Significances of the 1960 Nixon Kennedy Campaign Television debate : Appearance versus substance...
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Transcript of Significances of the 1960 Nixon Kennedy Campaign Television debate : Appearance versus substance...
Significances of the 1960 Nixon Kennedy Campaign
• Television debate : Appearance versus substance
• Television ads: campaign spending $
• Main Issues:– “missile gap”– religion
• Close election results
Nixon/ Kennedy debate
Inauguration Speech
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xE0iPY7XGBohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3s6U8GActdQ&NR=1
Text of Inaugural Address
The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God
Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this Nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world.
Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.This much we pledge and more.
Text of Inaugural Address
Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce. Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah to "undo the heavy burdens ... and to let the oppressed go free." And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in creating a new endeavor, not a new balance of power, but a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved. All this will not be finished in the first 100 days. Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than in mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course
Text of Inaugural Address
In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve I and the glow from that fire can truly light the world. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.
Kennedy’s Charisma:
• “…Our faith in him and in what he was trying to do was absolute, and he could impart to our work together a sense of challenge and adventure-a feeling that he was moving, and the world with him, toward a better time.” Pierre Salinger, Press SecretaryGlencoe text p. 842
“New Frontier” Goals
• Increase aid to education• Provide health insurance to
the elderly• Create Dept. of Urban Affairs• Help Migrant Workers
Kennedy’s Critics:
• Despite Democratic large majorities in House and Senate, Kennedy could not pass his New Frontier legislation. – WHY?
Kennedy’s Critics:
• Despite Democratic large majorities in House and Senate, Kennedy could not pass his New Frontier legislation. – WHY?
Kennedy’s Critics
• Congress could follow their own interest:– “A good many [congressional
representatives] were elected in 1960 in spite of his presence on the ticket rather than because his name was there.” Congressional Democrat
• US News & World Report
Kennedy’s Critics
• Republicans and Southern Democrats viewed New Frontier too costly
Southern Democrats controlled Congress
Kennedy: the Pragmatist
• Minor deficit spending– Increased funding for
defense and space exploration
• Supported supply-side economics and tax cuts– “A rising tide lifts all boats.”– Congress denied tax cuts out
of fear of inflation
Kennedy: the Pragmatist
• Less of Ike’s “brinkmanship” and more
“flexible response”• more conventional
troops and weapons– Support of Special Forces“Green Berets”
http://www.specialoperations.com/Army/Special_Forces/SF_Info/Story.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwKYXRLP0rY
A “Marshall Plan” for Latin America?• Poverty and corruption in
Latin America • Kennedy wants to thwart
communist expansion in Latin America
• Alliance for Progress– $20 billion aid for better
schools, housing and health care
– Designed to counter leftist movements
– Chile, Colombia, Venezeula, and Central America benefited
Kennedy’s Enduring Legacy: The Peace Corps
• Helping the people of interested countries in meeting their needs for trained men and women.
• Helping promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served.
• Helping promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of all Americans.
• http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Peace+Corps.htm
• http://www.peacecorps.gov/
The Space Race: “man on the moon”
•
• http://www.nootrope.net/kennedy.html– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e08r5IRTbjE– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ND4kDezFUk8
•U2 INCIDENT
•BAY OF PIGS INVASION
•BERLIN WALL CONSTRUCTED
•CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
•ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS AND THE THIRD WORLD, THE PEACE CORPS
•U.S. INCREASES INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM
•NUCLEAR TEST BAN TREATY
•1960s TIMELINES
A US U-2 RECONNAISSANCE (SPY) PLANE WAS SHOT DOWN OVER THE SOVIET UNION AND ITS PILOT GARY POWERS
CAPTURED AND PUT ON TRIAL. KHRUSHCHEV USED THIS INCIDENT TO
CANCEL A PLANNED EAST-WEST SUMMIT CONFERENCE IN PARIS.
MAY 1960: THE U-2 INCIDENT
JOHN F. KENNEDY BECOMES PRESIDENT OF THE US IN 1961 AND INHERITS A PLANED INVASION OF CUBA FROM
THE EISENHOWER ADMINISTRATION
1960 - ALL US BUSINESSES IN CUBA ARE NATIONALIZED (TAKEN OVER BY THE CUBAN GOVERNMENT) WITHOUT
COMPENSATION. THE US BREAKS OFF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH CUBA AND SEES CASTRO AS AN
ENEMY OF THE US.
EISENHOWER AGREES TO A CIA PLAN FOR AN EXILE INVASION OF CUBA TO
OVERTHROW CASTRO IN MARCH OF 1960
BAY OF PIGS INVASION SITE
CUBAN EXILES INVADING CUBA WITH THE HELP OF
THE US, APRIL 1961
THE INVASION WAS A FAILURE AND ALL THE CUBAN EXILE INVASION FORCE WAS EITHER KILLED OR CAPTURED BY
CASTRO’S ARMY.
CASTRO’S FORCES ON THE MARCH
CASTRO’S AIR FORCE
DESTROYED THE INVADING SHIPS
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TWO SUPER POWERS WORSEN AFTER THE VIENNA SUMMIT IN JUNE OF 1961.
KHRUSHCHEV THREATENS JFK WITH
AN ULTIMATUM ON BERLIN. JFK
RESPONDS WITH A US MILITARY BUILD-UP
AND A US CIVIL DEFENSE PROGRAM
TENSIONS RISE DURING THE REMAINDER OF1961. ON AUGUST 13th EAST GERMANY BEGINS PREPARING FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE BERLIN WALL AND ON SEPTEMBER 1 THE USSR RESUMES ATMOSPHERIC
TESTING OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
IN JUNE OF 1963 PRESIDENT KENNEDY WENT TO BERLIN AND DELIVERED HIS FAMOUS “ICH BIN EIN
BERLINER” ( I AM A BERLINER) TO SHOW U.S. DETERMINATION TO KEEP BERLIN FREE.
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
AUGUST TO NOVEMBER 1962
THE CLOSEST THE WORLD HAS COME TO FULL SCALE NUCLEAR WAR
US INTELLIGENCE BEGINS RECEIVING REPORTS OF SOVIET MISSILES IN CUBA. A U-2 FLIGHT ON AUGUST 29TH CONFIRMED THE PRESENCE OF SURFACE TO AIR MISSILE BATTERIES IN CUBA. THESE MISSILES WERE DESIGNED TO
SHOOT DOWN ENEMY AIRCRAFT.
MAP USED BY JFK AND HIS ADVISORS TO PLOT WEAPONS IN CUBA DURING THE MISSILE CRISIS
DECLASSIFIED 1962 MAP SHOWING THE
DISTANCES NUCLEAR ARMED MISSILES WOULD
GO IF FIRED FROM CUBA. ALMOST ALL
MAJOR US POPULATION
CENTERS WERE WITHIN RANGE. MAPS LIKE THIS CONVINCED JFK
THAT THE SOVIET MISSILES MUST BE REMOVED FROM
CUBA.
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS FROM U.S. SPY PLANES LEFT NO DOUBT THAT THE RUSSIANS WERE INSTALLING NUCLEAR MISSILES IN CUBA
AIMED AT THE U.S.
LOW ALTITUDE VIEW OF MISSILE PREPARATION AREA. THE PILOT TAKING THIS SHOT FLEW AT AN ALTITUDE OF ABOUT 250 FEET, AND AT THE SPEED OF SOUND.
EACH ONE OF THE RUSSIAN MISSILES IN CUBA HAD THE EXPLOSIVE POWER OF 50
HIROSHIMA TYPE ATOMIC BOMBS
SECRETARY OF DEFENSE ROBERT Mc NAMARA, SECRETARY OF STATE DEAN RUSK AND JFK, THE
MAIN POLICY MAKERS DURING THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS ALONG WITH ROBERT KENNEDY.
JFK HAD TWO CHOICES OF HOW TO DEAL WITH THE SITUATION IN CUBA:
FIRST: HE COULD ORDER AIRSTRIKES ON THE MISSILE SITES IN CUBA AND RISK AN ALL OUT NUCLEAR WAR WITH THE USSR
SECOND: HE COULD ORDER A NAVAL BLOCKADE AND STOP SOVIET SHIPS FROM BRINGING IN MISSILES AND OTHER EQUIPMENT. NO ONE KNEW HOW THE RUSSIANS WOULD REACT TO THIS.
HE CHOSE THE NAVAL BLOCKADE
Bay of Pigs, Cuba: April 17, 1961 • CIA trained 1,400 Cuban
Exiles• Kennedy cancelled air support• Cubans did not rise up in
support of exiles• Castro personally led defense
of island• 1,189 captured/100 killed• US paid $53 in food and
medicine for their releasehttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/bay-of-pigs/kennedy-2506-flag.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/baypigs.htm&h=580&w=743&sz=149&hl=en&start=5&um=1&tbnid=EaDthiYRThqXLM:&tbnh=110&tbnw=141&prev=/imag
PRESIDENT KENNEDY SIGNING CUBA QUARANTINE
PROCLAMATION. OVAL OFFICE, WHITE
HOUSE, 10/23/1962
PHOTOS OF US SHIPS ENFORCNG THE QUARANTINE AND (LEFT) SHADOWING A SOVIET
SUBMARINE
OCTOBER 27, 1962: THE SOVIET SHIP GROZNY
CROSSES THE QUARANTINE LINE, BUT STOPS AFTER U.S.
NAVY SHIPS FIRE STAR SHELLS ACROSS HER BOW.
KHRUSHCHEV GAVE IN TO US PRESSURE AND REMOVED SOVIET MISSILES FROM CUBA FOR A US
PROMISE NOT TO INVADE CUBA.
MISSILES BEING LOADED ON SOVIET SHIPS FOR
RETURN TO THE SOVIET UNION
SOVIET CARGO SHIP LEAVING CUBA WITH MISSILES VISIBLE ABOVE THE
DESK
ADLAI STEVENSON SHOWS AERIAL PHOTOS OF CUBAN MISSILES TO THE UNITED NATIONS IN NOVEMBER 1962.
“THEREFORE I HAVE CALLED ON ALL PEOPLE OF THE HEMISPHERE TO JOIN IN A NEW ALLIANCE FOR
PROGRESS -- ALIANZA PARA PROGRESO -- A VAST
COOPERATIVE EFFORT, UNPARALLELED IN
MAGNITUDE AND NOBILITY OF PURPOSE TO SATISFY THE BASIC NEEDS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE FOR
HOMES, WORK AND LAND, HEALTH AND SCHOOLS -
TECHO, TRABAJO Y TIERRA, SALUD Y ESCUELA.”
JOHN F. KENNEDY, MARCH 13, 1961
ALLIANCE FOR PROGRESS
PRESIDENT AND MRS. KENNEDY CONGRATULATE THE SON OF A NEW HOME
OWNER AT LA MORITA RESETTLEMENT PROJECT NEAR CARACAS, VENEZUELA.
IN HIS INAUGURAL ADDRESS OF JANUARY 20, 1961, PRESIDENT JOHN F. KENNEDY CHALLENGES A NEW GENERATION OF AMERICANS TO JOIN "...A GRAND AND
GLOBAL ALLIANCE...TO FIGHT TYRANNY, POVERTY, DISEASE, AND WAR..."
KENNEDY CONTINUES IN HIS SPEECH, "TO THOSE PEOPLE IN THE HUTS AND
VILLAGES ACROSS THE GLOBE STRUGGLING TO BREAK THE BONDS OF MASS MISERY, WE PLEDGE OUR BEST
EFFORTS TO HELP THEM HELP THEMSELVES."
A NATIONAL NIGHTMARE BEGINS: JFK AND THE ORIGINS OF THE VIETNAM WAR
PRESIDENT HO CHI MINH,DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF
VIET NAM
PRESIDENT NGO DINH
DIEMREPUBLIC OF
VIET NAM
PRESIDENT OF SOUTH VIETNAM NGO DINH DIEM, LEFT, IS WELCOMED IN CEREMONIES AT WASHINGTON NATIONAL AIRPORT. WITH HIM IS PRESIDENT DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER, AND BEHIND THEM, FROM LEFT, AIR FORCE CHIEF OF STAFF GENERAL NATHAN TWINING, SECRETARY OF STATE JOHN FOSTER DULLES, AND PRESIDENTIAL AIDE AND PILOT, COLONEL WILLIAM C. DRAPER. 05/08/1957
THE US SUPPORTED A CATHOLIC, NGO DINH DIEM, WHO WAS HATED BY THE MAJORITY OF THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE WHO WERE BUDDHIST. HIS MISRULE LED TO A SMALL REBELLION WHICH GREW INTO A MAJOR WAR IN THE EARLY
1960’S. PRESIDENT EISENHOWER SENT A SMALL TRAINING UNIT TO HELP BUILD DIEM’S ARMY IN 1955.
US ARMY ADVISORS TRAINING SOUTH VIETNAMESE SOLDIERS IN 1961-62
BOTH KOREA AND VIETNAM WERE PRODUCTS OF THE U.S. DOMINO THEORY :
THE IDEA THAT COUNTRIES BORDERING COMMUNIST COUNTRIES WERE IN MORE
DANGER OF FALLING TO COMMUNISM UNLESS THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER WESTERN NATIONS WORKED TO PREVENT
IT.
THE NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (NLF) WAS ORGANIZED IN 1960 BY ANTI-DIEM GROUPS. IT WAS CONTROLLED BY FORMER COMMUNIST
VIETMINH CADRES WHO HAD FOUGHT AGAINST THE FRENCH. THE NLF WAS ULTIMATELY CONTROLLED BY THE NORTH VIETNAMESE.
EISENHOWER’S MILITARY ADVISORY AND ASSISTANCE GROUP WAS REPLACE BY MACV (MILITARY ASSISTANCE COMMAND VIETNAM) UNDER
THE COMMAND OF GENERAL PAUL HARKINS. OVER 11,000 ADVISORS WITH MODERN WEAPONS AND AIRCRAFT WERE SENT TO HELP THE
SOUTH VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENT. THE NUMBER GROWS TO 16,000 BY NOV. 1963.
NLF FLAG
MACV HEADQUARTERS BUILDING IN SAIGON
"BY CHRISTMAS IT WILL BE ALL OVER.” (AMERICAN GENERAL PAUL HARKINS, APRIL
1963). BUT IT WASN’T OVER UNTIL 1975 WHEN THE COMMUNISTS WON AND TOOK CONTROL OF
SOUTH VIETNAM
GENERAL HARKINS’ OVERLY OPTIMISTIC REPORTS LED TO A CONFUSED UNDERSTANDING OF THE TRUE SITUATION IN SOUTH VIETNAM: THE SOUTH
VIETNAMESE ARMY WAS NOT FIGHTING WITH ANY SPIRIT OR SKILL AND WOULD LOSE WITHOUT A MASSIVE US TROOP DEPLOYMENT
VIETNAM 1962STRATEGIC HAMLETS: OPERATION SUNRISE
VIETNAMESE PEASANTS WERE FORCED TO
BUILD AND MOVE INTO THESE FORTIFIED
VILLAGES TO PREVENT CONTACT WITH
COMMUNIST VIETCONG GUERRILLAS. 6800
WERE BUILT BY 1963. THEY WERE
UNPOPULAR WITH THE VIETNAMESE PEOPLE
AND THIS ALONG WITH OTHER ABUSES BY THE
SOUTH VIETNAMESE SAIGON GOVERNMENT
CAUSED MANY TO SUPPORT THE COMMUNISTS.
HUNDREDS OF BLOCKHOUSE STRONG
POINTS WERE BUILT THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRYSIDE TO
“PROTECT” THE PEASANTS FROM THE
VC. THESE WERE EQUIPPED WITH
THOUSANDS OF RIFLES AND MACHINE GUNS
MOST OF WHICH ENDED UP IN THE
HANDS OF THE VC TO BE USED AGAINST THE
SOUTH VIETNAMESE AND AMERICANS
THE BATTLE OF AP BACNEW PHASE OF THE VIETNAM WAR: ON JANUARY 2ND 1963, 340 VIET CONG GUERRILLAS
HELD OFF THE COMBINED ASSAULTS OF MORE THAN 1500 SOUTH VIETNAMESE GOVERNMENT TROOPS NEAR THE SMALL VILLAGE OF AP BAC. SHOOTING DOWN FIVE
AMERICAN HELICOPTERS AND WITHSTANDING M113 ARMORED PERSONNEL CARRIERS, INFANTRY, ARTILLERY, AND CLOSE AIR SUPPORT, THE VC WITHDREW IN GOOD ORDER WITH FEW CASUALTIES, MUCH TO THE AMERICAN ADVISORS’ FRUSTRATIONS. AP BAC’S
WARNING SIGNS, WHILE UNDERSTOOD BY THE LOWER-LEVEL ADVISORS AND THE
PRESS, WERE LOST ON THE SENIOR AMERICAN CIVIL AND MILITARY LEADERSHIP. THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE ARMY WOULD NOT FIGHT SO WAS IT WORTH THE LIVES OF AMERICAN SOLDIERS TO DEFEND
THEIR NATION WHEN THEY THEMSELVES WOULDN’T?
MODERN VIETNAM MONUMENT TO
THE COMMUNIST VICTORS OF THE
BATTLE OF AP BAC.
PHOTOS OF THE BATTLE OF AP BAC TAKEN BY STEVE STIBBENS (http://www.stibbens.com/war.htm). USED WITH PERMISSION
AIR STRIKE BEFORE THE SOUTH VIETNAMESE
TROOPS ARE LANDED
LANDING TROOPS BY HELICOPTER
AP BAC PHOTOS PAGE TWO
THREE US HELICOPTERS SHOT DOWN BY VC FIRE
AP BAC VILLAGE WITH THE THREE DOWNED HELICOPTERS AND THEIR
US CREWS
BODIES OF US HELICOPTER PILOTS AND CREW BEING SHIPPED HOME WITH MILITARY HONORS
PRESIDENT KENNEDY, TO AVOID BEING ACCUSED OF “LOSING SOUTH VIETNAM” AS PRESIDENT TRUMAN WAS ACCUSED OF “LOSING CHINA”,
INCREASED THE NUMBER OF MILITARY ADVISORS FROM 800 TO 16,000 AND FORMED THE GREEN BERETS SPECIAL FORCES. TO PROTEST THE CATHOLIC
DIEM’S ATTACKS ON BUDDHIST PAGODAS, BUDDHIST PRIESTS SET FIRE TO THEMSELVES IN PROTEST. THE US DECIDED THAT DIEM'S MURDEROUS
REGIME WAS TOO UNPOPULAR AND SUPPORTED AN ARMY COUP THAT KILLED DIEM. PRESIDENT KENNEDY WAS ASSASSINATED A FEW WEEKS LATER IN
DALLAS.
VIETNAMESE BUDDHIST MONKS SET THEMSELVES ON FIRE TO PROTEST THE
BRUTAL DIEM REGIME.
Berlin Wall June 1961
http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/photographs/berlinwall-1961.htmhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARQ4EDKlQ0k
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2ZyeG4tdOQ
• http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/
Warren Court
JFK Assassination
• On 22 November 1963 the world was stunned to learn that Kennedy had been shot to death as he rode in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. Within hours of Kennedy's shooting, the Dallas police arrested his alleged assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, a mysterious, twenty-four-year-old ex-Marine who had lived in the Soviet Union, brought home a Russian wife, and sympathized with Castro. He was unfortunately never brought to trial because two days after his arrest, in full view of a national television audience, he was shot and killed in the basement of the Dallas police headquarters by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner who reportedly was grief-stricken over Kennedy's assassination.
Less than a year later, a presidential commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy, that Oswald had not been part of a conspiracy. But from the time of the assassination itself, a significant part of the public was incredulous at the thought of a lone assassin, and the Warren Commission's findings and methods were subjected to endless second-guessing. In 1979 a special congressional investigation concluded that it was probable that more than one person was involved in Kennedy's assassination, though it was unable to identify anyone besides Oswald or to determine the nature and extent of the conspiracy.
1960
March: Cuban exiles: Eisenhower agrees to CIA proposal to train Cuban exiles to subvert Castro regime.May 1: U-2 reconnaissance plane shot down over central U.S.S.R. Pilot Gary Powers is held by the Soviet Union. Incident is announced by Khrushchev on May 5.May 16: East-West summit conference in Paris collapses over U-2 incident.August 19: U-2 pilot Gary Powers sentenced by the U.S.S.R. to ten years in prison; he is exchanged for a Soviet spy in 1961.November 8: Kennedy elected president.December 20: Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Republic of Vietnam, organizes the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NLF). Ho commits the NLF to the overthrow of the U.S.-supported Ngo Dinh Diem regime, the ouster of U.S. advisers, and the unification of Vietnam.
1961
January 3: Cuba: Eisenhower Administration breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba.January 17: Eisenhower's farewell address warns of potential "unwarranted influence ... by the military-industrial complex."January 20: John F. Kennedy inaugurated.March 13: Alliance for Progress, a 10-year plan of economic aid to Latin American is proposed by Kennedy.April 17: Bay of Pigs landing by more than 1,000 CIA-trained Cuban refugees fails in its attempt to "liberate" Cuba.May 11: Kennedy authorizes American advisors to aid South Vietnam, against the forces of North Vietnam.June 3: Vienna Summit: Khrushchev reissues ultimatum to begin talks on Germany within 6 months or face a permanent the division of Germany. Kennedy responds with call for military build-up, beginning of civil defense program.August 13: East Germany closes the Brandenburg Gate, sealing the border between East and West Berlin in preparation for building the Berlin Wall.September 1: Soviet Union resumes atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.September 15: United States resumes underground testing of nuclear weapons.
1962
January 29: East-West Conference on Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests, begun in October 1958, collapses in deadlock at Geneva.April 25: United States resumes atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.October 23: Cuban Missile Crisis United States establishes air and sea blockade of Cuba in response to photographs of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba. United States threatens to invade Cuba if the bases are not dismantled and warns that a nuclear attack launched from Cuba would be considered a Soviet attack requiring full retaliation.October 28: Khrushchev agrees to remove offensive weapons from Cuba and the United States agrees to remove missiles from Turkey and end Cuban-exile incursions.November 21: United States ends Cuban blockade, satisfied that all bases are removed and Soviet jets will leave the island by December 20.
1963
June 26: Kennedy visits Berlin, declares "Ich bin ein Berliner."June 10: Kennedy, in speech at American University, calls for reconsideration of Cold War as "holy war."June 20: "Hot Line" established, a direct teletype link between the White House and the Kremlin, to start service August 30.October 7: Kennedy signs Limited Test Ban Treaty Britain, Soviet Union, and United States agree to outlaw tests in the atmosphere, under water, and in outer space.November 1: South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated.November 22: President Kennedy is assassinated.