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Writing a proposalWriting a proposalWhat is research?What is research?
Basic research processBasic research process
Formulating research questionsFormulating research questions
Good research questionsGood research questionsCharacteristics of good researchCharacteristics of good research
Proposal outlineProposal outline
DiscussionDiscussion
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What is research?What is research?
an ORGANISED and SYSTEMATIC wayan ORGANISED and SYSTEMATIC wayof FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
-- OrganisedOrganised: there is a structure or method: there is a structure or method
in going about doing research. It is ain going about doing research. It is a
planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.It is focused and limited to a specificIt is focused and limited to a specific
scope.scope.
-- SystematicSystematic: definite set of procedures: definite set of procedures
and steps which you will follow. There areand steps which you will follow. There are
certain things in the research process whichcertain things in the research process which
are always done in order to get the mostare always done in order to get the most
accurate results.accurate results.22Victoria University of WellingonVictoria University of Wellingon--
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What is research?What is research?
-- Finding AnswersFinding Answers: the end of all research.: the end of all research.Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis orWhether it is the answer to a hypothesis or
even a simple question, research iseven a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers.successful when we find answers.
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is stillSometimes the answer is no, but it is still
an answer.an answer.
-- QuestionsQuestions: central to research. If there is: central to research. If there is
no question, then the answer is of no use.no question, then the answer is of no use.Research is focused on relevant, useful,Research is focused on relevant, useful,
and important questions. Without aand important questions. Without a
question, research has no focus, drive, orquestion, research has no focus, drive, or
purpose.purpose. 33Victoria University of WellingonVictoria University of Wellingon--New ZealandNew Zealand
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Basic research processBasic research process
-- Ask a questionAsk a question-- Form a hypothesisForm a hypothesis
-- Look for evidence to test theLook for evidence to test the
hypothesishypothesis-- Evaluate hypothesisEvaluate hypothesis
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Formulating research questionsFormulating research questions
Phase 1: General questionPhase 1: General questionEveryday experience (e.g., diaries)Everyday experience (e.g., diaries)
Research in other fields (e.g., education,Research in other fields (e.g., education,
literacy, anthropology, psychology)literacy, anthropology, psychology)
Overall, most questions come fromOverall, most questions come from
observation and curiosityobservation and curiosity
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Formulating research questionsFormulating research questions
Phase two: moving from a generalPhase two: moving from a generalquestion to a focused question.question to a focused question.
This is done based on:This is done based on:
Previous literaturePrevious literature
ImportanceImportanceFeasibilityFeasibility
ApproachApproach
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Good research questionsGood research questions1. Are interesting to the researcher1. Are interesting to the researcher
2. Promise to yield new information or2. Promise to yield new information or
confirm old information in new waysconfirm old information in new ways
3. Have defined scope3. Have defined scope
4. Have a definable terms4. Have a definable terms
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Good research questionsGood research questionsTheoretical definitionsTheoretical definitionsabstract theoreticalabstract theoretical
constructs that we may understand but cannotconstructs that we may understand but cannot
define precisely (e.g.,define precisely (e.g., bilingualbilingualconsider: howconsider: how
many ways is the term 'bilingual' used?)many ways is the term 'bilingual' used?)
Operational definitionsOperational definitionsprecise definitions ofprecise definitions of
how you will use the term in your research (e.g.,how you will use the term in your research (e.g.,For this research, 'bilingual' =For this research, 'bilingual' = Children whoChildren who
completed years 1completed years 1--5 in French immersion schools5 in French immersion schools
in Torontoin Toronto))
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
InterestInterest-- TimelyTimelybased on current ideas orbased on current ideas or
theories, not outdatedtheories, not outdated
PersonalPersonalresearcher has personalresearcher has personalinterest in itinterest in it
PayoffPayoffwhat is the benefit of thewhat is the benefit of the
researchresearch
why is it important that wewhy is it important that weknow?know?
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
OriginalityOriginality
A new questionA new question
A new contextA new context
A more complete view of data (e.g., data fromA more complete view of data (e.g., data fromnew sources)new sources)
A new analysis of old data (looking at it from aA new analysis of old data (looking at it from a
new perspective)new perspective)
Even replication = establish generalizabilityEven replication = establish generalizability
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
SpecificitySpecificity
Precise description (and delineation) of whatPrecise description (and delineation) of what
youre studyingyoure studying
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
DisseminationDissemination
While presenting or publishing is oftenWhile presenting or publishing is often
seen as the last step in research, it is alsoseen as the last step in research, it is also
part of the process.part of the process.
Putting research in public forums allowsPutting research in public forums allows
for critique and questioning, bringing infor critique and questioning, bringing in
other perspectivesother perspectives
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
SensitivitySensitivity
E.g., discriminatory power of testsE.g., discriminatory power of tests
E.g., appropriateness of dataE.g., appropriateness of dataelicitation techniqueselicitation techniques
E.g., insider, participantE.g., insider, participant
information and perspectivesinformation and perspectives
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
ObjectivityObjectivity
Focus is on research/data, not onFocus is on research/data, not on
researchers ideas, personality, etc.researchers ideas, personality, etc.
Avoiding experimenter biasAvoiding experimenter biase.g.,e.g.,
biasing participants due to researcher orbiasing participants due to researcher or
teacher preferencesteacher preferences
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
ValidityValidity
Internal Validity/Credibility:Internal Validity/Credibility:
how closely do the data reflect reality?how closely do the data reflect reality?
how closely does the interpretation reflect reality?how closely does the interpretation reflect reality?
External Validity/Generalizability:External Validity/Generalizability:
Are the results true for the population, or due toAre the results true for the population, or due to
particular characteristics of the articipants/setting?particular characteristics of the articipants/setting?
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
Reliability/DependabilityReliability/Dependability
How confident are you in your measurementsHow confident are you in your measurements
How dependable are the dataHow dependable are the data
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
FalsifiabilityFalsifiability
There needs to be a way to show that theThere needs to be a way to show that the
theory is wrong. If something cannot betheory is wrong. If something cannot be
disproved, it cant be proved eitherdisproved, it cant be proved either
Hypotheses (and conclusions) should notHypotheses (and conclusions) should not
be circularbe circular
Hypotheses must be stated preciselyHypotheses must be stated preciselyenough that evidence can be gathered forenough that evidence can be gathered for
or against themor against them
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
ReplicabilityReplicability
Is it clearly reported enough thatIs it clearly reported enough that
you could do the same thing?you could do the same thing?
If you do the same study, will youIf you do the same study, will you
get the same answers?get the same answers?
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
GeneralizabilityGeneralizability
What does the research tell us about theWhat does the research tell us about the
larger phenomenonlarger phenomenon
How local is the applicability ?How local is the applicability ?
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
UtilityUtility
Can the findings be used? Are theyCan the findings be used? Are they
relevant to a realrelevant to a real--world context?world context?
Applications are rarely directApplications are rarely directitsits
important to note the tentativeimportant to note the tentative
relationship between mostrelationship between most
research and realresearch and real--world contextsworld contexts
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Characteristics of Good ResearchCharacteristics of Good Research
EthicsEthics
Ethical approval from an independent bodyEthical approval from an independent body
Participants protected (e.g., confidentialityParticipants protected (e.g., confidentiality
respected)respected)
Data is the property of the participants (they canData is the property of the participants (they can
back out at any time)back out at any time)
Participants freely consent to participate and toParticipants freely consent to participate and to
uses of datauses of data Researchers are realistic/responsible in theResearchers are realistic/responsible in the
interpretation/application of their findingsinterpretation/application of their findings
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Pure and Applied ResearchPure and Applied Research
Pure: Research just to understandPure: Research just to understand
Applied: Research to do somethingApplied: Research to do something
Application of research results to SLApplication of research results to SL
teachingteaching
Applying research processesApplying research processes
Body of knowledge/theoryBody of knowledge/theory--building onbuilding on
applied mattersapplied matters
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Descriptive and ExperimentalDescriptive and Experimental
DescriptiveDescriptive
Concerned with documenting how thingsConcerned with documenting how things
occur in the real worldoccur in the real world
ExperimentalExperimental
Concerned with findings relationshipsConcerned with findings relationships
among variablesamong variables
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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
Description by numbersDescription by numbers
Measurement of traits, skillsMeasurement of traits, skills
Counting of phenomenaCounting of phenomena Multiple measurements allow forMultiple measurements allow for
description of the populationdescription of the population
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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
Significance in terms of probabilitySignificance in terms of probability
Significance = likelihood that it couldSignificance = likelihood that it could
have been produced by chancehave been produced by chance
Statistical testing allows us to determineStatistical testing allows us to determinethis likelihood over a populationthis likelihood over a population
Remember, significant is not the same asRemember, significant is not the same as
meaningfulmeaningfulresearch is only meaningfulresearch is only meaningful
when the questions are of interest and thewhen the questions are of interest and the
study is wellstudy is well--designeddesigned
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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
Use of experimental/quasiUse of experimental/quasi--
experimental designsexperimental designs
Designs attempt to identify independentDesigns attempt to identify independent
and dependent variablesand dependent variables Designs control for confoundingDesigns control for confounding
variablesvariables
Independent variables are manipulated toIndependent variables are manipulated to
determine whether they effect thedetermine whether they effect the
dependent variablesdependent variables
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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
Generalization from sample toGeneralization from sample topopulationpopulation
No research studies an entire population but aNo research studies an entire population but a
sample drawn from that populationsample drawn from that population
Findings are generalized across the populationFindings are generalized across the population
But to what limitsBut to what limits
What factors might limit generalisability?What factors might limit generalisability?
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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research
The search for a causeThe search for a cause The point of quantitative research isThe point of quantitative research is
to determine whether one variableto determine whether one variable
causes change in anothercauses change in another Usually, multiple factors combine toUsually, multiple factors combine to
produce an effectproduce an effect
Good quantitative research needs toGood quantitative research needs to
account for thataccount for that
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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
EthnographyEthnography Emic perspective: considers the rules,Emic perspective: considers the rules,
beliefs, meanings of participants themselvesbeliefs, meanings of participants themselves
Holistic: seek to understand aHolistic: seek to understand a
phenomenon completelyphenomenon completelygather as muchgather as much
data as possibledata as possible
not abstractednot abstractedconsider contextconsider context
Grounded: research decisions arise fromGrounded: research decisions arise fromthe datathe data
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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
Participant researchParticipant research
Researcher is a member of theResearcher is a member of thecommunitycommunity
Researcher takes a role in theResearcher takes a role in the
communitycommunity
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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
Local and nonLocal and non--local organisationlocal organisation
What do actions mean to participantsWhat do actions mean to participants(local meaning)(local meaning)
How do actions compare in otherHow do actions compare in other
populations (nonpopulations (non--local meaning)local meaning)
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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research
Plausible interpretationsPlausible interpretations
Adequate amount of evidence forAdequate amount of evidence for
interpretationsinterpretations
Variety of data typesVariety of data types
Disconfirming evidence should be soughtDisconfirming evidence should be sought Discrepant cases should be carefullyDiscrepant cases should be carefully
analysedanalysed
Data should be analysed withoutData should be analysed without
prejudiceprejudicebecause qualitative analysis isbecause qualitative analysis is
interpretation, researchers should takeinterpretation, researchers should take
care to form hypothesis that arise fromcare to form hypothesis that arise from
the data, NOT seek to interpret data in athe data, NOT seek to interpret data in a
way that confirms their hypothesisway that confirms their hypothesis3232Victoria University of WellingonVictoria University of Wellingon--
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ReferencesReferences
Books from other fieldsBooks from other fields
Research JournalsResearch Journals
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proposalproposalPurpose: Why are you engaging in the research?Purpose: Why are you engaging in the research?
Topic: What are you going to investigate?Topic: What are you going to investigate?
Focus: What is the precise questions you areFocus: What is the precise questions you are
going to ask yourself within that area?going to ask yourself within that area?
Product: What is the likely outcome of theProduct: What is the likely outcome of the
research as you intend it?research as you intend it? Mode: How are you going to conduct theMode: How are you going to conduct the
research?research?
Timing: How long will it take you to completeTiming: How long will it take you to complete
the research?the research? Resources: What are the resources both humanResources: What are the resources both human
and materials you can call upon to help youand materials you can call upon to help you
compete the research?compete the research?
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VUW Research statementVUW Research statementA statement of no more than three pagesA statement of no more than three pages
(500(5001500 words) based on the following1500 words) based on the followingquestions:questions:
Why do you want to do PhD research?Why do you want to do PhD research?
What are you interested in?What are you interested in?
Why are you interested in it?Why are you interested in it?
In answering tell us what you already knowIn answering tell us what you already know
about your area of interest, referring to anyabout your area of interest, referring to any
literature you think it appropriate.literature you think it appropriate.Find another topic of your interest andFind another topic of your interest and
develop a similar statement . This helps finddevelop a similar statement . This helps find
your supervisors more quickly.your supervisors more quickly.3535Victoria University of WellingonVictoria University of Wellingon--
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Sample Research Proposals (VUWSample Research Proposals (VUW
standard)standard)Sample research proposal1Sample research proposal1
Sample research proposal 2Sample research proposal 2
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Questions?Questions?
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