Significant Achievements in Particles and Fields 1958-1964

8/7/2019 Significant Achievements in Particles and Fields 1958-1964

1/101


2/101


3/101


4/101


5/101


6/101


7/101


8/101


9/101


10/101


11/101


12/101


13/101


14/101


15/101


16/101


17/101


18/101


19/101


20/101


21/101


22/101


23/101


24/101


25/101


26/101


27/101


28/101


29/101


30/101


31/101


32/101


33/101


34/101


35/101


36/101


37/101


38/101


39/101


40/101


41/101


42/101


43/101


44/101


45/101


46/101


47/101


48/101


49/101


50/101


51/101


52/101


53/101


54/101


55/101


56/101


57/101


58/101


59/101


60/101


61/101


62/101


63/101


64/101


65/101


66/101


67/101


68/101


69/101


70/101


71/101


72/101


73/101


74/101


75/101


76/101


77/101


78/101


79/101

SOLAR E N E R G E T l C PARTlCLES

schemes have been tried. Various ideas involving thearea, magnetic character, and number of solar rotationsof the sunspot groups have been used (ref. 136). The

best prediction system may be that of Severny, who usesa measure of the gradient of the magnetic field as an indexof probable occurrence.

71


80/101

.chapter 6

Cosmic Rays

N THE LAST 2 0 YEARS it has been well established thatI the Sun occasionally emits energetic particles (erro-neously called cosmic rays). Here we will deal with galac-tic cosmic rays coming to the Earth from outside the solarsystem. The cosmic rays observed at sea level are essen-tially all secondaries produced by the interaction of pri-mary cosmic rays with the Earths atmosphere. Mesonsresulting from these interactions were first identified incosmic-ray experiments before they were made in labora-tory accelerators. To study the primary cosmic rays, itis necessary to get above most, if not all, of the atmosphere.Balloon studies have shown that primary cosmic rays areabout 94 percent H, 5 percent He, and percentheavier nuclei. Considerable effort has been devotedrecently to determining the composition of the heavy nu-clei by balloon measurements. In these studies care mustbe taken to correct for the fragmentation of the incoming

nuclei by the few grams per square centimeter of air abovethe balloon. The results of this work (ref. 137) are sum-marized in table V. The relatively large number of nucleihaving 2 from 3 to 5 is interesting. These nuclei enter intothermonuclear reactions easily and are burned. There-fore, they are rare in stellar atmospheres. . There is also aninteresting excess of heavy cosmic-ray nuclei, which must

be explained by any satisfactory theory of the origin ofcosmic rays. Recent work by Earl (ref. 138) , Meyer ( ref.139) , and others has identified electrons in the primaryradiation. The electron/proton ratio is only about 0.01,

73


81/101

PARTICLES AND FIELDS

Table V.-Cosmic and Cosmic-Ray Abundances

Nuclear charge

3- 56-9

10-1920-28

Particles/cm*/sec/sr ofE > 2 . 4 BeV/nucleon

2. 05. 61 . 80

. 6 Y

Ratio of C R abun-dance/cosmic abun-

dance ( H = l )

(")2 . 59. 0

63. 0

* Very large.

so the electron flux is not very large. McDonald ( I M P I )has found 3- to 12-MeV electrons in space (ref. 140,).These may be of galactic origin. There are two models forproduction of the electrons: ( u ) collision of a cosmic-rayproton and an atom to generate 7r mesons which decay toelectrons, and ( b ) acceleration of low-energy electrons bysomething like the Fermi process. A recent measurementof the positron-electron ratio ( e + / e - )as about 0.3 helpsconfuse this problem (ref. 141 . From acceleration, es-sentially no e+ are expected; from collisions (ref. 142),e + / e - >1. The experiment suggests that both sources arerequired, but this matter cannot be considered settled.

McDonald and Ludwig (ref. 143) using data from IMP

I have measured the energy spectra of low-energy protonsand alpha particles well away from the Earth's field.Ground-based studies of extensive air showers of recentyears have shown that cosmic rays up to 10l9 eV exist. Itseems improbable that these particles can be stored in thegalaxy; the radius of curvature is too large. We have theprobability then that there are intergalactic cosmic rays.

Parker pointed out the possibility that, if the cosmic-rayflux outside the solar system is about 10 times that at theEarth, the energy density in cosmic rays should exceed the

74


82/101

COSMIC RAYS

energy density in magnetic fields there and the cosmic raysshould then flow freely into intergalactic space. Thistheory, that intergalactic space is filled with cosmic rays,is a novel one and would pose a problem for cosmologists.A measurement of the cosmic-ray gradient away from theSun would help answer this problem.

From Pioneer V data, Simpson et al. (ref. 144) observeda Forbush decrease in cosmic rays a long w ay from Earth,demonstrating that the Forbush-decrease process operat-ing on cosmic rays is not geocentric but heliocentric, and

quite obviously associated with a strong blast of solar wind.

75


83/101

chapter 7

Nezltrons

H E NEUTRON FLUX produced by galactic cosmic raysT nteracting with the Earth's atmosphere is of interestnot only in itself but because we know that neutron decayis an important source of inner-zone trapped protons andprobably also electrons. This neutron flux was measuredfrom an Atlas rocket by Hess (ref. 145) and more recentlyfrom several satellites by Lockwood (ref. 146), Martin(ref. 147 ), and Bostrom and Williams (ref. 148). It isknown for quiet times to probably 50 percent accuracyand is 0.2/cm2/sec at latitude 0" and 1.5/cm2/sec at lati-tude 90".

The energy spectrum of the neutrons has not been meas-ured in space, but it has been measured in the atmosphere(ref. 149) and calculated for free space (ref. 150). Cal-culations using these data show quantitative agreementwith the measured inner-zone protons. There is no reasonto doubt that neutron decay produces the energetic inner-zone protons. Galactic cosmic rays colliding with atmos-

pheric 0 or N nuclei are the source of these neutrons.There are other sources of neutrons. Solar protons pro-duced in connection with solar flares undoubtedly produceneutrons when they strike the polar atmosphere (ref. 15 1) .I t is commonly thought that these neutrons produce thelow-energy proton component for L> 1.7 observed byNaugle and Kniffen (ref. 57) on the NERV rocket, but

no direct measurements of these solar proton-producedneutrons have been made.

The Sun is also probably an important source of neu-trons. Measurements by Hess (ref. 152) on OS0 I of

77


84/101

PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

the diurnal variation of neutrons observed near the Earthshowed that less than I percent of them can be of solarorigin. Solar flares should be able to produce neutrons,

but no measurements have detected them.

78


85/101

chapter 8

Conclusions

ECAUSE OF DISCOVERIES made in recent years, a newB picture has emerged of our immediate environment,and more generally of processes in the solar system.Plasma, both thermal and superthermal, plays a dominantrole in our new understanding. Interactions between themagnetic field and charged particles in the plasma of theouter Sun are believed to be responsible for solar activitysuch as sunspots and solar flares. These, in turn, governmany aspects of Earth-Sun relations, partially throughelectromagnetic radiation such as the solar ultraviolet andX-radiation and partially through the solar-wind plasma.

Plasma properties near the Sun are determined pri-marily by the magnetic field. As the coronal plasmaexpands into the solar wind, the kinetic energy of the par-ticles assumes a dominant role. The magnetic field,however, continues to act as the coupling agent betweenindividual charged particles and produces collective

motions. Of great interest for future explorations is thetransition region between these two domains. The exist-er?ce of M-regions suggests that azimuthal asymmetriesexist in the solar wind as observed in the plane of theecliptic. The latter phenomenon is to be investigated withPioneer space probes ; the solution of other outstandingproblems will require probes which approach the Sun

within 0.2 or even 0.1 AU, or leave the plane of the eclipticto measure the character of the solar plasma there. It isanticipated that technological developments will makemost of these investigations possible within the next decade.

79


86/101

PARTICLES A N D FZELDS

O n occasion there are large solar flares, some of whichemit energetic protons into space. The particles areguided by and diffused along and across the macgnetic field

to reach the Earth. Flares also produce enhanced solar-wind fluxes, which reach the Earth a day or so later, pro-ducing magnetic storms. Observations near the Earth ofthe flux of solar protons a t different times after a flarehave been explained in terms of a diffusion model. Thismodel breaks down at several AU and does not considerazimuthal asymmetries. Observations to be made duringthe next solar maximum with Pioneer and Earth-orbitalspacecraft should go far toward refining our presenttheories.

The interaction mechanisms of a collisionless plasma,such as the solar wind, with a magnetic field, such as themagnetosphere, present in themselves challenging scientificproblems. For the Earth, this interaction produces a col-

lisionless shock wave and is apparently responsible forcertain geomagnetic disturbances, the auroral displays,and the outer part of the Van Allen belts. O n the basisof the investigations conducted so far, we can now appre-ciate some of the qualitative aspects of these phenomena,but a quantitative theory will have to wait for the resultsfrom future work. The interaction of the solar wind with

the Moon and other planets exhibits many different aspectsof plasma physics. For instance, any magnetic field theMoon may have is less than 1/200 as strong as that of theEarth , and there are probably periods when the solar windpenetrates to the lunar surface. If so, this may alter theoptical properties of the lunar surface, and X-rays may beproduced in the process. A comprehensive investigation

of these phenomena a t other planets is one of the objectivesof the Voyager program planned for the 1970 decade.However, an investigation of the interaction of the solar

80


87/101

CONCLUSIONS

wind with the Moon is considerably simpler and can beconducted as part of the planned lunar exploration,

The inner part of the Van Allen radiation belts is ap-parently populated mostly by protons and electrons fromthe decay of neutrons that have been made in the atmos-phere of the Earth by galactic cosmic rays. The outer partsof the radiation belts may be thought of as a superthermalplasma in which the magnetic field is the dominant factor.We find here primarily electrons and protons with energiesbetween 10 eV and several hundred keV. Collective in-

teraction of the individual charges with the terrestrial mag-netic field permits various modes of hydromagnetic wavesto propagate through this region. A special example ofthese waves is the well-known whistlers. Other plasmawaves are yet to be investigated and measurements areneeded of their intensities and frequency spectra. It is be-lieved that these waves, by interaction with the plasma,

determine in turn the energy spectrum and lifetime of theenergetic charged particles in the outer belts and in thegeomagnetic tail. Indications are that at least some ofthe waves are generated a t the interface between the solarwind and magnetosphere and then travel not only throughthe trapping region but also through the tail of the mag-netosphere.

We are reasonably sure that Jupiter has a radiation beltas does the Earth. Future space exploration will probablyshow that some other planets also have them. Undoubt-edly, these belts will show some similarities to, and many

fiSWiii, ijie '"Ta &Ieii lueI&* If ilie ubseiv-edradio-noise bursts from Jupiter originate in its radiationbelt, then plasma instabilities must exist in these belts whichhave not been observed in the terrestrial belts.

The solar wind extends out from the Sun considerablybeyond the Earth. I t impedes the influx of galactic cosmicrays to the solar system, and its variability produces the

81


88/101


Forbush decreases and the 11-year solar-cycle variation ofcosmic rays.

One of the most fundamental questions to be answeredby future exploration of interplanetary space is the mag-nitude of galactic cosmic-ray flux in interstellar space. I tis now believed that cosmic rays play a significant role inthe dynamics of the universe, and a knowledge of their fluxis required before a realistic cosmological model can beconstructed. Galactic probes, going beyond the orbit ofJupiter, will be required to obtain answers to this ques-tion. Such an investigation will be technically feasible

during the next decade.

82


89/101

,

References

1. BIERMANN, . : Kometenschweife und solare Korpuskularstrah-lung. Z. Astrophys., Bd. 29, 1951, pp. 274-286.

2. PARKER, . N.: Dynamics of the Interplanetary Gas and Mag-

netic Fields.3. PARKER, . N. : The Hydrodynamic Theory of Solar Corpuscular

Radiation and Stellar Winds. Astrophys. J., vol. 132, 1960,pp. 82 1-866.

4. GRINGAUZ,. . I . ; BEZRUKIKH,V. V.; OZEROV, . D.; AN DRYBCHINSKII, . E.: A Study of the Interplanetary IonizedGas, High-Energy Electrons, and Corpuscular Radiation Fromthe Sun by Means of the Three Electrode Trap for ChargedParticles on the Second Cosmic Rocket. Dokl. Akad. NaukSSSR, vol. 131, p. 1301; Soviet Phys.-Dokl., vol. 5 , 1960, pp.

5. BONETTI,A.; BRIDGE, H. S.; LAZARUS, . J.; ROSSI, B.; ANDSCHERB, . : Explorer 10 Plasma Measurements. J. Geophys..Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 4017-4063.

6. NEUGEBAUER, .; A N D SNYDER, . W.: Solar Plasma Experi-ment : Preliminary Mariner I1 Observations. Science, vol.138,1962, pp. 1095-1097.

7. SNYDER, . W.; AND NEUGEBAUER, .: Interplanetary SolarWind Measurements by Mariner 11. In: Space Research IV,P. Muller, ed., North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1964,pp. 89-1 13.

8. SN u k x , 2. i .; NEUGEBAUER, vi. ; A N D RAO, U. X. T h e SoiarWind Velocity and Its Correlation With Cosmic Ray Varia-tions and With Solar and Geomagnetic Activity. J . Geophys.Res.,vol. 68, 1963, pp.6361-6370.

9. BRIDGE, .; EGIDI, A.; LAZARUS, .; LYON, E. ; A N D JACOB-SON, L.: Preliminary Results of Plasma Measurements onIMP-A. In : Space Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.) ,North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 969-978.

Astrophys. J., vol. 128, 1958, pp. 664-676.

361-364.

83


90/101


10. I.G. BULLETINNo. 84: Initial Results From the First Inter-planetry Monitoring Platform (IMP I ) . Trans. Am. Geo-phys. Union, vol. 45, 1964, p. 501.

11. COLEMAN, . J., JR.; DAVIS, ., JR.; AND SONETT, . P.: Steady

Component of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field: Pioneer V.Phys. Rev. Letters, wl. 5, 1960, pp. 43-46.

12. COLEMAN, . J .; DAVIS, .; SMITH, . J.; AND SONETT, . P. :The Mission of Manner I1 Preliminary Observations-Inter-planetary Magnetic Fields. Science, vol. 138, 1962, p. 1099.

13. NESS, N . F .; SCEARCE, . S.; A N D SEEK, . B. : Initial Results ofthe IMP I Magnetic Field Experiment. J. Geophys. Res.,vol. 69,1964, pp. 3531-3569.

14. SONETT, . P .; SMITH, E. J.; AND SIMS, A. R.: Surveys of theDistant Geomagnetic Field: Pioneer I and Explorer VI. In:Space Research (H. K. Bijl, ed.) , North-Holland Pub. Co.(Amsterdam), 1960, p. 921.

15. SONETT, . P.; ET AL.: The Distant Geomagnetic Field. PartsI to V.

16. SONETT, . P.; COLBURN, . S .; DAVIS, ., JR. ; SMITH, . J . ;A N D COLEMAN, . J., JR . : Evidence for a Collision-Free Mag-netohydrodynamic Shock in Interplanetary Space. Phys.

Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 153-156.17. CHAPMAN, . ; and FERRARO, . C . A , : A New Theory of Mag-

netic Storms. Terrest. Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec.,

421-429; vol. 38, 1933, pp. 79-96.18. CAHILL, . J. ; A N D AMAZEEN,. J.: The Boundary of the Geo-

magnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 1835-1843.

19. JOHNSON, . S.: The Gross Character of the Geomagnetic Fieldin the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, p. 3049.20. BEARD, . B. : The Interaction of the Terrestrial Magnetic Field

With the Solar Corpuscular Radiation. J. Geophys. Res.,vol. 65,1960, pp. 3559-3568.

21. MIDGLEY, . E , ; A N D DAVIS, L., JR.: Calculation by a MomentTechnique of the Perturbation of the Geomagnetic Field bythe Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 51 11-5123.

22. MEAD, . D. ; ND BEARD, . B. : Shape of the Geomagnetic FieldSolar Wind Boundary. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp.

J . Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962; vol. 68, 1963.

V O ~ .36, 1931, pp. 77-97, 171-186; V O ~ . 7, 1932, pp. 147-156,

1163-1 179.

84


91/101

REFERENCES

23. MEAD, G. D.: Deformation of the Geomagnetic Field by theSolar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 1181-1195.

24. DUNGEY, . W. : Interplanetary Magnetic Field and the Auroral

Zones. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, p. 47.25. AXFORD, . I.; PETSCHEK, . E.; AN D SISCOE, G. L.: Tail of

the Magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp.123 1-1 236.

26. NESS, N . F.: The Earth's Magnetic Tail. J. Geophys. Res.,

27. DESSLER, . J.; AND JUDAY, R. D.: Configuration of AuroralRadiation in Space. Planetary Space Sci., ~ o l . 3, 1965, pp.63-72.

28. DESSLER, . J . : Length of Magnetospheric Tail. J. Geophys.Res.,vol. 69, 1964, pp. 3913-3918.

29. BEARD,D. B.: The Effect of an Interplanetary Magnetic Fieldon the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp.1159-1 168.

30. AXFORD, . I.; AN D HINES, C. 0.: Unifying Theory of HighLatitude Geophysical Phenomena and Geomagnetic Storms.Can. J. Phys., vol. 39, pp. 1433-1464.

31. SPREITER, . R.; AND JONES, W . P.: O n the Effect of a WeakInterplanetary Magnetic Field on the Interaction Between theSolar Wind and the Geomagnetic Field. J . Geophys. Res.,

32. HEPPNER, . P.; NESS, N. F.; SKILLMAN, . L.; A N D SCEARCE,C. S.: Explorer X Magnetic Field Measurements. J .Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 1-46.

33. FREEMAN, . W ., JR. The Morphology of the Electron Distribu-tion in the Outer Radiation Zone and Near the Magneto-

spheric Boundary as Observed by Explorer XII. J. Geophys.Res., vol. 69, pp. 1691-1724.34. SERBU, G. P.: Results From the IMP I Retarding Potential

Analyzer. In : Space Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al.,

V O ~ .0,1965, pp. 2989-3005.

V O ~ . 68,1963, pp. 3555-3565.

eds.) North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam ) , 196.5, pp. 564-574.

35. FAN, C. Y . ; GLOECKLER, .; A ND SIMPSON, . A.: Evidencefor >30 keV Electrons Accelerated in the Shock TransitionRegion Beyond the Earth's Magnetospheric Boundary. Phys.

Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 149-153.36. ANDERSON, . A . ; HARRIS, H. K.; AND PAOLI, R. J. : Energetic

Electron Fluxes in and Beyond the Earth's Outer Magneto-sphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 1039-1050.

85207-624 0-60-7


92/101


37. JOKIPII, . R.; A N D DAVIS, L., JR.: Acceleration of ElectronsNear the Earths Bow Shock. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 13,1964, pp. 739-741.

38. NESS, N . F.: The Magnetohydrodynamic Wake of the Moon.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 517-534.

39. VAN ALLEN, . A . : First Public Lecture on the Discovery of theGeomagnetically Trapped Radiation. Report SUI 60-13,State Univ. of Iowa, 1960.

40. STORMER, . : The Polar Aurora. Clarendon Press (Ox ford ),1955.

41. SINGER, . F.: A New Model of Magnetic Storms. Trans Am.Geophys. Union, vol. 38, 1957, p. 175.

42. CHRISTOFILOS, . C.: The Argus Experiment. J. Geophys.Res., vol. 64, 1959, p. 869.43. MCILWAIN, . E. : Coordinates for Mapping the Distribution of

Magnetically Trapped Particles. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66,1961, p. 3681.

44. VERNOV, . N.; A N D CHUDAKOV, . E.: Terrestrial CorpuscularRadiation and Cosmic Rays. In: Space Research, H. K . Bijl,ed., North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1960, p. 151.

45. VAN ALLEN, . A, ; MCILWAIN, . E.; A N D LUDWIG, . H.:Radiation Observations With Satellite 1958 C. J. Geophys.Res., vol. 64, 1 9 5 9 , ~ . 71.

46. VAN ALLEN, . A.; A N D FRANK, . A.: Radiation Around theEarth to a Radial Distance of 107 400 km. Nature, vol. 183,1959, p. 430.

47. VAN ALLEN, . A ,; A N D FRANK, . A. : Radiation Measurementsto 658 300 km With Pioneer IV. Nature, vol. 184, 1959, p.219.

48. FREDEN, . C.; A N D WHITE, R. S.: Protons in the Earths Mag-netic Field.

49. FREDEN, . C.; A N D WHITE, R. S.: Trapped Protons and CosmicJ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962,

50. ARMSTRONG, . H.; AND HARRISON, . B. : Charged Particles inJ. Geophys. Res., v01.

51. HECKMAN, . ; A N D ARMSTRONG, . H.: Energy Spectrum ofJ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67,

Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 3, 1959, p. 9.

Ray Albedo Neutron Fluxes.

p. 25.

the Inner Van Allen Radiation Belt.66, 1961, p. 351.

Geomagnetically Trapped Protons.

1962, p. 1255.

86


93/101

REFERENCES

52. KELLOGG, . J. : Possible Explanation of the Radiation Observedby Van Allen at High Altitudes in Satellites. Nuovo Cimento,vol. 11, 1959, p. 48.

53. SINGER, . F.: Trapped Albedo Theory of the Radiation Belt.Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 1, 1958, p. 181.

54. FREDEN, . C . ; AND WHITE, R. S . : Particle Fluxes in the InnerRadiation Belt.

55. BLANCHARD, . C.; AN D HESS, W. N.: Solar Cycle Changes inInner Zone Protons. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, p. 3927.

56. PIZZELLA, .; MCILWAIN, . E. ; A N D VAN ALLEN, . A.: TimeVariations of Intensity in the Earths Inner Radiation ZoneOctober 1959 Through December 1960. J. Geophys. Res.,vol. 67, 1962, p. 1235.

57. NAUGLE, . E.; AND KNIFFEN, . A.: Variations of the ProtonEnergy ( 1963) Spectrum With Position in the Inner Van AllenBelt.

58. LENCHEK, . M.: On the Anomalous Component of Low-Energy Geomagnetically Trapped Protons. J. Geophys. Res.,vol. 67, 1962, p. 2145.

59. MCILWAIN, . E.: The Radiation Belts, Natural and Artificial.

Science, vol. 142, 1963, pp. 355-361.60. MCILWAIN, . E.: Redistribution of Trapped Protons During

a Magnetic Storm. I n : Space Research V (D. G . King-Heleet al., eds.) , North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp.3 74-39 1.

61. DAVIS, L. R.; A N D WILLIAMSON, . M.: Low Energy TrappedProtons. I n : Space Research I11 ( W . Pricster, ed .) , North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1963, p. 365.

62. HOLLY, F. E.; ALLEN,L.;

AND JOHNSON, R. G .: RadiationMeasurements to 1500 Kilometers Altitude at EquatorialLatitudes.

63. FREEMAN, . W . : Detection of an Intense Flux of Low EnergyProtons or Ions Trapped in the Inner Radiation Zone. J.Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. 921.

In:

Space Physics (D. P. LeGalley and A. Rosen, eds.) , 1964, pp.573-610.

65. VAN ALLEN, J . A.; MCILWAIN, . E.; A N D LUDWIG, . H.:Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected Intothe Geomagnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 64, 1959, p.877.

J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, p. 1377.

J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. M65.


64. HESS, W. N .: The Effects of High-Altitude Explosions.

87


94/101

PARTICLES AND F I E L D S

66. OBRIEN, B. J . ; LAUGHLIN, . D.; AND VAN ALLEN,J. A.:Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation by a High Altitude Nu-clear Explosion on July 9, 1962. Nature, vol. 195, 1962, p.939.

67. PIEPER, G. F.; WILLIAMS, . J. ; A N D FRANK, . A.: TRAACObservations of the Artificial Radiation Belt From the July 9,1962, Nuclear Detonation. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963,p. 635.

68. BROWN, W. L.; AND GABBE, . D. : The Electron Distribution inthe Earths Radiation Belts During July 1962 as Measured byTelstar.

69. DURNEY, . C . ;ELLIOT, . ; HYNES, . J.; A N D QUENBY, . J.:

Satellite Observations of the Energetic Particle Flux Producedby the High Altitude Nuclear Explosions of July 9, 1962.Nature, vol. 195, 1962, p. 1245.

70. GALPERIN, . ; A N D BOLIVNOVA, . D.: Study of the DrasticChanges of the Radiation in the Upper Atmosphere in July,1962. In: Space Research V (D. G . King-Hele et al., eds.),North-Holland Pub. C o . (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 446457.

71. WEST, H. I., JR. MA NN , . G.; A N D BLOOM, . D. : The ElectronSpectra in the Radiation Belts in the Fall of 1962. I n : SpaceResearch V (D . G. King-Hele et al., eds.) , North-Holland Pub.Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 423-445.

72. VAN ALLEN, . A.; FRANK, . A.; A N D OBRIEN, . J.: SatelliteObservations of the Artificial Radiation Belt of July 1962.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 619-627.

73. MCDIARMID, .; BURROW, .; BUDZINSKI, .; A N D ROSE, D.:Satellite Measurements in the Starfish Artificial RadiationZone.

74. WELCH, . A.; KA UF MA NN , . L.; A N D HESS, W . N.: TrappedElectron Time Histories for L= 1.18 to L= 1.30. J. Geophys.Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 685.

75. WALT, M.: The Effects of Atmospheric Collisions on Geomag-netically Trapped Electrons. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964,

76. DUNGEY, . W.: Loss of Van Allen Electrons Due to Whistlers.Planetary Space Sci., vol. 11, 1963, p. 591.

77. FILZ, R. ; YAGODA, .; AND HOLEMAN, .: Observations onTrapped Protons in Emulsions Recovered From Satellite Or-bits. In: Space Research IV (P . Muller, ed.) , North-HollandPub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1964, p. 642.


Can. J. Phys., vol. 41, 1963, p. 1332.

p. 3997.

88


95/101

REFERENCES

78. JENSEN, D. C. ; AND CAIN, J. C. : An Interim Geomagnetic FieldAbstract. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. 3568.

79. DUNGEY, . W . ; HESS, W. N.; AN D NAKADA, . P.: Theoretical

Studies of Protons in the Outer Radiation Belts. In : SpaceResearch V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.), North-HollandPub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 393-403.

80. NAKADA, . P.; AN D MEAD, G. D.: Diffusion of Protons in theOuter Radiation Belt.

81. HOFFMAN, . A.; AND BRACKEN,. A .: Magnetic Effects of theQuiet Time Proton Belt.

82. CLADIS, . B. ; CHASE, . F. ; MHOF, . L.; AND KNECHT, . J.:Energy Spectrum and Angular Distributions of ElectronsTrapped in the Geomagnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66,1961, p. 2297.

83. FORBUSH, . E.; PIZZELLA, .; AND VENKATESON, .: TheMorphology and Temporal Variations of the Van Allen Radi-ation Belt October 1959 to December 1960. J. Geophys. Res.,vol. 67, 1962, p. 3651.

84. OBRIEN, B. J.: Lifetimes of Outer Zone Electrons a n d TheirPrecipitation Into the Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67,

1962, p. 3687.85. OBRIEN, . J. : High-Latitude Geophysical Studies With Satel-

lite Injun 3. Part 3. Precipitation of Electrons Into theAtmosphere.

86. FRANK, . A ,; VAN ALLEN, . A,; AN D MACAGNO, . : ChargedParticle Observations in the Earths Outer Magnetosphere.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 3543.

87. OBRIEN, . J.: A Large Diurnal Variation of the Geomagneti-

cally Trapped Radiation. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963,p. 989.

88. MCDIARMID, . B.; AND BURROWS,. R.: Diurnal IntensityVariations in the Outer Radiation Zone at 1000 km. Can. J.Phys., voi. 42, 1964, p. 1 135.

89. WILLIAMS,D. W.; AN D PALMER, . F.: Distortions in the Radia-tion Cavity as Measured by an 1100 km Polar Orbiting

Satellite.

90. SLOANAKER, . M . : Apparent Temperature of Jupiter at a WaveLength of 10 cm.

91. DRAKE, . D. ; ND HVATUM, . : Nonthermal Microwave Radia-tion From Jupiter.

J. Geophys. Res., Oct. 1, 1965.

J. Geophys. Res., Aug. 1, 1965.

J. Geophys. Res., wl. 69, 1964, p. 13.

J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 557-568.

Astron. J., vol. 64, 1959, p. 346.

Astron. J., vol. 64, 1959, p. 329.

89


96/101


92. RADHAKRISHMAN, . ; A N D ROBERTS, . A.: Polarization andAngular Extent of the 960 Mc/s Radiation From Jupiter.Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 4, 1960, p. 493.

93. CHANG, . B.; A N D DAVIS, L.: Synchrotron Radiation as theSource of Jupiters Polarized Decimeter Radiation. Astro-phys. J., vol. 136, 1962, p. 657.

94. ANDERSON,H. R.: Energetic Particles Measured Near Venusby Mariner 2.

95. VAN ALLEN, . A.; A N D FRANK, . A.: The Mission of Mariner2 Preliminary Observations : The Iowa Radiation .Experi-ment.

96. DOLGINOV, . SH.; EVOSHENKO, . G.; ZHUZGOV, . N.;PUSHKOV, . V . ; A N D TYURMINA, . 0.: Measuring theMagnetic Fields of the Earth and Moon by Means of SputnikI11 and Space Rockets I and 11. In: Space Research (H. K.Bijl, ed.) , North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1960, p.863.

97. GRINGAUZ, . I.: Some Results of Experiments in Interplane-tary Space by Means of Charged Particle Traps on SovietSpace Probes. In: Space Research I1 (H . C. van de Hulst,C. deJager, and A. F. Moore, eds. ), North-Holland Pub. CO.(Amsterdam), 1961, p. 539.

98. FRANK, . A.; VAN ALLEN, . A .; AND HILLS, H. K.: Mariner2: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus; ChargedParticles.

99. GRINGAUZ, . I. ; KURT, V. G.; MOROG, . I . ; A N D SKLOVSKIY,I . C. : Iskusstvennye Sputniki Zemli. Izd. AN SSSR, vol. 6,1961, p. 108.

100. OBRIEN, B. J .; VAN ALLEN, . A.; LAUGHLIN, . D.; AN DFRANK, . A . : Absolute Electron Intensities in the Heart ofthe Earths Outer Radiation Zone. J. Geophys. Res., vol.67,1962, pp. 397-403.

101. MCILWAIN, . E.: Direct Measurements of Particles ProducingVisible Auroras. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, pp. 2727-2747.

102. DAVIS, L. R.; BERG, 0. E . ; A N D MEREDITH, . H.: DirectMeasurements of Particle Fluxes in and Near Auroras. In:Space Research (H . K. Bijl, ed .) , North-Holland Pub. GO.(Amsterdam), 1960, pp. 721-735.


Science, vol. 138, 1962, p. 1097.

Science, vol. 139, Mar. 1963, pp. 905-910.

90


97/101

REFERENCES

103. MCDIARMID, . B.; ROSE, D. C.; AND BUDZINSKI, .: DirectMeasurements of Charged Particles Associated With AuroralZone Radio Absorption. Can. J. Phys., vol. 39, 1961, pp.

104. MANN, . G. ; BLOOM, . D.; AND WEST, H. I., JR.: The Elec-tron Spectrum From 90 to 1200 keV as Observed on Dis-coverer Satellites 29 and 31. In: Space Research I11 (W.Priester, ed.) , North-Holland Pub. Go. (Amsterdam), 1963,

pp. 447-462.105. BROWN, . R. : Balloon Observations of Auroral Zone X-Rays.

Proc. Intern. Conf. on Cosmic Rays and the Earth Storm,Kyoto, Sept. 1961, Part I , Earth Storm, 1962, p. 236.

106. ANDERSON, . A.: Balloon Observations of X-Rays in theAuroral Zone I and 11. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960,pp. 52 1 and 55 1.

107. ANDERSON, . A.; AND MILTON, D. W.: Balloon Observationsof X-Rays in the Auroral Zone. Part 3. High Time Resolu-tion Studies. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 4457-4479.

108. SHARP, . D.; EVANS, . E.; IMHOF, . L.; JOHNSON, . G.;REGAN, . B.; AND SMITH, R. V.: Satellite Measurements of

Low Energy Electrons in the Northern Auroral Zone. J.Geophys. Res., vol. 69,1964, p. 2721.

109. GURNETT, . A.; AND OBRIEN , . J.: High-Latitude Geophysi-cal Studies With Satellite Injun 3. Part 5. Very-Low-Fre-quency Electromagnetic Radiation. J. Geophys. Res., vol.69,1964, pp. 65-90.

110. OBRIEN, B. J . ; A N D TAYLOR, . : High-Latitude GeophysicalStudies With Satellite Injun 3. Part 4. Auroras and Their

Excitation.11 1. CAIN, . C. ; SHAPIRO, . R. ; STOLARIK, . D.; AND HEPPNER,

J. P.: Vanguard 3 Magnetic Field Observations. J. Geo-phys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, pp. 5055-5069.

112. HEPPNER, . P.: The World Magnetic Survey. Space Sei.Rev., vol. 2, 1963, pp. 315-354.

113. CAHILL, L. J., JR.: Preliminary Results of Magnetic FieldMeasurements in the Tail of the Geomagnetic Cavity. I.G.

Bulletin No. 79, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, vol. 45, 1964,

114. AKASOFU, . I. : The Main Phase of Magnetic Storms and the

1888-1900.


pp. 231-235.

Ring Current. Space Sci. Rev., vol. 2, 1963, pp. 91-135.

91


98/101


99/101

8 REFERENCES

127. BRYANT,D. A.; CLINE, T. L.; DESAI, U. D.; A N D MCDONALD,F. B.: Explorer XI1 Observations of Solar Cosmic Rays andEnergetic Storm Particles After the Solar Flare of September

28, 1961. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, pp. 4983-5000.128. BRYANT, . A.; CLINE, T. L.; DESAI, U. D.; AND MCDONALD,

F. B. : Studies of Solar Protons With Explorers XI1 and XIV.Astrophys. J., vol. 141, 1965, pp. 478-499.

129. MCCRACKEN, . G.: The Cosmic-Ray Flare Effect: Part I.Some New Methods of Analysis. J. Geophys. Res., wl. 67,1962,423-434.

130. BRYANT,D. A.; CLINE, T. L.; DESAI, U. D.; AND MCDONALD,

F. B. : New Evidence for Long-Lived Solar Streams in Inter-planetary Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 1 1 , 1963, pp. 144-146.

131. PARKER, . N.: Acceleration of Cosmic Rays in Solal Flares.Phys. Rev., vol. 107, 1957, pp. 830-836.

132. PETSCHEK, . E.: Magnetic Field Annihilation. Proc. of theAAS-NASA Symposium on the Physics of Solar Flares,NASA SP-50,1964, pp. 425-439.

133. SEVERNY, . B.: Generation of Flares During the Change ofSolar Magnetic Fields. Astron. Zh., vol. 38, 1961, pp. 403-408.

134. HESS, W. N., ED.: Proceedings of the AAS-NASA Symposiumon the Physics of Solar Flares.

135. FRIER, P.; AND WEBBER, W. R.: Radiation Hazard in SpaceFrom Solar Particles.

136. ANDERSON,. A. : Preliminary Study of Prediction Aspects ofSolar Cosmic Ray Events.

137. WADDINGTON, . J. : Composition of the Primary Cosmic Radia-tion. Progr. Nucl. Phys., vol. 8, 1960, p. l .

138. EARL, . A. : Cloud-Chamber Observations of Primary CosmicRay Electrons. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, pp. 125-128.

139. MEYER, . ; AND VOGT, R. : Electrons in the Primary CosmicRadiation.

140. CLINE, T. L .; LUDWIG, . H.; AND MCDONALD, . B.: Detec-tion of Interplanetary 3- to 12-MeV Electrons. Phys. Rev.

Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 786-789.141. DESHONG, . A.; HILDERBRAND, . H.; AND MEYER, .: Ratio

of Electrons to Positrons in the Primary Cosmic Radiation.Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 12, 1964, p. 3.

NASA SP-50, 1964.

Science, vol. 142, 1963, p. 1587.

NASA T N D-700,1961.

Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, pp. 193-196.

93


100/101

PARTICLES AND FIELDS

142. H A ~ A K AWA , .; AND OKUDA, .: Electronic Components inProgr. Theoret. Phys., vol. 28, 1962,

143. MCDONALD, . B.; A N D LUDWIG, . H.: Measurement of Low-Energy Primary Cosmic-Ray Protons on IMP I Satellite.Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 783-785.

144. FAN, C. Y .; MEYER, .; AND SIMPSON, . A.: The Rapid Re-duction of Cosmic Radiation Intensity Measured in Inter-planetary Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 5, 1960, p. 43.

145. HESS, W. N.; AN D STARNES, . J.: Measurement of the NeutronFlux in Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 5, 1960, pp. 48-50.

146. TRAINOR, . H.; A N D LOCKWOOD, . A. : Neutron Albedo Meas-

urements on Polar Orbiting Satellites. J. Geophys. Res., vol.69,1964, pp. 3115-3123.

147. MARTIN, . P.; WITTEN, L.; AND KATZ, L.: Measurement ofCosmic Ray Albedo Neutron Flux Above the Atmosphere.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 2613-2618.

148. WILLIAMS, . J.; AND BOSTROM, . 0.: Albedo Neutrons inSpace.

149. HESS, W. N.; PATTERSON, . W.; WALLACE, .; AND CHUPP,E. L.: Cosmic-Ray Neutron Energy Spectrum. Phys. Rev.,voI. 116, 1959, pp. 445-457.

150. LINGENFELTER, . E. : The Cosmic-Ray Neutron Leakage Flux.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 5633.

151. LINGENFELTER, . E.; AND FLAMM, . J.: Neutron LeakageFlux From Interactions of Solar Protons in the Atmosphere.J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 2199-2207.

NASA TN D-1696, 1963.

Galactic Cosmic Rays.pp. 517-528.


152. HESS, W. N.: Neutrons in Space.

94 U S . G O E R N M E N TPRINTING OFFICE:1% 0--207+24


101/101

4

T he aeronautical and spare artiuities of the United Stdes shall beconducted so ai 10 coiitribzrte . . . t o t he expaiz.rion of haman know[-edge of pherzomeira it2 the atnzosphere atid Jpace. T h e ~ l ~ ~ ~ r l l r / . r / r a ~ i / ~ i zshall provide for the widest practicable and appropriate J I ~e)iiinntiotio f i?r ormatioti cotirernirig I I I artir itres and the results thrrro f.

-NATIONAL ERONAUTICS X D S PA C E ACT O F 1938

N A S A SCIENTIFIC A N D TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

TE CH N IC AL REP ORT S: Scientific and technical information consideredimp ortant, complete, and a lasting contribution to existing knowledge.

T E C H N I C A L N O T E S :imp ortan ce as a contribution to existing knowledge.

T E C H N I C A L MEMORANDUMS:t ion becauseof preliminary data, security classification,or other reasons.

CONTRACTOR REPORTS:wi th a NA SA cont rac tor gra nt and released under N A SA auspices.

TE CH NI CA L TRA NSL ATIO NS: Informat ion publi shed in a fore ignlangu age considered to merit NA SA distribution in English.

SP FC i i i i PUB LiCA Ti i iNS: in formation derived f romor of vaiue to N A S Aactivities. Publications io ch d e conference procredingc, monographs, datacompiiarions, handbook,, sourcrbu&, aid specid b;b:iogrdpllie,.

T E C H N O L O G Y U T I L I Z AT IO N P U B L IC AT I O N S : i nf o rm a ti onon tech-nology used by NAS A that may beof particular interest in commercial and othernonaero space applications. Publications include Tech Briefs: Techno logyLJtilization Repo rts and Notes; and T echnolo gy Surveys.

Information less broad in scope but neverthelessof

Information receiving limited distribu-

Technical informa tion generated in connection

. . .

Significant Achievements in Particles and Fields 1958-1964

Documents

Transcript of Significant Achievements in Particles and Fields 1958-1964