1. Problems of phonostylistics Function of stylistic that investigates speech on the level of phonetics

is called phonostylistics. It studies the functional differentiation of pronunciation.

It studies the way phonetic means function in various in extra-linguistic situations. Extra-linguistic situation determines the functional differentiation of pronunciation.

The extra-linguistic situation includes all the factors that form and modify phonetic styles. It can be defined by 3 components purpose, participants and setting. The purpose directs the activity of the participants. Ex.: Any talk is motivated by the purpose of talking, so it has the topic of communication and happens in a particular setting and is reproduced by participants.

We never fail to guess what the person is doing instructing us or amusing. Each of these variations makes a speaker select a number of functional phonetic means to make the realization of the aim more objective. Analysing the purpose we should mention the general activity type and the subject matter. The subject matter may be the same. Ex.: Literature. Usual talk. But the general activity type is different.

Speaking about the participants we should take into account following: 1. Age, 2. Sex, 3. Emotional state. Speaking about setting it is important to take into consideration: 1). The number of the participants involved into communication. The speech may be public or private, impersonal or personal, high-cultured or low-cultured. As for the form of communication it may be a monologue or a dialogue.

The degree of formality should also be mentioned. Speech may be formal or informal, prepared or half-prepared, spontaneous.

2. The Classification of Phonetic Styles:1. Gaiduchic (correlates with functional styles of

language)1) solemn (торжественный)2) scientific business (научно-деловой)3) official business (официально-деловой)4) everyday (бытовой)5) familiar (непринуждённый)2. Dubovsky (degrees of formality)1) informal ordinary2) formal neutral3) formal official4) informal familiar5) declamatory3. Ours (the purpose of communication)1) informational2) academic3) publicistic4) declamatory5) conversational

3.The phoneme is a minimal abstract language unit realized in speech in the ofrm of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words (by Shcerba + Vasiliev). 3 aspects of the phoneme:1) material;2) abstract (generalized);3)function

The material aspect.Each phoneme is realized in speech as a set of predictable (=depended on

the context) speech sounds which are called allophones. E.g. phoneme [t]: [to:k] apical alveolar [t],[tip] slightly palatalized [t] ,[not there] dental [t], [not kwait] loss of plosion | allophones

The Abstract aspectThe phoneme is a minimal language unit.The phoneme belongs to the language, the allophone – to the speech.Language is an abstract category, it’s an abstraction from speech. Speech

is the reality of a language, thus the phoneme as a language unit is materialized in speech sound. The phoneme is a sort of generalization (abstraction).The process of generalization.

The native speaker doesn’t pay attention to the allophones which don’t change the meaning. But every native speaker has a generalized idea of a complex of distinctive features that can’t be changed without changing the meaning.

The functional aspect.. to dinstinguish the meanings. Phonemes are capable of distinguishing the meaning of words and morphemes: seemed [d] seems [z]

and changing the meanings of whole sentences:Ex: He was heard badly. – He was hurt badly.

This function is performed when the phoneme is opposed to another phoneme in the same phonetic context: [ka:t] – [pa:t] backlingual bilabial (relevant features)

The features that do not effect the meaning are called irrelevant features (non-distinctive). Ex: aspiration.

4.The phoneme and its allophones/

In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek: φώνημα, phōnēma, "a sound uttered") is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances[1].

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

e.g. Pit[phit] spit[spit] In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the /p/ phoneme.

2 types of allophones: principal and subsidiaryPrincipal are the allophones which don’t undergo any changes in the flow

of speech => they are the closest to the phoneme) Ex: [t] -> [to:k]In the articulation of a subsidiary allophone we observe predictable

changes under the influence of the phonetic context.Ex: [d] – occlusive plosive stop, forelingual, apical-alveolar, voiced lenis

(the phoneme)

[do:], [dog] – the principal allophones- [d] is slightly palatalized before front vowels and [j]: [ded], [did

ju:]- without plosion before another stop: [gud dei], [bad pain]- with nasal plosion before nasal sonorants [m], [n]: [‘s^nd]- before [l] a literal plosion: [midl]- followed by “r” – [pst alveolar [d]: [dr^m]- before interdental sounds it becomes dental: [bredth]- when followed by [w] it becomes labialized: [dwel]- in word final position it’s partly devoiced: [ded]They are all fore-lingual lenis stops, but they show some differences. The

allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.We can’t pronounce a phoneme, we pronounce allophones, which are

accompanied by several social and personal characteristics. The actual pronounced sounds which we hear are formed with stylistic, situational, personal and etc. characteristics. They are called phones.

5. The phoneme theory and its main trendsThe founder of the Phoneme Theory was the Russian scientist Boudoin-

de-Courtenay who was the head of the Kazan Linguistic School. He defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He also regarded phonemes as fictitious units and considered them to be only perceptions. This approach is called mentalistic/ physical.

Ferdinand de Saussure viewed phonemes as the sum of acoustic impressions and articulatory movements. He also viewed phonemes as disembodied units of the language formed by the differences separating the acoustic image of one sound from the rest of the units. Language in his opinion contains nothing but differences. This approach is called abstractional/ abstract.

Trubetskoy (the head of the Prague Linguistic School) defined the phoneme as a unity of phonologically relevant features. Relevant feature is the feature without which we can’t distinguish one phoneme from another. This approach is called functional.

Phonemes can be neutralized. In this case we receive an archi-phoneme. That is a unity of relevant features common to both phonemes (e.g. wetting – wedding in AmE). In case of archiphoneme we cannot distinguish one phoneme from another. Thus the distinctive function of the phoneme is lost.]

Another kind of approach to the nature of the phoneme was expressed by a British scholar, the head of the London School of Phonology, Daniel Jones. He defined the phoneme as a family of sounds.

The American Linguistic School (Blumfield, Sapir, etc) defined the phoneme as a minimum unit of distinctive sound features and as abstractional unit.

The materialistic approach was expressed by Leo Tsherba. Academician Tsherba defined the phoneme as a real independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of its allophones. This approach comprises the abstract, the functional.

6. Methods of phonetic analysisWe distinguish between subjective, introspective methods of phonetic

investigation and objective methods.The oldest, simplest and most readily available method is the method of

direct observation. This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analyzing one's own kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.

Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (palatography, laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematography and electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct observation is widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and the subjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays we may use the up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech - so called articulograph.

Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to measure and analyze the movement of the air in the terms of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone into the speech chain, converting the air movement into corresponding electrical activity and analyzing (Ксень, это слово у Красы через «s», но, по-моему, тут «z») the result in terms of frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time. The spectra of speech sounds are investigated by means of the apparatus called the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a component of intonation can be investigated by intonograph.

The acoustic aspect of speech sounds is investigated not only with the help of sound-analyzing techniques, but also by means of speech-synthesizing

devices.

7.There are different types of oppositions:1) singlethe opposed sounds differ in one articulating feature only: [pen] – [ben] voiceless voiced2) doublethe opposed sounds differ in 2 distinctive features : [pen] - [den] bilabial forelingual voiceless voiced3) triple (multiple)the opposed sounds differ in 3 distinctive features: [pen] - [then] voiceless voiced bilabial interdental occlusive stop constrictive fricativeThere are some problems - sometimes sounds cannot be opposed:Ex: [h] is never used in final position;[n-носовое] is never in the initial position.In such cases we rely on the knowledge of the native speaker and phonetic similarities or dissimilarities.

8. The system of phonemes.All English phonemes can be divided into consonants phonemes and

vowels phonemes. The following 20 vowel phonemes are distinguished in BBC English (RP): [i:, a:, o:, u:, з:, i, e,; ei, ai, oi].

Principles of classification provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions:1. Stability of articulation1.1. monophthongs vs. diphthongsbit - bait, kit - kite, John - join, debt — doubt1.2. diphthongs vs. diphthongoids bile - bee, boat — boot, raid - rude

2. Position of the tongue 2.1. horizontal movement of the tongue a) front vs. Central cab — curb, bed — bird b) back vs. Central pull – pearl, cart - curl, call - curl 2.2. vertical movement of the tongue : -close (high) vs. Mid -open (mid)bid — bird, week - work open (low) vs. mid-open (mid) lark - lurk, call — curl, bard-bird

3. Position of the lips rounded vs. unrounded don — darn, pot - part The phonological analysis of English consonant sounds helps to distinguish

24 phonemes.. Principles of classification suggested by Russian phoneticians provide the basis for establishing of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of English consonants:

1.Degree of noise: bake - make, veal - wheel 2. Place of articulation labial vs. lingual: pain — cane lingual vs. glottal:

foam — home, care — hair, Tim - him3.Manner of articulation 3.1 occlusive vs. constrictive pine -fine, bat - that,

bee – thee 1.constrictive vs. affricates fare — chair, fail –jail 2. constrictive unicentral vs. constrictive bicentral same – shame 4. Work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation 4.1 voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis pen — Ben, ten - den, coat - goal 5. Position of the soft palate 5.1 oral vs. nasal pit — pin, seek — seen

9. By the degree of noise English consonants are devided into two general kinds: a) noise consonants; b) sonorants. If it is sound in which noise prevails over tone it is noise consonant (ex. p, b, fv, s, z, ð, θ ) Sonorants are sounds that differ greatly from other consonants. This is due to the fact that in their production the air passage between the two organs of speech is fairly wide, that is much wider than in the production of noise consonants. As a result, the auditory effect is tone, not noise (m, n, w, r, ŋ, l). Consonants and sonorants may be occlusive and constrictive.

10. 10. Occlusive and Constrictive consonantsAccording to the manner of articulation consonants may be of 3 groups:

Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth. Occlusive noise consonants ( stops ) – the breath is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then it is released with an explosion ( plosive ).

Occlusive sonorants ( nasal ) – made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose. 2. Constrictive consonants apw the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted. Constrictive noise consonants ( fricatives ) – apw the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction. Constrictive sonorants ( oral ) – made with an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise. 3. Occlusive – constrictive consonants ( affricates ) – noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction.

11. labial, lingual, glottal consonantsAccording to the position of the active organ of speech against the point

of articulation (theplace of obstruction) consonants are classified into: 1) labial, 2) lingual, 3) glottal.

Labial consonants are subdivided into: a) bilabial and b) labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced with both lips. They are the /p, b, m, w/. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are /f, v/.

Lingual consonants are subdivided into: a) forelingual, b) mediolingual and c) backlingual.

Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. According to the position of the tip of the tongue they may be: apical articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge /t, d, s, z, n, l/ and cacuminal /r/. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: (1) interdental / /, (2) alveolar /t, d, s, n, l/, (3) post-alveolar /r/, (4) palato-alveolar / /

Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate /j/.

Backlingual consonants are also called velar, they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate “velum” /k, g, /

The glottal consonant /h/ is articulated in the glottis.

12.modifications of consonantsPh mod-ns take place w/in the words which are connected and at their boundaries. All the sounds are prone to change.Assimilation is the adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain.Can be: progressive (a sound is influenced by a preceding sound) ex. Bridge – score[dζ]→[s]→[ς]lenis – fortis – fortislingularforelingualapicalpalate-alveolar – alveolar – palate-alveolarocclusive-constrictive – constr – const noise-noisebicentral – unicentral – bicentraloralregressive (anticipatory) the sound is influenced by the following sound ten balloons [m]←[n] [b], because [b] is bilabialGood night – both alveolar, but [d] disappears, because of [n] → g’ night

partial – only one or several distinctive features are modified and sounds become similar (bridge score)complete – the sound becomes absolutely similar to the influencing sound in all distinctive features (good night)coalescence – a mutual influence, where two sounds fuse into a sg new onewon’t she? [w∂Ụtςi]alveolar, occlusive, plosive [t] and palate-alveolar, constrictive [ς] →[tς] – palate-alveolar, a new sound – affricate (occlusive-constr), partial ass-nPractically in all cases – the change of the place of articulationThen the manner of articulation:-loss of plosion (glad to see u);-nasal (not now)-lateral (table, at last)Accommodation is the adaptive modification of V+C or C+V type.Affects lip position →labialization of consonants: appears under the influence of the neighbouring back vowels: pool, womanIt’s also possible to speak ab the spread lip position of consonants followed or preceded by front vowels [i] – meet and [i:] – team, meatSuch sounds as [r], [tς], [dζ] are pronounced by most speakers w/ rounded lips ever after [i:]. In the casual discourse: in the intervocalic position voiceless cons-ts change their voicing value and become voiced: [t] → [d] (letter)Elision (zero reduction) is the loss of sounds. Min – in slow, careful speech; max – in rapid, careless speech loss of [h] is widespreadhere he is ['iәr i iz][l] tend to be lost when preceded by [ō] – always [‘ر:wiz]Alveolar plosives ([t], [d]) are always elided in case the cluster is followed by another consonant:next day [‘neks ‘dei], just one [‘dζ^s ‘w^n]there also exist the so-called historical elisioninitial cons-s in “wright”, “know”,”knife”the medial cons-t [t] “fasten”, ‘listen”, “castle”the ways the sounds are elided in general:whole syllables – library [‘laibri:]some words are esp prone to elision:“of” + cons-t: a cup of tea [k^pә’ti:], going to [gon^], want to [won^]Liaison – the process of introducing sounds b/w syllables or words to help pronounce them in a more smooth way:“linking” r: clear [kliә] – clearer [‘kliәrә], teacher of English“intrusive” r – sometimes appear b/w the vowels. It’s not wanted here, doesn’t exist, but appears in speech to help pronounce more smooth: Ex. the idea [r] of it When the word-final vowel is a diphthong which glides to [i]: [ai], [ei] the palatal sonorant [j] tends to be inserted: saying [‘sai(j)iη]In case of the u-gliding diph-s: [ou], [au] the bilabial sonorant [w] is smtimes inserted: Ex. do itAll these phenomena manifest the economy of pronouncing effort on the part of the speaker.

13. VowelsVowels are voiced sounds in forming which the airstream passes freely

without any obstruction through the larynx the mouth cavity make the vocal cords vibrate. Vowels are classified:

in the stability of articulation: (1.l) monothongs - are vowels the articulation of which doesn’t change. The quality of such v-ls is relatively pare [i,e,a:, o:,);, u,3:, ?] ;(1.2) diphthongs in the pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech slide from one v-l position to another within one syllable. The nuclear of diphthongs is strong distinct the glide is very weak [ei, эi, au, ?u, є?, u?]. (1.3) In the pronunciation of diphthongs the articulation changes just a little bit.

But the difference between the nuclear the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs; [i:, u:].

The tongue position: horizontal movement of the tongue. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised up to the hard palate a front v-1 is pronounced [i:, e].

When the front of the tongue is raised towards to the back part of the lard palate the vowel is calledcentral (or mixed) [ ]. When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and raised up to the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced [a:, э, э:, u:]. Vertical movement high (or closed) vowels: [i:, u, u:], open (low) vowels [a:, o;].

The lip position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded.When the lips more or less round they called rounded [u;u].

Vowel length. All Eng. Monophthongs are divided into long[I:, a: u:,?:] and short[I e u a].

14. Diphthongs and diphthongoidsAccording to Russian scholars vowels are subdivided into: a)

monophthongs (the tongue position is stable); b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another); c) diphthongoids (an intermediate case, when the change in the position is fairly weak).

diphthong, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. In most dialects of English, the words eye, boy, and cow contain examples of diphthongs.Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where only one vowel sound is heard in a syllable. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables, as in, for example, the English word re-elect, the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes) ı – [eı, aı, ɔı]; u – [au, ǝu]; ǝ – [ıǝ, ɛǝ, ɔǝ, uǝ].

Дифтонгоид - это ударный неоднородный гласный, имеющий в начале или конце призвук другого гласного, артикуляционно-близкого к основному, ударному. [i:, u:]

15. modifications of vowelsModification of vowels. Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel sound in unstressed positions. This phenomenon is closely connected with the historical development of the language. R. reflects the process of lexical&gramm. Clanges. The neutral sound represents the reduced form of almost any vowel in the unstressed

position. But the quality of an unstressed vowel sound m.b. retained ▪in compound words ▪in borrowings from Latin/French, e.g. [‘gæra:з] R. is connected also with rhythm & sentence stress. R. is realized: ▪in unstr. syll. within words ▪in unstr. form-words, auxiliary and modal verbs, pers, and possessive pronouns. Types of reduction 1. Quantitative (shortening of a long vowel sound) Qualitative (both long and short vowels are shortened till [ə, i, u] Elision (the omission of vowel)

16. Sound alternationsThe sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical form

words, are known as sound alternations. For example: the dark [l] in spell alternate with the clear [l] in spelling; combine (n) [‘kσmbain], combine [kəm’bain] where [n] in the stressed syllable of the noun alternates with the neutral sound. It is perfectly obvious that sound alternations of this type are caused by assimilation, accommodation and reduction in speech. To approach the matter from the phonological viewpoint, it is important to differentiate phonemic and allophone alternations. Some sound alternations are traced to the phonemic changes in earlier periods of the language development and are known as historical. Historical alternations mark both vowels and consonants, though the alternating sounds are not affected by the phonemic position or context. The sounds changes, which occurred in the process of historical development of the language, are reflected in present-day English as alternations of phonemes differentiating words, their derivatives and grammatical forms. The following list of examples presents the types of alternations:

1. Vowel alternations. 1.1 Distinction of irregular verbal forms [i:-e-e] mean - meant - meant; [i-

æ-A] sing - sang - sung; [i-ei-i] give - gave - given; 1.2 Distinction of causal verbal forms: [i-e] sit - set; [ai-ei] rise - raise; [o -

e] fall-fell 1.3 Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words [a: -

æ] class - classify, [o: - e] long - length; [ei - æ] nation - national 2. Consonants alternations 2.1 Distinction of irregular verbal forms [d - t] send - sent 2.2 distinction of parts of speech [s - z] advice - advise; [k - t∫] speak -

speech; 3. Vowel and consonant alternations [i - ai] + [v - f] live - life; [a: - ae] + [θ -

ð] bath - bathe.

17. Stylistic modification of soundsStylistic modification is an expressive phonetic feature which lacks a

phonological relevance in language system."Ser" is just a stylistic modification of "Sir", there is no specific historical use, it's just a simple way for a writer trying to give a familiar term an exotic sound.

18. AssimilationAssimilation

19. accommodation -Modification in the articulation of a segment for the purpose of easing a transition to a following segment, as when English /k/ is fronted before a front vowel or glide (key, back yard), or when /t/ shifts from alveolar to dental before a dental fricative (eighth)

reduction is a quantitative or qualitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions: board- blackboard, man- postman.

1. R of length of vowel without changing its quality (quantitative R) you [ju:]-[ju]

2. R of quality of vowels (qualitative R) you [ju:]-[jʊ]3. The omission of vowel or consonant sound (zero R) he is-he’sElision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a

consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes, sounds may be elided for euphonic effect.The elided form of a word or phrase may become a standard alternative for the full form, if used often enough. In English, this is called a contraction, such as can't from cannot. Contraction differs from elision in that contractions are set forms that have morphologized, but elisions are not. comfortable: /ˈkʌmfərtəbəl/ → /ˈkʌmftərbəl/ fifth: /ˈfɪfθ/ → /ˈfɪθ/ him: /hɪm/ → /ɪm/.

20. The syllable is one or more speech sound forming a single uninterrupted

unit, which may be a word or a commonly subdivision of a word. In English a syllable is formed by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more consonants and by a word-final sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant. Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table, paper – 2 syl. The English Syllable hasonset : bar/more/; Initial segment of a syllable (Optional)nucleus: or/are Central segment of a syllable (Obligatory)coda : ought/ art Closing segment of a syllable (Optional). English syllable : starts with either 1, or 2 or even 3 consonants. nset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [ r ], [ l ], [ m ], [ n ], and the velar nasal (the 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleus of a syllable.CodaFinal : any consonant except for h,r,w,j may be final consonant. / 2 kinds ofFinal Cluster : pre-final+final/final+post finalPre-finals(m,n,nasal,l,s : bump,belt) /Post-finals(s,z,t,d,th : bets,beds)

So the structure of English Syllable is asOnset Nucleus Coda Ex. "texts, sixths, helped, bonds, play, strings, students"

Functions of s-s: 1) constitutive - constitute words, phrases & s-ces through the comb-n of

their prosodic features: loudness-stress, pitch-tone, duration-length & tempo. May be stressed, unstr-ed, high,mid, low, rising, falling, long, short. These pros-c features constitute the stress pattern of words, tonal& rhythmic str-re of an ut-ce, help to peform dist-ve variations on the s-le level. 2) distinctive & differentiatory f-n - word dis-ve f-n of a s-le. There are many comb-n dist-ed by means of the dif-ce in the place of the syl-c boundary. Close juncture – b-n sounds within one s-le, open – b-n two s-s, marked with+.

3) identificatory - is conditioned by the pron-n of the speaker. The listener understands if he perceives the correct s-c boundary – ‘syllabodisjuncture’ might rain – my train.

21. The syllabic structure has two aspects, which are inseparable from each other: syllable formation and syllable division. The syllable is one or more speech sound forming a single uninterrupted unit, which may be a word or a commonly subdivision of a word. In English a syllable is formed by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more consonants and by a word-final sonorant [m,n,l] immediately by a consonant. Are, it, man – 1 syllable,table, paper – 2 syl.

syllable division - this is a way of working out how to spell most two-syllable words and what happens when adding suffixes.

Vowels are: a e i o u and sometimes y.They can be short or long, e.g. căp or cāpe, hŏp or hōpe. ‘Y’ acts like a vowel if it

sounds like a vowel, e.g. in ‘cry’ (ī) and ‘happy’ (ē) or (ĭ), depending on your accent.

A syllable: is a beat in a word, e.g. pic nic.Syllables can be open as in ‘no’ or ‘be’.Here the vowel is long because there is no consonant wall blocking it.Or they can be closed as in ‘not’ and ‘bet’.Here we have a consonant wall blocking in the vowel and keeping it short.Two syllable wordsIn words of two syllables, if we treat each syllable independently, we can easily work

out how to spell and read them.To split words logically into syllables, mark the vowel with a ‘V’ for vowel and mark the

consonants between the vowels with a ‘C’ for consonant.If there are two consonants, always divide between the consonants as in: vc/cv

met/ric Here, the first syllable is closed and therefore has a short vowel sound – met. If there is only one consonant between the vowels, we usually divide before the consonant like this: v/cv o/pen The first syllable is open: ‘o’, therefore it has a long vowel sound (ō).

Regrettably, there are some exceptions, e.g. ‘robin’, but these tend to be common words, which are either already known or can be learnt as exceptions.

Adding suffixes A suffix is a letter, or group of letters added to a base or root word. There are vowel suffixes that start with a vowel, e.g. ‘ing’, ‘ed’, ‘y’, ‘able’ or consonant suffixes that start with a consonant, e.g. ‘ly’ ‘ness’, ‘ful’, ‘ment’. The spelling of suffixes never changes.

22. The accentual structure of words has three aspects: the physical (acoustic) nature of word accent; the position of the accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic words; the degrees of word accent.

Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. We perceive it as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed ws, stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress indicated by placing a stress mark before the stressed syllable: Stress is defined differently by different authors.

Word stress (WS) can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is usually a vowel.

All English words divided into mono- di- poly- syllabic. In most disyllabic words the accent falls on the initial syllable: mother, colour. In disyl word with prefix which has lost its meaning the stress falls on the secjnd syl.: become, begin. In most words of three or four syl the accent falls into third syllable from the end of the word: family, cinema. Most words with more than 4 syl have to stress” secondary and primary: intonation, unkind.

Types of English word stress according to its degree. • primary — the strongest• secondary — the second strongest, partial, • weak — all the other degrees. The syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress are termed stressed, while syllables with weak stress are called, somewhat inaccurately, unstressed.

23. Intonation is a complex unity of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech melody and voice timbre. Each syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a certain pitch level and bears a definite amount of loudness. Intonation patterns serve to actualize sense groups. Intonation is a language universal. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.

The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complex.

In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups. Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the

following parts:• the prehead• the head (the 1st accented syllable)• the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.)• the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of

the intonation pattern. • the tail – conveys no particular information

The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes.

The number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them are equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center). It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and phonetically.

24. The functions of intonation: constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the

one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)

delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).

distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:→ to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively

distinctive function)→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive

function)→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener

and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)

the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning).

→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance.

The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of an utterance.

Each component of intonation has its distinctive function.

25. Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English origin of the speaker.The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated with the stressed syllables or peaks of prominence.Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding stressed syllables — enclitics, or to the following stressed syllables — proclitics. In English, as a rule, only initial unstressed syllables cling to the following stressed syllable, non-initial unstressed syllables are usually enclitics.Each sense-group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly. Proclitics are pronounced faster than enclitics.Rhythm is connected with sentence stress. Under the influence of rhythm words which are normally pronounced with two equally strong stresses may lose one of them, or may have their word stress realized differently, e. g. ,Picca'dilly — ,Piccadilly 'Circus — 'close to ,Picca'dilly

26.Structural, semantic and sound devices for producing rhythmicality.Phonetic devices make impression of rhythmicality and add considerably to the musical quality a poem has when it is read aloud: 1)The rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other.2)The assonance occurs when a poet introduces imperfect rhymes often employed deliberatly to avoid the jingling sound of a too insistent rhyme pattern.3)Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at frequent intervals.4)Sound symbolism (imitation of the sounds of animals) makes the description very vivid.Structural or syntactical devices indicate the way the whole poem has been built, thus helping the rhythm to fulfil it`s constitutive function.1)Repetition: poets often repeat single lines or words at intervals to emphasize a particular idea. Pepetition is to be found in poetry which is aiming at special musical effects or when a poet wants us to pay very close attention to something.2)Syntactical parallelism helps to increase rhythmicality.3)Inversion, the unusual word order specially chosen to emphasize the logical centre of the phrase.4)Polysyndeton is syntactical stylistic device which actually stimulates rhythmicality of a poem by the repetition of phrases or intonation groups beginning with the same conjunctions `and` or `or`.Semantic devices- impart high artistic and aesthetic value to any work of art including poetry:1)Simile is a direct comparison which can be recognized by the use of the words `like` and `as`.2)Metaphor is a stylistic figure of speech which is rather like simile, except that the comparison is not direct but implied and makes the effect more striking.3)Intensification is a special choice of words to show the increase of feelings, emotions or actions.4)Personification occurs when inanimate objects are given a human form or human feelings or actions.

27. Stylistic use of int-n. Style – different manner of non-verbal expression. The choice of a speech style is situationally determined. Any act of verb.com-n is changed by certain int-nal peculiarities which depend on such extra-ling-c factors (effect the situation) as: 1) the purpose of com-n; 2) social setting of curc-s; 3) social identity of the speeker; 4) individual speech habits; 5) em-nal state of the speeker. An int-l style – a s-m of interrelated int-nal means, which is used in a certain social spere and serves the def-te aim of com-n.

Clas-n by Sh.Bally: 1) highly elevated style; 2) elaborate pron-n (тщательное); 3) slow coll.pron-n; 4) fluent coll.pron-n. Clas-n by Sokolova, Gintovt, Kanter: 1) inform-al – formal; radio, press; 2) scientific – accad.; 3) declamatory; 4) publicific; 5) conversational. Inform-n: intellectual, emotional, volitional.

28. There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style (speech of announces, oral representation of any kind of information written text, formal conversation) 2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific subject reading aloud a piece of scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse on a political topic economic y etc ) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of everyday communication) 5. declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o poetry)Informational style:1 a formal manner of presentation with occasionally interested оvertones and a number of hesitation and breath-taking pauses.2 normal or increased loudness, moderate or rather slow rate (tempo of speech), varied pitch levels, ranges and intonation patterns.3 businesslike, rather reserved voice timbre, systematic rhythm, the accentuation of the semantic centres through the use of expressive high falls and falling-rising tones, the use of several low falls within an intonation group and a phrase. 4 centralized accentuation, subjective isochrony contrasting with the rhythmicality achieved by the use of final categoric falls.The academic style:l The academic style represents the language of factual information, thus attitudinal and emphatic functions of intonation are of secondary importance here. 2 High falling and falling-rising terminal tones are widely used for logical and contrastive emphasis; the rhythmic organization of a scientific text is properly balanced by the alternation of all prosodic features.

3 The prosodic features of the academic-style reading are not greatly varied. 4 The phonostylistic characteristics of scientific discourse reading a overloaded with variations in tempo, loudness, pauses, pitch levels and ranges.Publicistic style:1intellectual and volitional information.2 volitional and desiderative information .3 attitudinal and emphatic meanings of intonation.4 a combination of appropriate prosodic features which are realized in other phonostyles. The declamatory style is called an artistic intonation style, the acquired style of the stage because: l this style manifests itself in a written form of the language read aloud or recited.2 attitudinal, volitional and intellectual functions of intonation come to the fore in this style, having the status of a style-ifferentiating value. 3 this style is performed on the stage, on the screen, on the radio, in a classroom.4 this style is realized through all sorts of emotional and expressive devices requiring professional skills.Conversational style:1 Some pauses in the given context are used in places related closely to the grammatical structures.2 The distribution of the pauses is correlated with falling terminal tones, the main factor of rhythmicality in informal English.3 The pauses are made in between the words that mark the boundaries of phonetic wholes. 4 A number of pauses occur in appropriate places where they break the syntactic junctures in the given context.

29. Functional styles. There are 5 styles by Sokolova, 1.informational style (speech of announces, oral representation of any kind of information written text, formal conversation) 2.scientific, academic st (a lecture o a scientific subject reading aloud a piece of scientific prose) 3.publicistic st (public discurse on a political topic economic y etc ) 4.conversational, familiar (the way of everyday communication) 5. declamatory (reading aloud any piece of prose o poetry)Phonostylistic is a part of linguistics it studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations. phonost is concearned with the study of phonetic expressive means from stylistic pint of view. Functional style is – complex of different varieties of speech realized in all kinds of extra linguistic situation.Dialectology is a study of language that focuses on understanding dialects. It is part of a larger group of studies called sociolinguistics, which evaluates the many elements that shape communication in whole cultures or in smaller groups. When dialectologists study language they are principally concerned with identifying how the same language can vary, based on a number of circumstances. This does not simply mean pronunciation changes, but can also mean differences in word choice, spelling and other factors.

30. Intonation and language teachingProsody (Intonation) is a complex unity of sentence stress, rhythm, tempo, speech melody and voice timbre. Each syllable in a sense group is pronounced on a certain pitch level and bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected with loudness; together with the tempo of speech they form intonation patterns. Intonation patterns serve to actualize sense groups. Intonation is a language universal. There is wide agreement among Russian linguists that on perception level intonation is a complex, a whole, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo closely related. Some Russian linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.The sense group is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complex. In Phonetics actualized sense groups are called intonation groups. Intonation patterns containing a number of syllables consist of the following parts:the preheadthe head (the 1st accented syllable)the scale (begins with the 1st acc.syll.)the nucleus (the last acc.syll.) – is the most important part of the intonation pattern. the tail – conveys no particular information The parts of intonation patterns can be combined in various ways expressing different meanings and attitudes. The more the height of the pitch contrasts within the intonation pattern, the more emphatic the intonation group is. The number of possible combinations is more than 100. But not all of them are equally important. That’s why the number may be reduced to fewer combinations that are important. Thus Prof. O’Connor gives 10 important tone-groups. Each intonation group has a communicative center (a semantic center). It conveys the most important piece of information. which is usually something new. The terminal tone arranges the intonation group both semantically and phonetically. The functions of intonation:constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts)delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups).distinctive It is realized when intonation serves:→ to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function)→ the actual meaning of a sentence (the semantically-distinctive function)→ the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally-distinctive function)→ the style of speech (the stylistically distinctive function)the syntactically distinctive function (one and the same syntactic unit may be divided into a different number of intonation groups. This division may be important for the meaning).→ the function of differentiating between the theme and the rheme of an utterance.

The rheme is the communicative center of an utterance. The theme is the rest of an utterance.Each component of intonation has its distinctive function. We should give preference to J.D.O.’ Connor and G.F. Arnold’s system, which has no fever then ten different nuclear tones. It’s quite sufficient for teaching pronunciation even to high-levelled learners. All the relevant pitch changes in the pre-nuclear part are indicated by arrows placed before the first stressed syllable instead of an ordinary tress-mark: That isn’t as simple as it sounds. We believe it’s clear that this system deserves recognition not only because it reflects all relevant variations of the two prosodic components of intonation but also because it serves a powerful visual aid for teaching pronunciation.

31. Variants of EnglishNowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-

speaking world: British English and American English.According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A.

Hughes and others), the following variants of English are referred to the English-based group: English English, Welsh English, Australian English, New Zealand English; to the American-based group: United States English, Canadian English. Scottish English and Ireland English fall somewhere between the two, being somewhat by themselves.

According to M. Sokolova and others, English English, Welsh English, Scottish English and Northern Irish English should be better combined into the British English subgroup, on the ground of political, geographical, cultural unity which brought more similarities - then differences for those variants of pronunciation.

32. Spread in English/English is spreading throughout the world far more rapidly than any other

language; however, the level of sentimental attachment or genuine liking for English falls far short of the level of necessity-based desire to learn it. There is a possibility that the spread of English is decreasing: given some rapid economic or military change around the world, there could be a concomitant separation of peoples' attachment to English. In many countries, local authorities are engaged in language planning to foster the positive image of the national language for many functions for all people, and simultaneously to foster the spread of English in its function--a difficult set of co-occurring goals. As the spread of English makes the rest of the world increasingly bilingual, the Anglophone world remains predominantly monolingual. There is substantial bilingual education in the United States, but it is primarily non-transitional; the level of functional bilingualism in the Anglo world is very low. The survival of America as a democratic civilization depends upon the survival of a pluralistic mythology through greater balance between English and the other languages in the U.S. It is the responsibility of CATESOL and all the TESOL's to work toward such a balance. (EJS)

33.English-based pronunciation standarts of English.British E Pronunciation Standards and Accents(BEPS) comprise English English(EE), Welsh English(WE), Scottish English(ScE) and Northern Ireland English(NIE).EE: roughly speaking the non-RP accents of E may be grouped like this:1. Southern accents1)Southern accents (Great London, Cockey, Surray, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire);2)East Anglia accents (Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, bedfordshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire);3)South-West accents (Gloucestershire, Avon, Somerset, Wiltshire).2. Northern and Midland accents.1) Northern accents (Northumberland, Durham, Cleveland)2) Yorkshire accents:3)North-West accents (Lancashire, cheshire)4)West Midland (Birmingham,Wolverhampton)

34. Received Pronunciation A pronunciation model is a carefully chosen and defined accent of a language. In the nineteenth century Received Pronunciation (RP) was a social marker, a prestige accent of an Englishman. "Received" was understood in the sense of "accepted in the best society". The speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London area. Then it lost its local characteristics and was finally fixed as a ruling-class accent, often referred to as "King's English". It was also the accent taught at public schools. With the spread of education cultured people not belonging to upper classes were eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standards. A more broadly-based and accessible model accent for British English is represented in the 15th (1997) and the 16th (2003) editions – ВВС English. This is the pronunciation of professional speakers employed by the BBC as newsreaders and announcers. Of course, one finds differences between such speakers - they have their own personal characteristics, and an increasing number of broadcasters with Scottish, Welsh and Irish accents are employed. On this ground J.C. Wells (Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 33rd

edition - 2000) considers that the term BBC pronunciation has become less appropriate. According to J.C. Wells, in England and Wales RP is widely regarded as a model for correct pronunciation, particularly for educated formal speech.

35.Changes in the standart.Considerable changes are observed in the sound system of the present day E, which are most remarkable since the well-known Great Vowel Shift in the Midle E period of the language development. The RP of recent years is characterized by a greater amount of permissible variants compared to the `classical` type of RP described by Jones and Armstrong.The phenomenon is significant both from the theoretical and practical point of view. The variability concerns mainly vowels. Most of E. vowels have undergone definite qualitative changes. The qualitative distinctions manifest new allophonic realization of the vowel phonemes. Ch.Barber comes to the conclusion that a definite trend towards centralization is observed in the quality of E vowels at present.Changes of wovel quality:1.According to the stability of articulation:a) Two historically long vowels [I:], [u:] have become diphthongized and are often called diphthongoids: the organs of speech slightly change their articulation by the very end of pronunciation, becoming more fronted.b) there is a tendency for some of the existing diphthongs to be smoothed out, to become shorter, so that they are more like pure vowels.2. According to the horizontal and vertical movements of the tongue. The tendency is marked by the centering of both front and back vowels.3.Combinative changes.4.Changes in lenth.Changes in Consonant quality1. Voicing and Devoicing. Increase in tendency for devoicing. As soon as the oppositional of voiced – voiceless is neutralized in the final position, the fortis/lenis character of pronunciation has become the relevant feature of consonants.2. Loss of [h].3. [hw] insteed of [w] in why, what, when.4. Loss of final [n –носової].5. Glottal stop [?] like in the batmen [t] is absent – [bae? Man]6. Palatalized final [k] is stronger in words like `week`.7. Linking and intrustive [r] is not heard in such phrases as `far away`.8.Combinative changes. Softening of the [tj] [dj], [sj].

37.General American