

mis

cam

ing,

Qu

ebec

46.7

8–7

9.07

6.1

Yes

No

Yes

0Th

e ea

rthqu

ake

occu

rred

app

roxi

mat

ely

10 k

m e

ast o

f Té

mis

cam

ing,

Que

bec.

Thi

s ea

rthqu

ake

was

felt

wes

t to

Thu

nder

Bay

, Ont

ario

(the

n na

med

For

t Will

iam

), ea

st to

the

Bay

of F

undy

, and

sou

th to

Ken

tuck

y an

d Vi

rgin

ia. D

amag

ed c

him

neys

wer

e re

porte

d in

Té

mis

cam

ing,

Que

bec,

and

Nor

th B

ay a

nd M

atta

wa,

On

tario

. In

the

epic

entra

l reg

ion,

sm

all r

ock

falls

wer

e ob

serv

ed a

s w

ell a

s cr

acks

in th

e gr

avel

and

san

d at

th

e ed

ges

of is

land

s an

d bo

rder

s of

lake

s. S

ome

300

km a

way

from

the

epic

ente

r, ne

ar P

aren

t, Qu

ebec

, ea

rthqu

ake

vibr

atio

ns tr

igge

red

a 30

met

er s

lide

of

railr

oad

emba

nkm

ent.

Num

erou

s af

ters

hock

s w

ere

felt

in T

émis

cam

ing

and

Kipa

wa

durin

g fo

llow

ing

mon

ths.

1936

-03-

28

09:1

5Ve

rnon

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a50

.5–1

19.5

4.5

Yes

No

Yes

0Di

shes

bro

ken

in V

erno

n, p

last

er w

as c

rack

ed. I

n Ow

ama,

rock

slid

es w

ere

hear

d. In

Mar

a, s

outh

of

Sica

mou

s, b

ricks

wer

e di

slod

ged

from

chi

mne

ys.

Not

ch H

ill re

side

nts

repo

rted

four

chi

mne

ys d

own.

19

44-0

9-05

04:3

8Co

rnw

all,

Onta

rio-

Mas

sena

New

Yo

rk

44.9

6–7

4.77

5.6

No

No

Yes

0Co

rnw

all,

Onta

rio, r

egio

n–N

ew Y

ork

bord

er. F

elt

over

mos

t of e

aste

rn O

ntar

io, s

outh

ern

Queb

ec, a

nd

New

Eng

land

. Con

side

rabl

e da

mag

e to

unr

einf

orce

d m

ason

ry in

bot

h Co

rnw

all,

Onta

rio, a

nd M

asse

na,

New

Yor

k. A

bout

2,0

00 c

him

neys

wer

e da

mag

ed in

Co

rnw

all,

Mas

sena

, and

sev

eral

adj

acen

t com

mun

i-tie

s.

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1946

-06-

2317

:13

Vanc

ouve

r Is

land

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a

49.7

6–1

25.3

47.

3Ye

sN

oYe

s1

from

dro

wn-

ing

Vanc

ouve

r Isl

and’

s la

rges

t his

toric

ear

thqu

ake

(and

Ca

nada

’s la

rges

t his

toric

ons

hore

ear

thqu

ake)

. The

ep

icen

ter w

as in

the

Forb

idde

n Pl

atea

u ar

ea o

f cen

tral

Vanc

ouve

r Isl

and,

just

to th

e w

est o

f the

com

mun

ities

of

Cou

rtena

y an

d Ca

mpb

ell R

iver

. Thi

s ea

rthqu

ake

caus

ed c

onsi

dera

ble

dam

age

on V

anco

uver

Isla

nd

and

was

felt

as fa

r aw

ay a

s Po

rtlan

d, O

rego

n, a

nd

Prin

ce R

uper

t, Br

itish

Col

umbi

a. T

he e

arth

quak

e kn

ocke

d do

wn

75%

of t

he c

him

neys

in th

e cl

oses

t co

mm

uniti

es, C

umbe

rland

, Uni

on B

ay, a

nd C

ourte

nay,

an

d di

d co

nsid

erab

le d

amag

e in

Com

ox, P

ort A

lber

ni,

and

Pow

ell R

iver

(on

the

east

ern

side

of G

eorg

ia

Stra

it). A

num

ber o

f chi

mne

ys w

ere

shak

en d

own

in

Vict

oria

and

peo

ple

in V

icto

ria a

nd V

anco

uver

wer

e fri

ghte

ned,

man

y ru

nnin

g in

to th

e st

reet

s. T

wo

deat

hs

resu

lted

from

this

ear

thqu

ake,

one

due

to d

row

n-in

g w

hen

a sm

all b

oat c

apsi

zed

in a

n ea

rthqu

ake-

gene

rate

d w

ave,

and

the

othe

r fro

m a

hea

rt at

tack

in

Seat

tle.

1949

-08-

2204

:01

Offs

hore

Que

en

Char

lotte

Isla

nds,

Br

itish

Col

umbi

a

53.6

2–1

33.2

78.

1N

oYe

sYe

s0

Wid

ely

felt

over

a la

rge

area

of w

este

rn N

orth

Am

eric

a; th

is w

as C

anad

a’s

larg

est a

nd o

ne o

f the

w

orld

’s gr

eate

st e

arth

quak

es. T

here

was

som

e da

m-

age

on th

e Qu

een

Char

lotte

Isla

nds;

cha

ndel

iers

in

Jasp

er, A

lber

ta, w

ere

obse

rved

to s

way

. The

sha

king

w

as s

o se

vere

on

the

Quee

n Ch

arlo

tte Is

land

s th

at

cow

s w

ere

knoc

ked

off t

heir

feet

, and

a g

eolo

gist

on

the

north

end

of G

raha

m Is

land

cou

ld n

ot s

tand

up.

Ch

imne

ys to

pple

d, a

nd a

n oi

l tan

k at

Cum

shew

a In

let

colla

psed

. In

Terr

ace,

on

the

adja

cent

mai

nlan

d, c

ars

wer

e bo

unce

d ar

ound

, and

sta

ndin

g on

the

stre

et w

as

desc

ribed

as

“lik

e be

ing

on th

e he

avin

g de

ck o

f a s

hip

at s

ea.”

In P

rince

Rup

ert,

Briti

sh C

olum

bia,

win

dow

s w

ere

shat

tere

d an

d bu

ildin

gs s

way

ed.

1964

-03-

28

03:3

6Pr

ince

Will

iam

So

und,

Ala

ska

61.0

4–1

47.7

39.

2Ye

s (U

SA)

Yes

Yes

(from

ts

unam

i)

0W

ides

prea

d da

mag

e in

Ala

ska

from

stro

ng s

haki

ng,

land

slid

es, a

nd a

larg

e ts

unam

i. Fe

lt st

rong

ly in

Sna

g an

d W

hite

Riv

er, Y

ukon

Ter

ritor

y. T

suna

mi l

eft s

erio

us

dam

age

at A

lber

ni a

nd P

ort A

lber

ni, B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia.

(con

tinue

d)


TAB

LE 1

(con

tinue

d)

Dat

e Ti

me

(U.T

.)Re

gion

Lat

Lon

Mag

Land

slid

eTs

unam

iD

amag

eD

eath

sD

escr

iptio

n

1982

-01-

0912

:53

Mira

mic

hi

High

land

s, N

ew

Brun

swic

k

47.0

–66.

65.

8N

oN

oYe

s0

Firs

t of t

wo

mod

erat

e ea

rthqu

akes

, Mira

mic

hi

High

land

s, N

ew B

runs

wic

k. B

ecau

se th

e ep

icen

tral

area

is u

npop

ulat

ed, d

amag

e w

as v

ery

slig

ht: a

few

ha

irlin

e cr

acks

but

no

stru

ctur

al d

amag

e in

bui

ldin

gs

up to

100

km

aw

ay. F

ollo

wed

by

hund

reds

of a

fter-

shoc

ks o

ver t

he fo

llow

ing

mon

ths.

19

85-1

0-05

15:2

4N

orth

Nah

anni

Ri

ver,

Nor

thw

est

Terr

itorie

s

62.2

1–1

24.2

26.

6Ye

sN

oN

o0

Felt

in th

e w

este

rn N

orth

wes

t Ter

ritor

ies,

sou

thea

st-

ern

Yuko

n, a

nd n

orth

ern

Albe

rta a

nd B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia.

Th

e ea

rthqu

ake

caus

ed la

rge

land

slid

es, r

ock

falls

, an

d a

maj

or ro

ck a

vala

nche

in th

e ep

icen

tral r

egio

n.

An e

stim

ated

5 m

illio

n to

7 m

illio

n cu

bic

met

ers

of

rock

s cr

ashe

d 1.

6 km

dow

n fro

m th

e cr

est t

o th

e to

e of

th

e sl

ide.

Fel

t stro

ngly

with

slig

ht d

amag

e at

Wrig

ley,

Fo

rt Si

mps

on, a

nd F

ort L

iard

. Hun

dred

s of

afte

rsho

cks

reco

rded

in th

e fo

llow

ing

mon

ths.

1985

-12-

2305

:16

Nor

th N

ahan

ni

Rive

r, N

orth

wes

t Te

rrito

ries

62.1

9–1

24.2

36.

9Ye

sN

oN

o0

Felt

in th

e w

este

rn N

orth

wes

t Ter

ritor

ies,

sou

thea

st-

ern

Yuko

n, n

orth

ern

Albe

rta, a

nd B

ritis

h Co

lum

bia.

Hu

ndre

ds o

f afte

rsho

cks

reco

rded

in th

e fo

llow

ing

mon

ths.

1988

-11-

25

23:4

6Sa

guen

ay

Regi

on, Q

uebe

c48

.12

–71.

185.

9Ye

sN

oYe

s2

(hea

rt at

tack

s)La

uren

tides

Fau

na R

eser

ve, s

outh

of S

ague

nay

(Chi

cout

imi),

Que

bec.

Pre

cede

d by

a fo

resh

ock

2½

days

bef

ore.

Dam

age

caus

ed to

unr

einf

orce

d m

ason

ry

at J

onqu

ière

, Chi

cout

imi,

La B

aie,

Cha

rlevo

ix re

gion

, M

ontm

agny

, Que

bec

City

, Sor

el, a

nd M

ontre

al-E

ast.

Liqu

efac

tion

of s

oft s

oils

in th

e Fe

rland

-et-B

oille

au

area

. Ele

ven

case

s of

soi

l mov

emen

ts re

porte

d. O

nly

one

felt

afte

rsho

ck.

1989

-12-

2514

:24

Unga

va

Peni

nsul

a,

Queb

ec

60.1

2–7

3.6

6.3

No

No

No

0Th

e fir

st e

arth

quak

e in

eas

tern

Nor

th A

mer

ica

to h

ave

prod

uced

sur

face

faul

ting.

No

dam

age

due

to re

mot

e-ne

ss o

f epi

cent

er fr

om in

habi

ted

com

mun

ities

. Wea

kly

felt

in s

ome

north

ern

Queb

ec c

omm

uniti

es.

1990

-10-

1907

:01

Mon

t-Lau

rier,

Queb

ec46

.47

–75.

595.

0N

oN

oN

o0

Som

e m

inor

dam

age

in M

ont-L

aurie

r (cr

acke

d ch

im-

neys

, wat

er p

ipes

bro

ken)

. Wid

ely

felt

up to

dis

tanc

es

of 5

00 k

m.

2001

-02-

2818

:54

Sout

hern

Pu

get S

ound

, W

ashi

ngto

n

47.1

5–1

22.7

16.

8Ye

sN

oYe

s (U

SA)

0Fe

lt st

rong

ly th

roug

hout

Pug

et S

ound

, Sea

ttle,

an

d vi

cini

ty. F

elt a

s fa

r aw

ay a

s Po

rtlan

d, O

rego

n,

Kelo

wna

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a, a

nd p

ossi

bly

Salt

Lake

City

, Ut

ah. M

ajor

stru

ctur

al d

amag

e in

Oly

mpi

a, T

acom

a,

and

Seat

tle, W

ashi

ngto

n. V

ery

low

-leve

l dam

age

in

Vict

oria

, Brit

ish

Colu

mbi

a.


COMPLETENESS AND PRECISION OF SOURCE INFORMATION

This list of significant Canadian earthquakes was as complete as possible at the time of writing ( June 2007). However, the list is not and cannot be complete for the whole of the Canadian territory for the entire period 1600–2006. This is primarily due to the time lag of written records (corresponding to European exploration and settlements) across Canada from east to west. In the east, there are written records from the 1600s on; in the west from the 1850s in settled areas. It is possible that future studies will reveal hitherto unknown events or will modify our knowledge of some of these events. Due to the nature of docu-menting earthquakes, such modifications to the list are more probable for pre-instrumental data.

Before the introduction of seismographs in the late 19th century, earthquake occurrences were known only through historical accounts. If an earthquake was sufficiently large or sufficiently close to inhabited regions, it could be reported in personal accounts, diaries, or newspapers. This implies that pre-instrumental earthquakes are only known only if they had been felt by people who reported them in documents that were preserved and indexed. Consequently, our knowledge of pre-instrumental earthquakes depends entirely on how the popu-lation with written history (as opposed to oral traditions) was distributed as a function of geography and time. This explains the more numerous pre-1850s earthquake occurrences in east-ern Canada versus western and northern Canada.

Toward the end of the 19th century, seismographs were progressively installed in Canada (Stevens 1980). These early instruments were not very well adapted to recording local events and could only detect large, distant earthquakes (tele-seisms). They were insensitive to earthquakes of magnitude less than about 5. More sensitive, short-period seismographs only began regular operations at the beginning of 1928 (Smith 1962). Slowly, the number of stations increased, and the ability to record local earthquakes improved. It is only after 1950 that all earthquakes of magnitude 6.0 or larger could be detected over the whole Canadian territory (Basham et al. 1982). The magnitude completeness dates for each seismic zone used in the seismic hazard maps of Canada can be found in Adams and Halchuk (2003).

SOURCE PARAMETERS

As the completeness of earthquake reporting has improved over the years, the precision of source parameters has heightened. The sections below examine in more detail the uncertainty of the source parameters: origin time, location (latitude and lon-gitude, depth), and magnitude.

Origin TimeThe list provides both the origin time of earthquakes in local and in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

Historical earthquakes of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centu-ries are reported with their approximate local times. In some

cases, the best estimate of the origin time is the part of the day (day, morning, afternoon, evening, night). Burke (2007) dis-cusses a method to calculate approximate UTC for earthquakes of the pre-standard time era. Later on, telegraphs associated with railroads improved the situation.

Events after the early 20th century were recorded by one or more seismographs and are reported according to UTC. Most dates (year/month/day) and times (hour:minute:second) are listed in UTC.

Location (Region, Area, Latitude, Longitude, Depth)The location of an earthquake refers to the position of its epi-center (latitude and longitude). To give readers a quick refer-ence to the location of the epicenter, we have defined, for each event, a region of Canada (E: East; N: North; W: West) and a geographic area. The regions of Canada are approximately: East: Ontario and provinces to the east; West: Manitoba and prov-inces to the west; North: the three territories. Since we included events with impact in Canada, some earthquakes have their epi-centers on the U.S side of the border or in international waters. The epicenters of pre-20th century earthquakes are generally not as well-defined as more recent or instrumentally recorded earthquakes. For pre-instrumental earthquakes, locations are approximated from felt information (where the epicenter is the center of the felt area) or reports of damage (where the epicen-ter is generally the region of most significant damage).

Instrumentally recorded earthquakes are located using the arrival times of seismic waves. As the precision of these locations depends on the density and characteristics of the seismograph stations, more recent earthquakes are generally better located than older ones. In some cases, the location of aftershocks with a temporary network of seismographs provided an indirect means to locate the mainshock with increased precision. Figure 1 provides the location of the epicenters, and figures 2 and 3 provide more detailed views for southwestern and southeastern Canada, respectively.

Focal depth can be estimated only from instrumental data and for this reason, only earthquakes recorded after the early 20th century have this information. Focal depths can be calcu-lated from teleseismic recordings for larger events and from near-field records in areas of dense seismic coverage such as southwest British Columbia or the St. Lawrence Valley. In general, eastern and northern Canadian earthquakes occur in the upper 30 km of the Earth’s crust. Beneath southwest British Columbia, earth-quakes can occur within the continental crust as well as in the subducting ocean plate to depths of about 100 km.

Magnitude (Preferred Magnitude, Magnitude Type, Other Magnitudes)The magnitude of an earthquake is a convenient way of repre-senting its size. There are many magnitude scales, and for this reason it is difficult to give the best magnitude rating for an event. The authors have chosen to use the moment magnitude rating as the primary magnitude when available. If the moment magnitude was unknown, for pre-instrumental events, for example, the magnitude chosen was the best estimate from the


Figure 1. ▲ Significant earthquakes in or near Canada 1663–2006. Boxes show the extent of figures 2 (southern British Columbia) and 3 (southeastern Canada).

Figure 2. ▲ Significant earthquakes in or near southwestern Canada 1850–2006, with dates of earthquakes with some impact. Note that only earthquakes from about 1850 on are recognized in the southwest part of British Columbia (with the exception of the 1700 Cascadia event). Note also that the fault ruptures of the M 9 1700 Cascadia earthquake and the M 8.1 1949 Queen Charlotte earthquake are not properly represented by a circle.


information available. For some historical events, the authors chose not to use decimal units but rounded off the magnitude to the nearest one-half magnitude unit to reflect the very approxi-mate magnitude value. For earthquakes before about 1955, earthquake magnitudes were not calculated on a routine basis, and only a few were studied in detail to determine their magni-tude ratings. For most, the magnitude rating is approximate and is identified in this listing as other (OT). This includes some events for which the magnitude is estimated by comparing felt effects with more recent earthquakes in the same region.

Table 2 presents the distribution in magnitude ranges for the selected earthquakes. Approximately 25% of the selected earthquakes had magnitudes less than 6.0 and still had an impact on inhabited areas.

AreaThe area descriptor is a general term that refers to the epicentral region of the earthquake. About 60% are located within British Columbia or in the offshore areas, where plate movements result in significant earthquake activity. The two other areas, consid-ered intraplate tectonic environments, are less active: eastern Canada has approximately 25% of the total while northern Canada (north of 60°N) has about 15%, including some events in the Yukon Territory.

ImpactThree fields related to the impact of earthquakes are defined: landslides, tsunamis, and damage. Landslides include any mass

movement triggered by earthquake-generated ground vibra-tions, such as earth flows, rock avalanches, rock falls, rotational landslides, slumps, etc. For convenience, liquefaction and sand expulsions are included in this group. A total of 18 events had associated mass movements in Canada. A noteworthy event is the 1663 Charlevoix earthquake that caused massive landslides, most of them in quick clay areas.

Tsunamis are sea waves generated by the motion of the sea floor through direct rupture or by mass movement induced by the ground vibrations or by coseismic rupture. A total of seven events had associated tsunamis, the most noteworthy being the 1700 Cascadia earthquake and the 1929 Grand Banks earth-quake, which killed 28 people in Newfoundland.

Damage includes any type of damage ranging from light damage (cracks in the plaster of walls for example) through cracked chimneys up to the collapse of buildings. A total of 38 earthquakes caused some damage to buildings located on Canadian territory; the majority of these caused some chimney damage.

DeathsThere are no known documented cases of deaths directly caused by Canadian earthquakes. There were possibly two deaths caused by the 1870 Charlevoix-Kamouraska earthquake (Lamontagne forthcoming). There were, however, indirect deaths, such as those caused by the Grand Banks earthquake of 1929. The earthquake generated a massive submarine slump (landslide) that induced a large ocean wave (tsunami) that killed 27 people

Figure 3. ▲ Significant earthquakes in or near southeastern Canada 1663–2006, with dates of earthquakes with some impact.


when it struck the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland (plus one person who died from her injuries years later). Native oral tra-ditions also tell of an entire village on Vancouver Island being destroyed by the tsunami caused by the year 1700 earthquake. The 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake caused one death in Canada: one person drowned when a small boat capsized when hit by a wave generated by a submarine slump (Hodgson 1946). Other indirect casualties include people who die of heart attacks but these numbers are very approximate. A total of six earthquakes might have caused direct or indirect casualties.

Maximum Intensity on the Mercalli ScaleAlthough many intensity scales exist, the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale is the most commonly used for North American earthquakes and is the one we chose to use in this project. The MMI scale and isoseismal maps are not ideal to describe all possible consequences of an earthquake. First, rat-ing intensity can be subjective since any level covers a range of effects on humans, structures, and the natural environment. Some analysts look for many effects before assigning the level, whereas others consider the maximum level witnessed in a given area. Second, intensity reports come only from inhabited areas, leaving out many unpopulated areas. In the 20th century, questionnaires were mailed to town postmasters who could describe only what they knew of the local impact. Currently, anyone who feels an earthquake can fill out Internet-based questionnaires, providing a better sampling of the maximum local impact (http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/dyfi/index_e.php). The maximum intensity analyzed herein is that which was experienced on Canadian territory. Approximately 60% of the selected earthquakes had no intensity value assigned to them, the vast majority being events remote from inhabited areas. Only five events could be considered catastrophic (MMI IX and above): 1663 in Charlevoix; 1700 Cascadia; 1870 Charlevoix; and the two 1985 Nahanni earthquakes. The same earthquakes occurring today near major cities would have catas-trophic consequences.

DIFFERENCES FROM EXISTING EARTHQUAKE CATALOGS

The list of significant earthquakes has some differences from previous earthquake catalogs. The rationale behind these changes is as follows.

False EventThere are a few instances of false or “ghost” events. A noto-rious one is the 1534 pseudo-earthquake that supposedly occurred between the two voyages of Jacques Cartier in Canada (1534–1535). Gouin (1994) discarded this possibility. We removed this “ghost” event from our list.

New Events and Modified Information on EventsRecent research on many pre-instrumental earthquakes has provided new information. For example, the works of Gouin (2001) for Quebec, Burke (2004) for New Brunswick, and Bakun et al. (2002) and Doser (2006) in the vicinity of western Canada have provided better locations, refined magnitudes, and more information on many pre-instrumental earthquakes. In our updated list of significant earthquakes, we modified numer-ous epicenters and origin times based on updated information.

An event previously listed as 14 July 1831 had a wrong • date. The event occurred during the night of 7 July 1831 to 8 July 1831 (Gouin 2001). Gouin (2001) redefined the date of an earthquake from 9 • November 1842 to 7 November 1842.An event on 22 October 1869, formerly located at • Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick (45.0N, 67.2W) was relocated to a more central New Brunswick location (Burke 2004).An earthquake on 29 November 1880 was previously • falsely listed as 28 November 1880 (Gouin 2001).Revisiting of historical descriptions of damage or felt areas • has refined the epicenter or the magnitude of some his-torical earthquakes including the 1872 British Columbia–Washington earthquake (Bakun et al. 2002).Reanalysis of seismograms for some earthquakes has modi-• fied the epicenter and magnitude (Doser 2006).

CONCLUSIONS

The list of earthquakes created in this project (Lamontagne et al. 2007) provides the most up-to-date compilation of sig-nificant Canadian earthquakes and their impacts. The list was used to update the earthquake pages contained in the Atlas of Canada Web site and related paper products.

Most significant Canadian earthquakes have occurred in recognized seismically active areas, a fact reflected in the seismic zoning maps used in the National Building Code of Canada. Consequently, modern buildings include earthquake resistance in their designs. To date, the damage caused to man-made struc-tures has been limited, except for buildings constructed with unreinforced masonry. In general, Canadian homebuilders have used sturdy construction practices, even in pre-building-code times, partly to withstand strong winds.

Canadian earthquakes have caused very few direct casual-ties (possibly two), partly due to the remoteness from inhabited regions of most events, to the low population density on most of the Canadian territory, and to the wood-frame construction of most homes, which provides some earthquake resistance. Most indirect deaths were caused by tsunamis with potentially many

TABLE 2Number of events in the Significant Canadian Earthquake

List per magnitude range

Magnitude range Number of events

M < 5.0 65.0 ≤ M < 6.0 356.0 ≤ M < 7.0 987.0 ≤ M < 8.0 17

M ≥ 8.0 4


more in pre-historical times. In addition, landslides and mass movements triggered by earthquakes pose a hazard in many parts of the country, including the western Cordillera and on the quick clay deposits in the St. Lawrence lowland areas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Dr. Kenneth Burke, Honorary Research Associate at the University of New Brunswick, for his valuable comments on a draft of the Open File Report. We also thank Janet Drysdale of Natural Resources Canada who sup-plied us with database information, Alison Bent for her com-ments, and Alison Bird for her review.

REFERENCES

Adams, J. and S. Halchuk (2003). Fourth Generation Seismic Hazard Maps of Canada: Values for Over 650 Canadian Localities Intended for the 2005 National Building Code of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada Open File Report 4459, Ottawa, Canada.

Bakun, W. H., R. A. Haugerud, M. G. Hopper, and R. Ludwin (2002). The December 1872 Washington State Earthquakes. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 92, 3,239–3,258.

Basham, P. W., Weichert, D.H., Anglin, F.M., and Berry, M.J. 1982. New probabilistic strong ground motion maps of Canada: a compilation of earthquake source zones, methods and results. Publications of the Earth Physics Branch Open File Report 82-33, Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada.

Burke, K. B. S. (2004). Historical seismicity in the Central Highlands, Passamaquoddy Bay, and Moncton regions of New Brunswick, Canada, 1817–1961. Seismological Research Letters 75, 419–431.

Burke, K. B. S. (2007). Determination of the times of historical earth-quakes in the pre-standard time era. Seismological Research Letters 78, 344–346.

Doser, D. I. (2006). Relocations of earthquakes (1899–1917) in south-central Alaska. Pure and Applied Geophysics 163, 1,461–1,476.

Gouin, P. (1994). About the first earthquake reported in Canadian history. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 84 (2), 478–483.

Gouin, P. (2001). Tremblements de terre historiques au Québec: de 1534 à mars 1925, identifiés et interprétés à partir des textes originaux contemporains / Historical earthquakes felt in Quebec : From 1534 to March 1925, as revealed by the local contemporary literature. Montreal: Guérin, 1,491 pps.

Hodgson, E. A. (1946). British Columbia earthquake June 23, 1946. The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 40, 285–319.

Lamontagne, M., S. Halchuk, J. F. Cassidy, and G. C. Rogers (2007). Significant Canadian Earthquakes 1600–2006. Geological Survey of Canada Open File Report 5539, 1 CD-ROM. The report is available at no charge at: http://geopub.nrcan.gc.ca/moreinfo_e.php?id=224164

Lamontagne, M. (forthcoming). The first documented direct losses of life from earthquake since European settlement: The Charlevoix, Quebec, earthquake of October 20, 1870. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America.

Smith, W. E. T. (1962). Earthquakes of Eastern Canada and Adjacent Areas 1534–1927. Ottawa: Publications of the Dominion Observatory 26, no. 5.

Stevens, A. E. (1980). A history of some Canadian and adjacent American seismograph stations. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 70, 1,381–1,393.

Natural Resources Canada615 Booth Street, Room 216

Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0E9 [email protected]

significant canadian earthquakes of the period 1600–2006€¦ · Seismological Research Letters...

Documents

Transcript of significant canadian earthquakes of the period 1600–2006€¦ · Seismological Research Letters...