Shifting the Technology Context: Career-Change...
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Shifting the Technology Context: Career-Change Entrants’ Transition into Teaching Deborah Anne Kember BHMS (Ed) Qld, GradDipEd(CompEd) QUT, MEd QUT A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre of Learning Innovation, Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology 2011
Transcript of Shifting the Technology Context: Career-Change...
Shifting the Technology Context:
Career-Change Entrants’
Transition into Teaching
Deborah Anne Kember
BHMS (Ed) Qld, GradDipEd(CompEd) QUT, MEd QUT
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Centre of Learning Innovation,
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
2011
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Abstract
Becoming a teacher in technology-rich classrooms is a complex and challenging
transition for career-change entrants. Those with generic or specialist Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) expertise bring a mindset about purposeful
uses of ICT that enrich student learning and school communities. The transition
process from a non-education environment is both enhanced and constrained by
shifting the technology context of generic or specialist ICT expertise, developed
through a former career as well as general life experience. In developing an
understanding of the complexity of classrooms and creating a learner centred way of
working, perceptions about learners and learning evolve and shift. Shifts in thinking
about how ICT expertise supports learners and enhances learning preceded shifts in
perceptions about being a teacher, working with colleagues, and functioning in
schools that have varying degrees of intensity and impact on evolving professional
identities. Current teacher education and school induction programs are seen to be
falling short of meeting the needs of career-change entrants and, as a flow on, the
students they nurture.
Research (see, for example, Tigchelaar, Brouwer, & Korthagen, 2008;
Williams & Forgasz, 2009) highlights the value of generic and specialist expertise
career-change teachers bring to the profession and draws attention to the challenges
such expertise begets (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003). As such, the study described in this thesis investigated perceptions of career-
change entrants, who have generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist expertise,
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that is, ICT qualifications and work experience in the use of ICT. The career-change
entrants‘ perceptions were sought as they shifted the technology context and
transitioned into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The research involved an
interpretive analysis of qualitative data and quantitative data. The study used the
explanatory case study (Yin, 1994) methodology enriched through grounded theory
processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), to develop a theory about professional identity
transition from the perceptions of the participants in the study. The study provided
insights into the expertise and experiences of career change entrants, particularly in
relation to how professional identities that include generic and specialist ICT
knowledge and expertise were reconfigured while transitioning into the teaching
profession.
This thesis presents the Professional Identity Transition Theory that
encapsulates perceptions about teaching in technology-rich classrooms amongst a
selection of the increasing number of career-change entrants. The theory, grounded
in the data, (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) proposes that career-change entrants
experience transition phases of varying intensity that impact on professional identity,
retention and development as a teacher. These phases are linked to a shift in
perceptions rather than time as a teacher. Generic and specialist expertise in the use
of ICT is a weight of the past and an asset that makes the transition process more
challenging for career-change entrants.
The study showed that career-change entrants used their experiences and
perceptions to develop a way of working in a school community. Their way of
working initially had an adaptive orientation focussed on immediate needs as their
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teaching practice developed. Following a shift of thinking, more generative ways of
working focussed on the future emerged to enable continual enhancement and
development of practice. Sustaining such learning is a personal, school and systemic
challenge for the teaching profession.
Keywords: career change, career-change entrant, ICT, professional development,
professional identity, professional learning, quality teaching, teachers, transition
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Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iii
Keywords: .................................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables............................................................................................................. xiii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................... xiv
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xv
Declaration of original authorship ............................................................................ xvi
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. xvii
Chapter 1 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Purpose and aim .............................................................................................. 10
1.3 Significance .................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Design of the study ......................................................................................... 14
1.4.1 Electronic survey ................................................................................. 15
1.4.2 Semi-structured interviews .................................................................. 16
1.4.3 Theory building ................................................................................... 16
1.5 Role of the researcher ..................................................................................... 17
1.6 Overview of the thesis .................................................................................... 17
1.7 Summary ......................................................................................................... 20
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Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................23
2.1 Teaching in technology-rich classrooms .........................................................26
2.1.1 Workplace change ..................................................................................26
2.1.2 Becoming a teacher and being a teacher.................................................29
2.1.2.1 Professional Standards .............................................................31
2.1.2.2 Professional learning ...............................................................35
2.1.3 Learning needs of contemporary students ............................................42
2.2 Careers and change ..........................................................................................47
2.2.1 Careers ..................................................................................................48
2.2.2 Career change .......................................................................................49
2.2.3 Career-change entrants .........................................................................51
2.2.4 Transition ..............................................................................................53
2.3 Professional identity ........................................................................................56
2.3.1 Demographic characteristics ................................................................60
2.3.1.1 Previous careers of career-change entrants .............................61
2.3.1.2 The impact of age and gender on the transition process ..........61
2.3.2 Expectations about becoming a teacher ...............................................63
2.3.3 Existing knowledge and expertise ........................................................68
2.3.3.1 Generic knowledge and expertise .............................................69
2.3.3.2 Specialist knowledge and expertise ..........................................73
2.3.4 Confidence to teach ..............................................................................76
2.3.5 Beliefs about teaching and learning .....................................................78
2.3.6 Motivation to become a teacher ...........................................................81
2.4 Summary of key findings.................................................................................88
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Chapter 3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................... 91
3.1 Outline of the conceptual framework ............................................................. 92
3.2 Levels of impact .............................................................................................. 95
3.3 Learning from the past and the present ......................................................... 100
3.4 Learning through creating a future ............................................................... 106
3.4.1 The Theory of the U Movement ........................................................ 107
3.4.2 The Futures Triangle ......................................................................... 111
3.5 Towards a theory of professional identity transition .................................... 113
Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 117
4.1 Rationale ....................................................................................................... 118
4.1.1 Explanatory case study ..................................................................... 119
4.1.2 Case study enriched by grounded theory .......................................... 120
4.1.3 Grounded theory ................................................................................ 122
4.1.3.1 The systematic design of grounded theory ........................... 123
4.1.3.2 The emerging design of grounded theory ............................. 124
4.1.3.3 The constructivist design of grounded theory ...................... 124
4.2 Case study components ................................................................................. 125
4.2.1 Research questions ............................................................................ 126
4.2.2 Propositions and links to the data ...................................................... 126
4.2.3 Units of analysis ................................................................................ 127
4.2.4 Criteria to interpret findings .............................................................. 127
4.3 Research design ........................................................................................... 128
4.3.1 Participants ........................................................................................ 128
4.3.1.1 Electronic survey participants .............................................. 128
4.3.1.2 Interview participants ........................................................... 129
4.3.2 Sequence of the study ........................................................................ 131
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4.4 Research method ............................................................................................132
4.4.1 Data Collection ...................................................................................133
4.4.1.1 Data collection through electronic survey .................................133
4.4.1.2 Data collection through semi-structured interviews ..................138
4.4.2 Data analysis ......................................................................................142
4.4.2.1 Analysis of survey data .............................................................142
4.4.2.2 Analysis of semi-structured interview data ................................144
4.4.2.3 Theory development ...................................................................151
4.5 Validity and reliability ...................................................................................152
4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................154
Chapter 5 SURVEY FINDINGS ...........................................................................157
5.1 Background information ................................................................................160
5.1.1 Survey responses ................................................................................160
5.1.2 Initial descriptive stories ....................................................................172
5.1.3 Summary of background findings ......................................................174
5.2. ICT knowledge and expertise ........................................................................176
5.2.1 Summary of findings ..........................................................................187
5.3 Potential use of ICT for teaching and learning ..............................................188
5.3.1 Beliefs about how ICT will be used for teaching and learning ..........189
5.3.2 Further comments from participants ..................................................193
5.3.3 Current level of confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning .....195
5.3.4 Summary of findings ..........................................................................199
5.4 Expectations about teaching and learning .....................................................200
5.4.1 Motivation to teach .............................................................................201
5.4.2 Challenging issues ..............................................................................205
5.4.3 Learning expectations .........................................................................209
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5.4.4 Availability of resources .................................................................... 213
5.4.5 ICT use as a teacher ........................................................................... 218
5.4.6 Summary of findings ......................................................................... 222
5.5 Review of the survey data collection ........................................................... 224
Chapter 6 THEORY BUILDING ......................................................................... 227
6.1 Coding and categorising ............................................................................... 230
6.1.1 Collegiality ........................................................................................ 233
6.1.2 Practicalities ....................................................................................... 235
6.1.3 Logistics............................................................................................. 240
6.2 Enhanced descriptive stories and coding paradigms .................................... 243
6.2.1 Novice career-change entrants‘ descriptive stories ........................... 247
6.2.2 Novice career-change entrants‘ coding paradigm ............................. 259
6.2.2.1 Expertise differential ............................................................ 263
6.2.2.2 Connections to the former career........................................... 264
6.2.2.3 Expectations about school resources .................................... 265
6.2.3 Experienced Novice career-change entrants‘ descriptive stories ...... 267
6.2.4 Experienced Novices‘ coding paradigms ......................................... 283
6.2.4.1 Going with the flow .............................................................. 285
6.2.4.2 Keeping up, fitting in and finding strengths ......................... 287
6.2.4.3 Acquiring resources .............................................................. 288
6.2.5 Early Career Professionals‘ descriptive stories ................................. 290
6.2.6 Early Career Professionals‘ coding paradigm ................................... 302
6.2.6.1 Enhancing student learning .................................................. 305
6.2.6.2 Meaningful professional learning ......................................... 306
6.2.6.3 Collegial learning ................................................................. 307
6.3 General orientation, key foci and s-propositions .......................................... 308
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6.4 Chapter summary ...........................................................................................309
Chapter 7 THE PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY TRANSITON THEORY ........315
7.1 Outline of the Professional Identity Transition Theory .................................319
7.1.1 The weight and the value of the past ..................................................323
7.1.2 Perception shifts .................................................................................326
7.1.2.1 Pedagogical shifts ..................................................................327
7.1.2.2 Relational shifts .....................................................................328
7.1.2.3 Confidence shifts ...................................................................328
7.1.2.4 Motivation shifts ....................................................................329
7.2 Limitations of the study .................................................................................329
7.3 Recommendations for further study ..............................................................330
7.4 Postscript .......................................................................................................331
References .................................................................................................................335
Appendix 1 ONLINE SURVEY ...............................................................................357
Appendix 2 CODING PARADIGM FOR NOVICE TEACHERS ..........................361
Appendix 3 CODING PARADIGM FOR EXPERIENCED NOVICES .................362
Appendix 4 CODING PARADIGM FOR EARLY CAREER PROFESSIONALS 363
Appendix 5 THE PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY TRANSITION THEORY ...........364
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Mapping of levels of influence ................................................................... 97
Table 4.1 Pseudonyms and career stage of interview participants ......................... 131
Table 4.2 Sample questions from Part A of the survey ............................................ 135
Table 4.3 Sample questions from Part B and C of the survey.................................. 136
Table 4.4 Sample questions from Part D of the survey ............................................ 137
Table 4.5 Sample questions from Part D of the survey ............................................ 138
Table 4.6 Categories of questions used to commence interviews ............................ 141
Table 4.7 Stages in the creation of s-propositions ................................................... 146
Table 5.1 Age and gender distribution of survey participants ................................. 161
Table 5.1a Age and gender distribution of QUT ED38 pre-service students ......... 161
Table 5.1b Age and gender distribution of QUT Education faculty students .......... 162
Table 5.2 Highest qualification of career-change entrants ..................................... 163
Table 5.3 Currency of qualification and related work experience .......................... 165
Table 5.5Work experience and related qualification by gender .............................. 169
Table 5.6 Disciplines of highest qualifications ........................................................ 171
Table 5.7 Use of ICT in previous occupation .......................................................... 179
Table 5.8 Use of ICT in previous studies ................................................................. 182
Table 5.9 Use of other ICT resources and devices in previous career .................... 184
Table 5.10 Beliefs about how ICT will be used for teaching and learning .............. 190
Table 5.11 ICT use in teaching and learning ........................................................... 194
Table 5.12 Level of confidence to use ICT for teaching and
learning.......................197
Table 5.13 Reasons to become a teacher ................................................................. 203
Table 5.14 Challenging issues in relation to teaching and learning ....................... 206
Table 5.15 ICT learning expectations ...................................................................... 210
Table 5.16 How availability of ICT facilities will influence practice ...................... 215
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Table 5.17 Perceived changes in ICT use .................................................................220
Table 6.1 Open coding categories ............................................................................232
Table 6.2 Comparison of interview participants ......................................................246
Table 7.1 Transition phases ......................................................................................322
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Fields of study .......................................................................................24
Figure 2.3 The ‗‗FIT-Choice‘‘ framework: (Watt & Richardson, 2006, p. 32) ......83
Figure 3.1 The conceptual framework ....................................................................93
Figure 3.2 The onion: A model of levels of change (Korthagen, 2004, p. 80) .......96
Figure 3.3 Levels of impact on career change entrants ...........................................99
Figure 3.4 Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984, p. 42) ..............................103
Figure 3.5 Experiential learning during transition processes ................................106
Figure 3.6 The Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al, 2005, p. 219) ...............108
Figure 3.7 The Futures Triangle (Inaytullah, 2006, p. 660) ..................................111
Figure 4.1 Coding paradigm .................................................................................150
Figure 6.1 Summary Stages 1-3 of interview data analysis .................................230
Figure 6.2 Summary Stages 1-5 of interview data analysis ................................245
Figure 6.3 Coding paradigm for Novice Teachers ...............................................261
Figure 6.4 Coding paradigm for Experienced Novices ........................................284
Figure 6.5 Coding paradigm for Early Career Professionals ...............................304
Figure 6.6 Stages 5-7 of interview data analysis ................................................308
Figure 6.7 The s - Propositions ............................................................................313
Figure 7.1 The Professional Identity Transition Theory ......................................318
Figure 7.2 Perception shifts .................................................................................321
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Abbreviations
The abbreviations used in the thesis are explicated in full (in first usage) and can
generally be determined from the text in which the abbreviation appears. The
following list of abbreviations appears within the text.
AITSL Australian Institute for Teaching & School Leadership
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
ANZSCO Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations
AQF Australian Qualifications Framework
AUTOCAD Auto Computer aided design
CAD Computer aided design
CAM Computer aided manufacturing
CD Compact disk
COAG Council of Australian Governments
DVD Digital video disk
GIS Geographical information systems
ICT Information and communication technology
ITQNP
ITS
Improving Teacher Quality National Partnership
Information Technology Systems
KLA Key learning area
MCEETYA Ministerial Council for Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs
NEA National Education Agreement
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PC Personal computer
QCT Queensland College of Teachers
Qld Queensland
QUT
SOSE
Queensland University of Technology
Studies of Society and Environment
TPACK Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge
TDA Training & Development Agency for Schools, UK
UK United Kingdom
US United States of America
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation
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Declaration of original authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material published or written
by another person except where due reference is made.
Signed
Date 17/1/2011
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Acknowledgements
Principal supervisor, Dr Margaret Lloyd, is an inspirational teacher, mentor,
supervisor and colleague who has also shaped, challenged and fostered my thinking
over a ten year period. Margaret approaches her work with passion and dedication
far beyond the call of duty. The stories, lessons and experiences she shares with me
continue to enthuse, inspire and motivate. Thanks does not seem enough.
Thanks also to Professor Peter Taylor who assisted in the early stages of the
thesis and Dr Vinesh Chandra who wove magic from data. My thanks also extends
to Bruce Young who created the online survey. Further appreciation goes to the staff
who led the Education doctorate at QUT. Without their support during the initial
stages of this thesis no progress would have been possible. Professor Susan Danby,
Adjunct Professor Rod Nason and many others gave their time to share their wisdom
and break down obstacles. Colleagues in the Education Doctorate cohort of 2006
provided welcome support and encouragement particularly through the frustrating
times when progress was slow.
The participants in this study made this thesis possible. I hope that I have
been able to give voice to their courage and determination to create a different future
through career change. My heartfelt thanks goes to my husband whose everlasting
faith and optimism kept me moving forward and to my parents who provided
opportunity and determination.
This thesis is dedicated to Harry and Lorna Kember.
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1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The future is ... one we are creating. The paths are ... made, and the activity of
making them, changes both the maker and the destination.
(John Schaar, 1989, p. 321)
The study described in this thesis investigated becoming and being a teacher as a
career-change entrant in technology-rich classrooms. Central to this investigation
were the perceptions of those who opted to change careers to teaching from a wide
range of professional, technical and service arenas and bring with them professional
knowledge and expertise, a sense of commitment and professionalism (Freidus,
1994; Mayotte, 2003). In particular, the focus of the study was on career-change
entrants for whom Information and Communication Technology (ICT) was integral
to their way of working in a former career. The perceptions of these career-change
entrants about becoming and being a teacher were formed throughout their lives
through, for example, recollections of their own or their children‘s schooling
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) or through their previous work experiences.
Such perceptions had an impact on professional engagement, development and
quality of work (Watt & Richardson, 2009) as a career in teaching unfolds.
Avenues into teaching are being broadened to attract career-change entrants
in greater numbers than ever before and as a result there is a need to understand how
professional growth is fostered in contemporary times (see, for example, Anthony &
Ord, 2008; Australian Government, 2003; Haggard, Slostad & Winterton; 2006;
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Williams & Forgasz, 2009). The notion investigated in this study was that career-
change entrants with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT expertise
experience challenges as they shift the technology context and transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
Career-change entrants are entering a profession that has become
increasingly socially, technologically, economically and culturally complex because
the learning needs of students have changed at a faster rate than schools (Caldwell,
2006; Richardson & Watt, 2006). One aspect of this complexity, technological
change, has challenged educators to renew pedagogical approaches and perceptions
about teaching and learning (Ministerial Council of Employment, Training & Youth
Affairs, 2005). Career-change entrants are entering a profession where
transformations in pedagogy, curriculum, policy infrastructure, organisation and
governance are occurring rapidly through the imperative for learning to be reflective
of contemporary society and embed ICT in teaching and learning (Owen & Moyle,
2008; Yelland, Cope & Kalantzis, 2008). While many have knowledge, expertise
and perceptions that are well suited to teaching in technology-rich classrooms, they
face particular challenges during their transition into teaching as they reconfigure
their expertise, preconceived beliefs about teaching and develop pedagogical
strategies (Crow, Levine & Nager, 1990; Freidus, 1994; Richardson & Watt, 2006).
Shifting the technology context involves reconfiguring, that is adapting and
contextualising ICT expertise developed in a former career for teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. In doing so career-change entrants could potentially
enable students to explore multifarious problems encountered in work and life
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situations. Such authentic and meaningful learning not only maximises student
learning and future development, it adds to the productivity of the broader
community (Australian Government, 2009d). The imperative to advance Australia‘s
economic and social productivity through high quality teaching (Mishra & Koehler,
2006) that is responsive to the needs of the times is reflected in global, national and
state education policies (see, for example, Council of Australian Governments,
2008a; MCEETYA, 2005, 2008; Queensland College of Teachers, 2009; United
Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation, 2008).
This chapter outlines the context for the study and presents the research
problem that forms the basis of the study. The context is established through
outlining the background to the study (Section 1.1) followed by clarification of the
purpose, aims and research questions (Section 1.2) and the significance (Section
1.3). An overview of the research design of the study is provided (Section 1.4) with
specific attention to the role of the researcher (Section 1.5). Finally, the chapter
presents an overview of the thesis (Section 1.6) and a brief summary (Section 1.7).
1.1 Background
Increasing interest by career-change entrants in the teaching profession has been
noted in the literature for over a decade (see, for example, Eifler & Pothoff, 1998;
Powell, 1997). Traditionally, pathways into the teaching profession have involved
school leavers in an undergraduate course of study, generally a four-year course, and
employment on graduation in a school. In recent times, a broader range of pre-
service courses have attracted career-change entrants in greater numbers than in the
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past, increasing the average age of applicants for provisional registration (QCT,
2009). Policy initiatives in Australia addressing becoming a teacher as a career-
change entrant have been influenced by developments in the United States of
America (US) and the United Kingdom (UK) where condensed pre-service programs
are specifically designed to attract mid-career entrants into teaching. Examples of
these programs include the Graduate Teacher Program (Training & Development
Agency for Schools, 2010) in the UK and the New Teacher Project (The New
Teacher Project, 2010) in the US. Such fast-track teacher preparation courses have
been explored since the 1980s and early 1990s initially as a policy response to
predicted teacher shortages as well as a perceived dissatisfaction with university and
college-based teacher education courses (Moore Johnson, Birkeland & Peske, 2005).
Another example is the US, Troops to Teachers (Defense Activity for Non-
Traditional Education Support, 2010; Eifler & Potthoff, 1998) program developed to
assist former business and military personnel to make career changes during a time
of corporate and military downsizing as well as teacher shortages.
All states in the US now offer alternative routes to teacher certification
(Moore Johnson, et al., 2005), as well as a range of university and non-university
based options for its top graduates. The nature of the pathway into the profession
does appear to influence how well teachers are prepared for teaching in schools. In a
US study involving 3,000 graduate pre-service teachers, those who completed
traditional teacher education programs felt significantly better prepared than those
who entered through fast-track programs. These findings correlated significantly
with their sense of confidence about becoming and being a teacher, their sense of
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responsibility for student learning and their intentions to remain in teaching
(Darling-Hammond, Holtzman, Gatlin, & Heilig, 2005). These notions provide
directions for Australian fast-track teacher education courses.
UK schools now take a greater role in the preparation of career-change
entrants through on-the-job training programs, such as the Graduate Teacher
Program (TDA, 2010), that enable suitably qualified graduates to earn an income
through working as a teaching assistant while completing teacher training. This
pathway is not recognised as meeting Australian migration skills assessment criteria
for professional recognition as a teacher (Australian Government, 2009a), thus
implying a lack of recognition of an apprentice model of teacher training.
In Australia, programs to attract career-change entrants have been created
following at least 20 reviews of teacher education in as many years that included
recommendations to broaden pathways into the profession (Ramsay, 2000). For
example, the Australia's Teachers: Australia's Future - Advancing Innovation,
Science, Technology and Mathematics: Agenda for Action (2003) report
recommended that there is an imperative for Australia is to:
Actively recognise and credit the knowledge, capabilities and experience of
prospective teachers now engaged in other professions, and implement
recognition of prior learning arrangements in ways that reinforce high
standards for the teaching profession.
(Australian Government, 2003, p. 22)
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Following recommendations of the Top of the Class Enquiry into Teacher
Education (Parliament of Australia, 2007), most universities in Australia created a
pathway into teaching in addition to undergraduate entry into four-year courses.
Although this was a return to past practices for most Queensland universities, this
additional pathway was a one-year graduate-entry teacher education course that was
typically a teaching qualification for students who hold a Bachelor‘s degree in a non-
education field. In Queensland, universities adopted the one-year graduate entry
model following a review of the powers and functions of the Board of Teacher
Registration (McMeniman, 2004) and the resultant legislation that established the
Queensland College of Teachers in 2006. The report and subsequent legislation
mandated consistency of course length in terms of time across universities. The
change imposed the duration of 12 months (one year) and eliminated courses ranging
from fourteen months to two years (McMeniman, 2004). The reviews of teacher
education had generally not been enacted on a broad scale until the COAG
agreements of 2008.
The COAG National Education Agreement (NEA) (COAG, 2008b) and
agreements with the non-state schooling sector in 2008 signalled another key
development in the history of teacher preparation in Australia. The NEA
documented Commonwealth-State funding agreements which included national
partnerships recognising that ―ensuring all young people have the best possible start
in life is vital to the well-being of families, communities and the nation as a whole‖
(COAG, 2008b, p. 3). In particular, The Smarter Schools: Improving Teacher
Quality National Partnership (ITQNP) (Australian Government, 2009c), signalled a
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coordinated national approach to more rigorous standards for teacher education and,
concurrently, a broader range of pathways into the teaching profession for career-
change entrants. Targeted in this reform agenda were critical aspects of teacher
quality, that is, attraction, preparation, development and retention of quality teachers
and leaders in schools and classrooms (Australian Government, 2009c). These
reform areas are pre-conditions for attaining many of the goals of the national
education reform program (Banks, 2010) and indicate that research into the
perceptions of career-change entrants as they transition into the profession is both
timely and significant.
The ITQNP requires states to remove the barriers to mid-career entry into the
teaching profession. Barriers to entry noted in the literature include the high
personal and family costs associated with length of courses, salary differentials and
recognition of skills gained in a previous career (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Australian
Government, 2003; Richardson & Watt, 2005). The collaborative endeavours of
Australian governments, professional associations, principals, teachers and school
communities are addressing shortages and improving teacher quality (Australian
Government, 2009c; COAG, 2008b) through the Australian Institute for Teaching
and School Leadership (AITSL).
A key reform associated with the ITQNP is the establishment of a national
system for the accreditation of pre-service teacher education programs. The
proposed process will provide a ―framework for continuous improvement, and
increased public confidence in teacher education‖ (AITSL, 2010a), through quality
assurance and the creation of a national teaching workforce. The standards require
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ICT to be embedded in the content and delivery of the programs. Also proposed is
the return to graduate entry pre-service programs of ―at least two years full-time
structured learning … delivered over a minimum of 18 calendar months‖ to provide
time for ―student reflection, learning and professional experience‖ (AITSL, 2010a).
This presents challenges to both career-change entrants in terms of the cost of
becoming a teacher and for employers who draw specialist teachers from the
programs. The additional time is an opportunity to further develop the teaching
expertise of the career-change entrants.
Another aspect of the ITQNP, though not a focus of this study is the current
suite of programs to attract high performing graduates from disciplines such as law,
engineering and medicine into teaching are emerging as a form of temporary career
change. Programs of this nature are operating in many countries, most notably the
UK (Teach First, 2010), the US (Teach for America, 2010) and in response Teach
for Australia (Teach for Australia, 2009). While the Australian program conducted
in 2010 through the University of Melbourne, is addressing the concerns of
educators by creating a university-based program instead of an alternative route
program, critics are closely monitoring progress. Graduates are recruited to
challenging schools for a two year period while they complete a graduate teaching
qualification, prior to returning to the profession of their first choosing (Sim, 2010).
Participants in these programs are not considered career-change entrants in the
context of this study.
Regardless of the avenue into teaching, national professional standards shape
the teaching and learning landscape for career-change entrants. The draft National
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Professional Standards for Teachers (Australian Institute for Teaching and School
Leadership, 2010) make explicit the knowledge, skills and dispositions required of
teachers at graduate, competent, highly accomplished and lead teacher levels as a
basis for registration as a teacher and accreditation at highly accomplished and lead
levels (AITSL, 2010). Career-change entrants bring a wide range of professional
and personal experiences that are of great value to schools, compared to those who
select teaching as their first profession (Australian Government, 2003; Freidus, 1994;
Haggard et al., 2006; Madfes, 1989; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004; Richardson & Watt,
2005; Williams & Forgasz, 2009). These experiences are more significant than the
specific skills and content knowledge related to their previous career (Williams &
Forgasz, 2009), however there are risks that knowledge and expertise may be
untapped and marginalised through conventional beginning teachers‘ experiences
(Manual & Brindley, 2005). This potentially impacts on the career-change entrant‘s
sense of self-worth (Anthony & Ord, 2009). In order to apply ICT related
knowledge and expertise to technology-rich classrooms, career-change entrants need
pedagogical strategies that will enable them to adapt prior knowledge and skills for
the classroom (Freidus, 1994; Powell, 1997).
Current career-change entrants are beginning teaching at a time of renewed
national effort to foster ―meaningful change to teaching and learning in Australian
schools that will prepare students for further education, training and to live and work
in a digital world‖ (Australian Government, 2008, p. 1). Research in this field
suggests that supporting learning in the digital world requires an understanding of
why, how, where, when and when not to use ICT for teaching and learning (see, for
10
example, Kennewell, Tanner, Jones, & Beauchamp, 2008; Lloyd, 2005; Mishra &
Koehler, 2006; Owston, 2007). Additionally, teachers, in the increasingly complex,
knowledge based 21st Century, are advised to empower students to question, filter
information, and think creatively in innovative ways (United Nations Educational,
Cultural and Scientific Organisation, 2008). Supporting career-change entrants to
become effective and innovative teachers is beneficial to the teaching profession
because of the broader perspectives and expertise career change entrants offer
(Australian Government, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004; Richardson & Watt,
2005; Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
Career-change entrants who shift the technology context and reconfigure ICT
expertise from uses associated with their former career to teaching in technology-
rich classrooms, potentially enhance learning through enabling: (a) personalised and
authentic learning; (b) broader experiences and deeper learning, and; (c) learning in a
global context (Kember, O‘Neill & Heffernan, 2008). These notions were explored
in this study through career-change entrants‘ knowledge, expertise, confidence to
teach, expectations, beliefs and motivations in relation to teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. As reinforced in the following statement of purpose, aims, and research
questions, an insight into career-change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and
being a teacher was gained through the study described in this thesis.
1.2 Purpose and aim
The purpose of the study described in this thesis was to create an understanding of
career-change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and being a teacher. In so
11
doing, the study was contextualised through focussing on the challenge of
reconfiguring a professional identity that includes ICT knowledge and expertise,
while transitioning into the teaching profession.
The aim of the study was to explore the perceptions of career-change entrants
with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT expertise as they shifted the
technology context and transitioned into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. An
additional aim, based on this understanding, was to create a theory, grounded in the
data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), The Professional Identity Transition Theory that
encapsulates the perceptions of career-change entrants, who have ICT expertise,
about becoming and being a teacher.
The research questions are thus phrased as:
(a) How do career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms?
(b) How can the career-change entrants‘ perceptions of their transition
experiences be expressed as a theory?
1.3 Significance
The research significantly investigated the perceptions of career-change entrants as
they made deliberate evaluations of their former career in relation to their new
career, and, as a consequence reconfigure, or change the nature of, their professional
identity. The study explored the topical contemporary educational issue of attracting
and retaining a broader range of talented individuals to teach in Australian schools
than traditionally entered the teaching profession to fill shortages in specialist areas.
12
While this issue is at the forefront of policy development in state, national and
international contexts (Australian Government, 2009c; Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2004 ), it is concurrently the subject of academic
research highlighting both positive and negative aspects of less traditional teacher
preparation courses (see, for example, Darling-Hammond et al., 2005).
Policy initiatives targeting the recruitment of career-change entrants into
teaching have been prompted by concerns of predicted teacher shortages in high
demand subject areas (Australian Government, 2003; OECD, 2004). These have
provoked calls for further research (see, for example, Watt & Richardson, 2008) on
the impact of shorter teacher education courses and whether the benefits of having
more teachers exceed the significance impact of quality teaching (Hattie, 2003;
Mishra & Koehler, 2006). More specifically, research empirically contrasting
―background characteristics, teaching motivations, perceptions about the profession,
and career commitment and satisfaction for undergraduate and graduate teacher
education entrants‖ (Richardson & Watt, 2006, p. 29) was sought to lead to a better
understanding of the cohort. Debate polarising researchers focuses on the potential
of career-change entrants‘ specialist knowledge versus pedagogical content
knowledge developed over time in traditional teacher preparation courses, (see, for
example, Darling-Hammond et al., 2005; Snyder, Barry, Samuels, Sacks, &
Ellenzweig, 2008). Common ground amongst these divergent views includes the
need to personalise the teacher education experience to better cater for varying career
paths of prospective teachers, and the constantly changing labour market (Patton,
2009).
13
How teacher education programs can be adapted for career-change entrants is
considered an issue of interest to researchers (see, for example, Haggard, et al., 2006;
Tigchelaar, Brouwer, & Korthagen, 2008). Others suggested that tracking career-
change entrants as they begin their career will provide a more conclusive view on the
value career-change entrants bring to the teaching profession (see, for example,
Manuel & Brindley, 2005; Williams & Forgasz, 2009). Further suggestions concern
how initial expectations relate to levels of satisfaction and aspirations as a teacher
(Anthony & Ord, 2008) and how career-change entrants learn to teach and progress
through their careers (Tigchelaar et al., 2008).
The study described in this thesis builds on this previous research (see, for
example, Anthony & Ord, 2008; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Richardson
& Watt, 2006; Williams & Forgasz, 2009) and draws together the threads of one-
year teacher preparation courses, career-change entrants‘ motivation and the ICT
capabilities career-change entrants bring to the profession. Generally agreed views
in government and research arenas suggest that broadening the pathways into the
teaching profession will attract career-change entrants with a diverse range of life
and work experiences who, in time, will better prepare school students for the digital
world (see, for example, Australian Government, 2008; Anthony & Ord, 2008;
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Drawing on the literature from the disciplines of psychology and sociology,
this study is situated in the technology-rich world of students where the use of ICT
impacts on pedagogy, curriculum, policy, infrastructure, organisation and school
governance (Owen & Moyle 2008). To enhance learning in this complex,
14
multifaceted and situated environment teachers need technological, pedagogical and
content knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). How best to build pre-service
teachers technological expertise and confidence to use ICT in the classroom is an
issue of interest to researchers and policy makers (see, for example, Dawson, 2008;
Jamieson-Proctor, Finger & Albion, 2010; QCT, 2009). Within the context of career
change and transition experiences, the study described in this thesis considered the
self-identified technological knowledge and ICT expertise of career-change entrants
as an example of the generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist capabilities they
bring to the profession. In so doing, confidence in relation to content and pedagogy
was explored along with motivation to become and be a teacher. These ideas
informed the research question for the study and influenced the development of the
conceptual framework based on a review of the literature. In addition, these ideas
shaped the design of this study for the purpose of creating understanding of the
career-change entrants‘ perceptions of becoming and being a teacher.
1.4 Design of the study
The research design of the study described in this thesis was situated broadly within
the interpretive research tradition to make sense of the social world and understand
―the meanings that construct and are constructed by interactive human behaviour‖
(Usher, 1996, p.18). The research was planned as an explanatory case study (Yin,
1994) drawing on quantitative and qualitative data collected through a survey. As
the study evolved further qualitative data collected through interviews were analysed
through the use of grounded theory methods (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) for analysis
and theory building. The case investigated was the perceptions and experiences of
15
individual career-change entrants from a wide range of demographics and areas of
expertise. The participants in the study were career-change entrants that were either:
(a) pre-service students studying at university to become teachers drawn from a one-
year graduate entry teacher education course at Queensland University of
Technology (QUT); or, (b) Novice, Experienced Novice and Early Career
Professionals (Berliner, 1988) who were or working in Queensland schools and
recruited through online communities. The data for the study were collected through
two instruments.
1.4.1 Electronic survey
The first data collection instrument, an electronic survey, explored the nature of the
ICT related expertise of the career-change entrants who participated in the study.
Additionally, the survey sought insights into the career-change entrants‘ expectations
and self-assessed confidence regarding the use of ICT in technology-rich classrooms.
In particular, the survey requested: (a) background information; (b) ICT knowledge
and expertise developed in previous occupation and studies; (c) potential use of ICT
for teaching and learning; and (d) expectations about teaching and learning in
general.
Career-change entrants (N=940) enrolled in a one-year graduate entry teacher
education course at QUT during the period July 2007 to June 2008 were invited to
complete the survey. Sixty four (N=64) career-change entrants who were studying to
become teachers completed the survey.
16
1.4.2 Semi-structured interviews
The second data collection instrument further explored the transition process through
semi-structured interviews with career-change entrants working in Queensland
schools. Interviews were conducted with nine (n=9) career-change entrants at
various stages of beginning and establishing a career as a teacher. The interview
questions were designed to explore challenging events, for example, dilemmas,
successes and uncertainties that career-change entrants faced during the transition
into the teaching profession. The interviews proceeded in a less structured manner to
enable issues to be explored as they arose.
1.4.3 Theory building
Strauss & Corbin‘s (1998) definition of a theory was adopted in this thesis as a ―set
of well-developed categories that are systematically inter-related through statements
of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains ... phenomena‖
(Strauss & Corbin, 2008, p.22). Theory building was a considered as a dynamic,
iterative process of developing ideas into a ―logical, systematic and explanatory
scheme (Straus & Corbin, 1998, p. 21). An initial proposition (i-proposition) about a
theory to explain professional identity transition was developed through the review
of the literature and the conceptual framework. The findings of the survey were
reviewed against the i-proposition (Yin, 1994) and further data collected and
analysed through interviews as the survey did not fully explore the transition
process. The emergent challenges, dilemmas, successes and uncertainties, were
analysed through open, axial and selective coding as well as coding matrices and
17
paradigms (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Revised propositions (s-propositions) were
developed and brought together as a theory, as a body of concepts that provide a
language for discussion and debate (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), - The Professional
Identity Transition Theory - to explain the process of professional identity transition
amongst the career-change entrants who participated in the study.
1.5 Role of the researcher
My role in this study was to interpret the lived experiences of the career-change
entrants who participated in the study and gain insight through questioning
participants, conducting an analysis of the data and proposing relationships. The
study described in this thesis was a product of my interest in this issue, the evolution
of my thinking over time and the cumulative body of research.
1.6 Overview of the thesis
The thesis is organised into seven chapters. This chapter, Chapter 1, has introduced
the background to the study and articulated its aims and significance. Additionally,
this chapter introduced the methodological approach and has presented a brief
overview of the following chapters.
The next chapter (Chapter 2) presents the literature review, addressing the
interrelated fields in which the study is situated, that is (a) teaching in technology-
rich classrooms (Section 2.1); (b) careers and change (Section 2.2); and (c)
professional identity (Section 2.3). Within the broad context of teaching in
technology-rich classrooms (see Section 2.1), the contextual attributes explored in
the literature review included contemporary workplace change (see Section 2.1.1).
18
Additionally, the challenges of becoming and being a teacher (see Section 2.1.2) are
provided, specifically addressing professional standards (see Section 2.1.2.1) and
teacher professional learning (see Section 2.1.2.2). The learning needs of
contemporary students (see Section 2.1.3) are explored to further establish the
context in which the study described in this thesis takes place. Next, careers and
change are explored (Section 2.2), specifically considering notions of a career (see
Section 2.2.1), career change (see Section 2.2.2), career-change entrants (see Section
2.2.3), and transition (see Section 2.2.4). Lastly, professional identity is considered
through demographic characteristics (see Section 2.3.1), expectations about
becoming a teacher (see Section 2.3.2), existing knowledge and expertise (see
Section 2.3.3), confidence to teach (see Section 2.3.4), beliefs about teaching and
learning (see Section 2.3.5) and motivation to become a teacher (see Section 2.3.6).
Chapter 3 provides the conceptual framework for the study based on the
review of the literature. An overview and diagrammatic representation of the
conceptual framework is provided in Section 3.1. The framework is then taken apart
and each of the elements discussed on a theoretical basis as well as their application
to the study described in this thesis. The elements of the conceptual framework are:
a. Levels of impact based on The Onion: A model of levels of change
(Korthagen, 2004) depicting that transition into the teaching profession
involves more than developing new knowledge and expertise (see Section
3.2).
b. Learning from the past and the present based on Experiential Learning
Theory (Kolb, 1984) (see Section 3.3).
19
c. Learning through creating a future based on ideas about perceptions of
reality, in the Theory of the U Movement (Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, &
Flowers, 2005) and The Futures Triangle (Inaytullah, 2005) depicting the
push, pull and weight of the future (Inaytullah, 2005) (see Section 3.4).
Preliminary ideas about the Professional Identity Transition Theory are provided in
the form of initial propositions (i-proposition) which are tested through the first data
collection instrument, the subject of Section 3.5.
Chapter 4 describes the methodology and the research design of the study.
Detailed information of the modes of collection and analysis of the survey data and
the approach to theory building is provided.
Chapter 5 presents the findings from the first data collection instrument, the
electronic survey. The quantitative data collected was analysed using descriptive
statistics, and relationships explored through inferential statistics. The qualitative
data was analysed using open coding techniques and constant comparative analysis.
Chapter 6 presents the findings and analysis of the data from second data
collection instrument, the semi-structured interviews. The eight stage analysis
process began with coding and categorising of the data (see Section 6.1). This data
was compiled as descriptive stories) and coding paradigms of the Novice,
Experienced Novice and Early Career Professionals (Berliner, 1988) career-change
entrants who participated in the study. Subsequent propositions (s-propositions)
were the outcome of the analysis process.
20
The final chapter, Chapter 7 presents The Professional Identity Transition
Theory brings together all elements of the study. The theory explains how the
career-change entrants with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT
expertise who participated in the study, transitioned into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. The chapter also provides the limitations of the study (see Section 7.2),
recommendations for further study (see Section 7.3) and a postscript (see Section
7.4).
1.7 Summary
This chapter presented the general context for the study and highlighted the related
fields of study. It established that teaching in technology-rich classrooms is
distinguished from past times by the convergence of agendas such as; (a) enhancing
learning through the effective and purposeful use of current ICT (see, for example,
Lloyd, 2005; Mishra & Kohler, 2006; (b) quality teaching (see, for example,
Australian Government, 2009c; Mishra & Koehler, 2006); and, (c) condensed
teacher preparation courses (see, for example, Parliament of Australia, 2007). The
chapter signalled that the aim of the study was to develop a theory from the research
data that encapsulates the perceptions of career-change entrants with generic (Mishra
& Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT expertise as they transition into the teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. The significance of the study was established through
its connection with the documented concerns of the increasing number of career-
change entrants enrolling in university courses as well as the links to policies at an
International, National and State level. Further, the growing body of research in this
area highlighted the need to address gaps and advance the body of knowledge with
21
additional perspectives. In presenting an overview of the methodological approach
and design of the study, the chapter highlighted the interpretive nature of the study
through the case study approach. Lastly, the chapter presented a brief overview of
the chapters within the thesis that continues in the next chapter with a review of the
literature that has relevance to this study.
22
23
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of the literature relevant to this investigation of how
career-change entrants with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT
expertise transitioned into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Set within the
background of contemporary education policy and practice, the fields of study were:
(a) teaching and learning in technology-rich classrooms; (b) careers and change; and
(c) professional identity. This breadth was required to build an understanding of the
motivations and ambitions of those who take on the challenge of being a novice
again, having built up knowledge and expertise in previous employment. The
challenges of beginning teaching as a career-change entrant were explored as a
transition process that shapes professional identity. While it is acknowledged that
some of the challenges highlighted in this chapter pertain to all beginning teachers,
the intention was to create a profile of the attributes and challenges of career-change
entrants with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT expertise. Figure
2.1 illustrates the relationship between the fields of study addressed in this literature
review in a generalised conceptual framework that is elaborated in Chapter 3.
To explore the fields of study, this chapter is structured to begin by providing
broad contextual concepts then shift to the inner world of the career-change entrant.
It begins with a focus on teaching and learning in technology-rich classrooms to set
the broad context for study.
24
Figure 2.1 Fields of study
In particular, the first section (Section 2.1) explores contemporary workplace change
(see Section 2.1.1), professional standards and professional learning associated with
a career in teaching (see Section 2.1.2), and the learning needs of contemporary
students (see Section 2.1.3). The next section, Section 2.2, focuses on careers and
change, specifically considering notions of a career (see Section 2.2.1), career
change (see Section 2.2.2), and career-change entrants (see Section 2.2.3) and
transition (2.2.4) to clarify definitions used within the study described in this thesis.
These sub-sections explore concepts and describe attributes, characteristics, and
components as well as potential responses, emotional adjustments and processes.
25
The following section, Section 2.3, presents a discussion of the concept of
professional identity, including a definition of professional identity following a
consideration of conceptualisations from Boyatzis and Akrivou, (2006), Erikson
(1968/1994) and Wenger (1998). The section also explores the literature on career-
change entrants‘ professional identities, specifically demographics (see Section
2.3.1), expectations (see Section 2.3.2), knowledge and expertise (see Section 2.3.3),
confidence to teach (see Section 2.3.4), beliefs (see Section 2.3.5), and motivations
(see Section 2.3.6).
There is limited extant research into career-change entrants‘ perceptions as
they enter the teaching profession within the field of education (see, for example,
Anthony & Ord, 2008; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et. al;
2008). This investigation drew on research conducted over the last 30 years where
the findings provided insight into the challenge of career change. In including
literature from late 1980s and 1990s, it should be noted that teachers and school
students during this time had less access to less sophisticated ICT for teaching and
learning than more contemporary times (Lloyd, 2005). In more recent times, what is
learned, how, when and where it is learned has changed remarkably, presenting
distinctive challenges associated with becoming a teacher and being a teacher in a
technology-rich classroom. Concurrently, the transition experiences of career-
change entrants have become of interest to researchers, particularly in Australia, as
increasing proportions of career-change entrants have enrolled in pre-service teacher
education courses (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004; Williams, 2006).
26
2.1 Teaching in technology-rich classrooms
The study described in this thesis focussed on the perceptions of career-change
entrants, with generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist expertise, that is, ICT
qualifications and work experience in the use of ICT, as they shifted the technology
context and transitioned into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Technology
and ICT are considered synonymous in the study described in this thesis. As such, it
was particularly important to explore what has significantly changed about schooling
in the 21st Century, and, as a flow on teacher education. This discussion establishes
the contextual issues that impact on career-change entrants as they transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms and, in doing so, addresses a key aspect of
the research question in relation to the reconfiguration of generic or specialist ICT
expertise. For the purposes of this study, a technology-rich classroom is one typified
by access to ICT and related technologies and a willingness and expertise on the part
of the teacher to use them to enhance learning. This section begins with the
distinctive challenges associated with structural change in the work environment
generally, then moves on to challenges associated with becoming a teacher and being
a teacher, followed by connections with the learning needs of contemporary students.
2.1.1 Workplace change
Work environments are reported to be changing due to the influence of globalisation,
advances in ICT and changing societal norms and structures (see, for example,
Australian Government, 2008; MCEETYA, 2005). Organisations, by necessity, are
adapting to the global economy through innovation, flexibility and continuous
27
improvement (Patton, 2009). Traditional industries are ―being transformed by
technological processes‖ suggesting that ―old education simply will not do‖
(Kalantzis & Harvey, 2004, p. 6). Concurrently, the employment market has
changed from the traditional job-for-life to more self-employed, contract and part-
time positions (Capelli & Hamori, 2007; Patton, 2009). This suggests that the
current and future workforce needs to be able to learn continuously and work with
diversity in both local and international settings (Fullan, 2007; Patton, 2009). The
implication for career-change entrants is that the locus of control over their career
has shifted toward individual determination of personal and professional aspirations
within the context of a more flexible working life in the global environment (Mayer,
2006; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
Employment prospects for teachers vary according to supply and demand
issues (OECD, 2004). In times of recession, it appears that demand for places in
teacher education courses increases (Grice, 2009) while employment prospects
worsen as teachers on long term leave are likely to return to their positions in schools
while others delay retirement (Healy & Trounson, 2009). Additionally, policy
changes are occurring, in countries like the UK (Graduate Teacher Program, 2010)
and USA (Teach for America, 2010), that are designed to take advantage of limited
job markets and attract career-change entrants through reducing teacher education
courses from one year to six months (Grice, 2009). Similarly, in Australia fast-track
programs are being piloted (Teach for Australia, 2010). These developments
potentially offset shortages in specialist teaching areas that have been hastened by
two trends: (a) baby-boomer teachers reaching retirement age; and, (b) attrition rates
28
among early career teachers (Mayer, 2006; OECD, 2004; Skilbeck & Connell,
2004).
Conversely, in boom economy times, shortages in specialist areas appear to
become more acute as teaching is often considered as an unattractive profession with
minimal support and rewards because of the enthusiasm and morale of the current
teacher workforce (Mayer, 2006; OECD, 2004). As a flow on, this has led, in some
cases, to reduced curriculum opportunities for students, excessive workloads or
teachers teaching subjects in which they have no knowledge or expertise (Australian
Government, 2003).
Some authors (see, for example, Caldwell 2006; Fullan, 2007) suggest that
education systems are failing to support students to live and work in a global
environment and are continuing to prepare teachers for work in schools that are
―monuments to a previous age‖ (Hooley & Moore, 2004, p. 3) based on historical
models of what constitutes good teaching (Luke, Luke & Mayer, 2000). In order to
prepare students for the world beyond school, teachers, like the general workforce
―can no longer rely on the same beliefs, skills and values to be successful and
satisfied in their careers‖ (Patton, 2009, p. 22). The imperative for teacher educators
and the profession is to challenge the core beliefs of career-change entrants rather
than provide surface level information that is layered over long-held personal beliefs
about teaching (Churchill & Walkington, 2002).
The longer term challenge of ―modernis[ing] our schools and our teaching
profession to give them new life, strength and relevance to the 21st century‖
(Gillard, 2008a, para. 40) requires the profession to meet expectations that skilled,
29
knowledgeable and inspiring teachers are available to teach an ever-increasing range
of subjects in ways that advance the boundaries of student learning. As such,
attracting and retaining talented individuals to teach in Australian schools continues
to be a challenge for education systems and school employers. It is within this
environment, along with the widespread availability of one-year graduate diploma
courses in Australia and fast-track teacher preparation courses in the UK and US,
that increasing numbers of career-change entrants are making the change to a
teaching career compared to past decades (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). The next
section considers these developments in relation to becoming and being a teacher in
contemporary times through a career change.
2.1.2 Becoming a teacher and being a teacher
Expectations of teachers are broadening as society becomes more complex (OECD,
2004; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). Career-change entrants need to be capable of
―preparing students for a society and an economy in which they are expected to be
self-directed learners, able and motivated to keep learning over a lifetime‖ (OECD,
2004, p. 2). Ideas about quality teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) provide insight
into the attributes and behaviours that career-change entrants are expected to
demonstrate as they become a teacher and continue to be a teacher.
Improving teacher quality requires a focus on effectiveness, qualifications
and experience brought to the profession, subject matter and pedagogical expertise,
capacity for success, character traits and disposition, performance, and results
(Cogshall, 2007; OECD, 2004). This mix of regulatory, developmental and
30
aspirational elements is the landscape into which career-change entrants are
transitioning. Enhanced student learned, an element of teacher quality, is generally
associated with teacher attributes and capabilities, professional practices and
contextual factors (Zammit et al., 2007). It also is influenced by the ―structures,
processes, resources, requirements, and public perceptions that influence who
teaches, where they teach, and what happens in the classroom‖ (Puriefoy, 2007, p.
3). Furthermore, the teaching profession operates on a premise of ―knowledge
production, distribution and acquisition that replicates current and traditional views,‖
(Churchill & Walkington, 2002, p. 1) rather than considering more contemporary
approaches to teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Becoming and being a
teacher in technology-rich classrooms, as a career-change entrant, has distinctive
challenges related to pathways into the profession as well as meeting professional
standards.
Quality of life and productivity in the knowledge society and economy is
dependent on a culture of innovation in schooling in general and teaching in
particular (Banks, 2010; Australian Government, 2009d; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
In this environment, Australian Education Ministers assert that teaching and learning
in technology-rich classrooms ―requires new pedagogies, different types of learning
goals and educational worksites that personalise learning‖ (MCEETYA, 2005, p. 8)
enabled by the information and communication tools of the current times. Teachers
who are able to challenge students thinking and show students how to think about
and understand curricula potentially make a significance difference to student
learning (Hattie, 2003; Ingvarson, 2002).
31
Discussed in the next sub-section are professional standards which articulate
the capabilities and professional practices, associated with quality teaching (Mishra
& Koehler, 2006), expected of career-change entrants. Such standards establish
expectations of the knowledge and expertise, pedagogical practices, collegial
relationships and the values that steer the work of a teacher, regardless of the
pathway into the profession (Ingvarson, 2002).
2.1.2.1 Professional Standards
Career-change entrants transitioning into teaching in technology-rich classrooms
have professional standards as a point of reference for the development of practices
and meeting registration requirements (AITSL, 2010). Professional standards
mediate thinking about professional learning and quality of teaching (Doecke, Parr &
North, 2008) and articulate core educational values that teachers seek to make
manifest in their practice (Ingvarson, 2002). Professional standards also have a
range of purposes that serve bureaucratic interests rather than those of teachers
depending on how they are created (Sachs, 2002). Potential uses include: (a) control
teachers and standardise practices; or, (b) as a means to raise the status of the
teaching profession in the community; or preferably (c) as aspirational goals for
advancing teaching practice (Ingvarson, 2002). The effects of the imposition of
these standards on teachers individually and collectively are a concern to some
researchers (Sachs, 2002) but they are a valuable resource that supports teachers to
develop practices associated with quality teaching ((Mishra & Koehler, 2006;
Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). It is essential that career-change entrants are supported
32
to develop the best possible professional standards in the early years of their careers
and beyond (Mayotte, 2003).
National reform in professional standards, accreditation and registration
processes have been endorsed by Ministers from Australian states and territories and
the Commonwealth in The Smarter Schools: Improving Teacher Quality National
Partnership (Australian Government 2009c). These reforms may lead to a
professionally structured career in teaching to replace the incremental, time based
system currently in place (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004) that does not serve career-
change entrants well (Watt & Richardson, 2008). The reforms potentially make
teaching a more plausible choice and an enduring endeavour for career-change
entrants. For this to occur, career-change entrants knowledge and expertise gained in
a previous career needs to be successfully reconfigured for student learning along
with appropriate allocation of duties and ongoing professional learning (Skilbeck &
Connell, 2004). Fostering job satisfaction and career progression will strengthen the
teaching profession at State and national levels and benefit students through high
expectations, innovations in teaching and learning and a more equitable approach to
schooling (Australian Government, 2008).
The draft National Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2010)
provide career-change entrants with explicit guidance on the knowledge, skills and
dispositions required of teachers at four levels of professional expertise – Graduate,
Proficient, Highly Accomplished and Lead Teacher – across three domains:
Professional Knowledge, Professional Practice and Professional Engagement
(AITSL, 2010).
33
The Standards provide a continuum of capabilities and expectations for
teachers.
Initially the Standards will guide ongoing professional learning and set a
reliable, fair and nationally consistent basis for the accreditation of pre-
service teacher education courses and teacher registration.
(AITSL, 2010, para. 2)
In providing guidance for career-change entrants as they reconfigure their knowledge
and expertise to become a teacher, other sources of wisdom suggest that to become
effective teachers career-change entrants need professional knowledge and expertise
in a relevant domain and need to know that that successful learning is not simply a
matter of telling (Hargreaves, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
Career-change entrants‘ pedagogical practices need to be developed so that
they become skilled mentors and coaches who engage students and generate the
motivation that underpins true learning (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Hargreaves, 2003;
Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). They need to focus on the social and emotional
dimensions of education as well as the intellectual and vocational use cross-
curricular emphases, and integrating students with special needs (Cogshall, 2007;
Darling-Hammond, 2006; OECD, 2004; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). Further, career-
change entrants‘ also need to consider students and colleagues as partners in the
creation of data about achievement that informs their own practice (Hargreaves,
2003). In doing so they will recognise that students needs are complex and variable
and that personalisation entails drawing on a wide range of human and material
resources to support learning (Hargreaves, 2003). In understanding how students
34
learn, how to teach effectively, and how to initiate and manage learning processes,
integrating formative and summative assessment (Darling-Hammond, 2006; OECD,
2004); career-change entrants will enhance student learning. They will further
enhance learning by working with and through ICT in teaching and administration
(Darling-Hammond, 2006; Lloyd, 2009; OECD, 2004; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004).
In relation to professional engagement, career-change entrants need to relish
the changing responsibilities in education and the need to re-design our educational
institutions (Hargreaves, 2003) and be passionate about life-long learning, for self
and for students (Cogshall, 2007; Hattie, 2009; Hargreaves, 2003; Skilbeck &
Connell, 2004). They need to display ethical behaviours, imagination, compassion,
patience (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004); maturity, professionalism, commitment and
people skills (Richardson & Watt, 2006). In working with colleagues they need to
work and plan in teams, evaluate practice and continuously improve (OECD, 2004).
Further they need to provide professional advice to parents and building community
partnerships for learning (OECD, 2004), communicating a positive and convincing
professional image (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
Professional standards have the potential to support the development of a
common understanding across the profession about expectations of teachers. This
understanding provides career-change entrants with a more accurate insight into the
professional obligations of teachers than is gained through having attended school or
witnessed children‘s schooling as a parent (Tigchelaar et al, 2003). Expertise in the
use of ICT to enhance learning is one of many capabilities that career-change
entrants require to meet professional standards (AITSL, 2010; Reimann & Goodyear,
35
2004). On this basis, how career-change entrants with generic (Mishra & Koehler,
2006) or specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms is an important question in contemporary times. While professional
standards clarify expectations and provide for professional growth, how professional
learning is enabled is an essential element to explore. The next section considers
part of the continua of learning that occurs during a career in the teaching profession.
2.1.2.2 Professional learning
To successfully work in the increasingly complex teaching profession, like all
teachers, career-change entrants should ―reflect on their practice to learn from and
improve it continually‖ (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 1). Continual improvement is
enabled through self-direction, connecting learning to experience, goal orientations
and relevancy to practice and needs (Knowles 1970). In addition, in technology-rich
classrooms in which career-change entrants are working, there is a need to enhance
practice through connecting with diverse sources of information, understanding
connections between ideas and concepts, and creating meaning within a shifting
reality (Siemens, 2005).
Career-change entrant‘s professional learning may also be supported through,
formal and informal school based learning that emphasises ―cooperation,
communication, and community‖ foster valuable and effective professional learning
(Mayer, 2006, p. 63). Further, active involvement in learning communities support
career-change entrants to continually improve, build knowledge and pedagogical
expertise and adapt to changing circumstances (Wenger, 2008).
36
This section highlights issues associated with three key developmental stages
based on the five stages of development of expertise in pedagogy posited by Berliner
(1988), namely novice, advanced beginner, competent teacher, proficient teacher,
and expert teacher. In the study described in this thesis, transition into teaching is
considered to be bounded by perceptions of competence and confidence as a teacher
and, as such, Beliner‘s (1988) proficient and expert teacher stages are considered as
areas for further research. The stages of development (see Table 4.1) considered in
this study are:
a. pre-service to six months in schools are initially referred to as Novices in this
thesis;
b. six months to one year in schools are initially referred to as Experienced
Novices in this thesis; and
c. one to four years in schools are initially referred to as Early Career
Professionals in this thesis.
Pre-service professional learning
Career-change entrants at this stage of development are likely to learn through
experience rather than through theoretical approaches (Berliner, 1988). Views on
the most effective preparation for a teaching career are broad ranging. Some
researchers advocate for teacher education as function-related evidence-based
strategies to improve student learning outcomes that are potentially acquired through
apprenticeship-style programs based in schools (see, for example, Buckingham,
37
2005). Further along the continuum is the recognition of the essential nature of a
technological, pedagogical and content knowledge base with tertiary level standing
(see, for example, Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
Diametrically opposed to the notion of teaching as merely functionary is the
viewpoint that teaching is an extension of personal knowledge and identity (Collins,
2004). Advocates of this view (see, for example, Mayer, 1999), argued that a
functional apprenticeship approach perpetuates teaching methods based on
recollections of schooling as, for example, career-change entrants react to changed
circumstances and develop survival skills that have the impact of limited
development within the profession. Some researchers (see, for example, Mayer,
1999), have suggested that teacher education involving explicit exploration of
personal theories and consequences of professional practice, which challenge
professional identities, will better support career-change entrants to become teachers.
Additionally, creating ―teacher [s] capable of critically engaging with globalised
forces and flows of knowledge, students and ideas based on the knowledge and
pedagogy of the 21st Century‖ is part of the challenge (Luke, 2004, p. 1423).
Views on learning are intertwined within the debate about becoming a
teacher through an apprenticeship program or theory-based programs. Proponents of
narrow perspectives suggest that the only place pre-service teachers learn to teach is
during school-based practicum inferring that more experience will create better
teachers (see, for example, Buckingham, 2005). Proponents of broader perspectives
suggest that ―learning from experience is not simply acquiring pedagogical skills,‖ it
is the ―dialogic interaction of role and identity‖ (Mayer, 1999, para. 29). Such
38
experience involves an interweaving of functional aspects with personal investment,
commitment and relationships that are part of a profession that defines and controls
its own membership (Collins, 2004). Indeed, the experiences of career-change
entrants are considered in this study as the starting point for new knowledge. The
experiences require reconfiguration through a mix of reflexive learning that
generally occurs in a collegial context as well as school based practicum
components.
Concerns raised by career-change entrants about their experiences as pre-
service students are that teacher education courses included irrelevant subjects and
used a one-size-fits-all model that does not cater for career-change entrants
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). In doing so the courses downgraded the
value of previous experience (Tigchelaar et al., 2008) and ignored the
responsibilities of parents when addressing logistical issues related to the course and
assigning field experience schools (Haggard et al., 2006; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). Other career-change entrants considered that traditional
didactic pedagogical practices in higher education institutions (Luke, et al., 2000),
generally did not reflect changing practices in schools (Bigum & Rowan, 2008).
These practices contributed to feelings of unpreparedness and lack of support in the
beginning stages of a teaching career (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). Concern about how to avoid the possibility of burnout in the
early years (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004) was also considered to be lacking from their
preparation for teaching.
39
Moving the debate forward on how best to prepare career-change entrants for
work in schools requires more than pockets of activity by stakeholders. Rather, it
could require ―new commitments from ... universities and from government to the
centrality of schooling, education and pedagogy‖ (Luke et al., 2000, p. 6) to address
the concerns of career-change entrants. In general, teacher education will be
improved through: (a) creating better links between theory to practice; (b) more
involvement in school activities and variety in pre-service practicum experience; (c)
frequent and sustained supervision and feedback; and (d) participation in collective
planning (Darling-Hammond, 2010; OECD, 2005). Increasing course flexibility in
the teacher education courses and partnerships with schools has provided
opportunities for career change into teaching. Such structural reconfiguration of
teacher education is only part of the change required to better support career-change
entrants.
Professional learning during first years of teaching
During the first years of teaching career-change entrants are likely to meld
experience with verbal and written sources of knowledge as context starts to guide
behaviours (Berliner, 1988). Concerns expressed by career-change entrants during
the first few years of their teaching career are that supervising teachers often do not
perceive the need to make links to the knowledge and expertise associated with a
former career (Crow et al., 1990; Mayotte 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008). In
addition, colleagues and parents assumed they were experienced teachers (Anthony
& Ord, 2008); and previous responsibilities and experiences were seldom recognised
40
(Haggard et al., 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar, et al.,
2008).
A former career will never be a substitute for professional learning to become
and be a teacher, although ignoring the influence of a former career can impact on a
career-change entrants‘ capacity to reconfigure their knowledge and expertise
(Mayotte, 2003). Career-change entrants thrive in a learning environment where
they can experience, reconstruct and reflect (Freidus, 1994). They often require
more support than direct entrants because of family and financial commitments, the
seriousness of the intent and investment in a change of career and the intensity of
understanding of how complex, demanding and important are teachers (Freidus,
1994; Mayotte 2003).
Career-change entrants could be better supported by providing a range of
comfortable learning settings and adapt time constraints and format of pre-service
courses (Haggard, et al., 2008). Increasing practicum experience, class management
and time management strategies (Haggard, et al., 2008) would provide more
contextualised learning experiences. Raising awareness of the needs of adult
learners and the personal responsibilities of career-change entrants (Haggard, et al.,
2008; Mayotte 2003) amongst all stakeholders would highlight the peculiar
challenges of career change. Further, by providing multiple opportunities for peer
reflection, interaction with and mentoring by more experienced colleagues in
pedagogical strategies will enable the career-change entrants to adapt prior
knowledge and skills for the classroom (Freidus, 1994; Mayotte, 2003; Powell,
1997). Relating learning to the knowledge and expertise gained in former careers
41
(Mayotte, 2003) would support career-change entrants to identify the links and
relevance of their career experiences. Considering expertise, experience,
expectations and attitudes of career-change entrants in selection processes, teacher
education courses, recruitment, allocation of duties and professional development
would also better to cater the needs of this distinctive group (Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). Career-change entrants‘
professional identity could be better acknowledged within the teaching profession as
career-change entrants are not beginners in the world of work (Manuel & Brindley,
2005; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
Early career development
The professional growth and development of career-change entrants is effectively
supported through conversations about teaching and learning that include planning,
professional learning aligned to personal, school and sector goals for student learning
(Queensland Government, 2009b). Growing and developing as a teacher requires a
passion for continual learning and innovation in content knowledge as well as
effective and engaging pedagogy (Hattie, 2009). While professional learning is
generally supported in schools as a shared responsibility, concerns exist about the ad
hoc nature of professional learning, the availability and the low levels of
participation (Parliament of Australia, 2007).
Career-change entrants experience frustrations associated with a time-based
career system that does not recognise the value of knowledge and expertise career-
change entrants bring to the profession (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
42
They may seek career progression early in their career and in doing so exhibit some
of the leadership qualities that they bring from previous work experience. Generally,
conscious choices, priorities and plans are evident among career-change entrants in
the early stages of their career development (Berliner, 1988). This manifests through
facilitating professional learning in relation to their expertise or becoming involved
in working with school leadership teams to solve administrative or cultural
challenges (Crowther, 2009). Further consideration of how the learning needs of
students have changed from the recollections of career-change entrants‘ own
schooling is provided in the next section.
2.1.3 Learning needs of contemporary students
The student learning environment which career-change entrants are entering is a
constantly changing dynamic (MCEETYA, 2005). Consideration of the kinds of
students and future citizens we want to foster as well as the tools and practices, of
contemporary times (Luke, et al., 2000) are important understandings for career-
change entrants. Further, such a consideration addresses key aspects of the research
questions in relation to establishing the nature of technology-rich classrooms into
which career-change entrants are transitioning. This section builds on the notion that
career-change entrants‘ transition into teaching is shaped by regulatory structures,
standards and professional learning processes to focus on the primary concern of the
teaching profession – the learning needs of contemporary students.
Today‘s students, commonly referred to as the Net Generation (Oblinger &
Oblinger, 2005), know only a world of electronic communication and entertainment
43
that did not exist for previous generations. Current students are commencing formal
schooling, with an expectation of mobile, wireless access to the Internet as a tool for
their education. They have unprecedented access to information, people, and ideas
very different from that which our education system was designed to accommodate.
The parallel processing and multitasking capabilities of contemporary students
highlights the differences between traditional teaching practices and the current
learning needs of students (Mayer, 2006).
Preparing students for a society where a high proportion of work involves
creating information or converting information from one form to another in a global
context requires skills such as coping with change, continual learning, critical
thinking, problem solving, collaboration, communication and creativity (see, for
example, Caldwell, 2006; Hargreaves, 2002; Luke et al., 2000; Mayer, 2005;
Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005; Siemens, 2005). These qualities are considered essential
to maximise life opportunities in the global marketplace through knowledge
development use and dissemination (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004) and challenge many
assumptions on which schools are constructed.
The environment in which teachers currently operate is based on incremental
change to traditional practices, facilities and services that are more firmly connected
to the manufacturing-based industrial age of the past than focussed on the developing
knowledge-based economy (Caldwell, 2006). Traditional dynamics and didactic
approaches to the use of ICT simply allows faster access to information, more
efficient processing and clearer presentation (McNair & Galanouli, 2006). The
pedagogical challenge of supporting learning in the digital world of students is to
44
create a classroom ―unconstrained by physical walls or traditional dynamics where a
teacher talks and a student simply listens‖ (Lloyd, 2009, p. 97).
The pedagogical challenge of teaching in technology-rich classrooms is
recognised as a critical factor in achieving high quality outcomes for students (see,
for example, Caldwell, 2006) and is made complex by rapidly changing social,
economic, cultural and technological conditions (Yelland, Cope, & Kalantzis, 2008).
The challenge is to create a culture of innovation in schools (Australian Government,
2003). To do so, many teachers are transforming their practices to create
technology-rich classrooms by balancing teacher-centred and learner-centred
approaches along with collaborative problem solving and critical thinking. All of
which is premised on the vital role of teachers in the learning process (Hattie, 2003).
Avoiding old or reworked notions of what it means to be a teacher is an additional
challenge for the profession (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004) many of whose members
have beliefs about learning and technology that blind them to the need for
transformation of teaching practices (Albion, 1999; Ertmer, 2005; Rust, 2006).
Meeting the learning needs of contemporary students is more difficult for
teachers who work in industrial age schools, modelled on training of factory workers
(Treadwell, 2008), that in no way mirror the realities of growing up in a digital world
(Senge et al., 2005). Developing individual and collective awareness among all
stakeholders of what schooling should be about is challenged by the complex, and
often incomplete, mix of memories, expectations and emotions connected to past
experiences and opinions (Priyadshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar, et al
2008). While these experiences and opinions continue to be shaped by industrial age
45
notions of control and standardisation then schooling will continue to evolve as an
entity that is barely connected to the world in which students live (Senge et al.,
2005). How career-change entrants might perceive their new environment and use
their technological knowledge and ICT expertise for teaching in technology-rich
classrooms is an important consideration for this study. The essence of the challenge
for the career-change entrants is in considering the differences in how the world is
viewed by students given the events and conditions that have shaped their
perspective.
The imperative to meet the learning needs of contemporary students is
reinforced by government policy in Australia under the auspices of the Digital
Education Revolution (Australian Government, 2008) that intends to equip schools
and students with the tools they need to live and work in a global environment
(Australian Government, 2008). As reinforced by the then Deputy Prime-Minister,
the Hon. Julia Gillard, that:
The Digital Education Revolution is about ensuring our schools have the
technological infrastructure to make them [ICT] work; our teachers have the
tools, e-learning resources, professional development and support to optimise
their use of technology to lift attainment levels and there is the professional
IT assistance in place so technology can effectively be deployed.
(Gillard, 2008b, p. 1)
Similarly, the Education Queensland Smart Classrooms strategy (Queensland
Government, 2009a) framed the state government‘s investment in innovation in
schools. To support teachers to meet the learning needs of contemporary students,
46
The Education Queensland Smart Classrooms Professional Development
Framework (Queensland Government, 2009c) was designed to guide professional
learning in the use of ICT to enhance learning. As a form of professional standards
(see Section 2.1.2.1), the framework was designed for teachers to reflect on and
strengthen their beliefs and practices in using ICT for teaching and learning and, as
such, supports teachers to move the focus away from ICT skills to a way of working
where ICT is integral to learning. Three levels of the framework, ICT Certificate,
Digital Pedagogy Licence and Digital Pedagogy Licence Advanced supported
teachers to move through a continuum of practice focussed on pedagogy
(Queensland Government, 2009c). Embodied in professional standards documents,
government policies such as the Digital Education Revolution (Australian
Government, 2008) and the Smart Classrooms strategy (Queensland Government,
2009a) are guidance on how teachers can meet the learning needs of contemporary
students.
This section has established the broad context, conditions and associated
challenges of teaching in technology-rich classrooms that career-change entrants are
working within. The purpose of this discussion was to establish the contextual
issues associated with teaching in technology-rich classrooms and the relevance of
the generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist ICT expertise career-change
entrants. Ensuring that career-change entrants develop expertise in pedagogies to
meet the needs of students in the digital world is an imperative for teacher educators
in universities and schools (Caldwell, 2006; MCEETYA, 2005; Reimann &
Goodyear, 2004). Career-change entrants with generic or specialist expertise in the
47
use of ICT who develop effective pedagogical strategies enhance student learning
and offer authentic perspectives on the world beyond the classroom as they transition
into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The next section explores careers and
change through the literature on career theory and career change to establish clarity
in the terms used within the study described in this thesis.
2.2 Careers and change
The nature of the teaching profession into which career-change entrants are
transitioning has been established as being shaped by structures, regulatory and
professional learning processes and standards, with the learning needs of
contemporary students as the priority of the profession. This section narrows the
focus from teaching and learning in technology-rich classrooms to consider notions
of a career (Section 2.2.1), career change (Section 2.2.2), career-change entrants
(Section 2.2.3) and transition (Section 2.2.4).
This discussion draws on career theory with a distinct focus on individual
responses and, to a lesser extent, sociological perspectives of the interplay between
career-change entrants and schools (Moore, Gunz, & Hall, 2007). The
multidimensional nature of career change is reflected in the career theory literature
that has emerged from the academic disciplines of sociology, developmental
psychology (see, for example, Davey & Arnold, 2000; Erikson, 1997; Fugate,
Kinicki, & Ashford, 2004; Guns & Pieperl, 2007) and the business management
literature (Schein, 1985; Senge, 2006). What was not considered in this review of
the literature were the vocational perspectives of matching competencies with roles
48
that tend to emphasise functions and the benchmarks for undertaking a job. Rather,
broader views of professional identity are considered as an aspirational investment
and commitment to the profession and to students (Beijaard et al., 2000; Korthagen,
2004, Lasky, 2005; Mayer, 1999; Sachs, 2001).
2.2.1 Careers
Traditionally a career was considered to be dependent on the characteristics of an
organisation as well as an individual‘s interests and attributes (Cappelli & Hamori,
2007) with success defined in terms of status, increased responsibility and salary
(Hall, 2004). More recently, a career was considered a life-long entity as a
combination of life and work experiences (Patton, 2009), or as life stories we tell to
make sense of ―what we have done, are doing and might do in our jobs‖
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003, p. 96). Alternatively, a career is the vehicle
by which a person makes a contribution, accomplish financial, physical or
intellectual goals, make an impact in an area of interest, or find success and
happiness (Boyatzis, 2007). Careers are situated in an evolving world where trends
such as restructuring, globalisatisation, outsourcing, freelancing, and online
communities provide multiple and often competing anchors for one‘s professional
identity (Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007).
Career-change entrants are highly adaptable individuals who have developed
multiple identities over time (Watt & Richardson, 2008). Such highly adaptable
individuals were considered by Hall, (2004) as ―protean workers‖ (after Proteus, the
Greek god of many forms) for whom work was such an important part of personal
49
identity that they reinvented themselves to shape work and career around family
priorities. Further, the individual responsibility for career decisions was linked to
successfully advancing a career and life satisfaction. A protean career was ―self-
determined, driven by personal values rather than organizational rewards, and
serving the whole person, family, and ‗life purpose‘‖ (Hall 2004, p. 1).
Given this evolution in our understanding of the notion of a career, the
literature suggests that career-change entrants actively shape and manage their paid
employment, by creating, constructing, designing, opportunities and learning
experiences that will fulfil a broad range of personal needs (see, for example, Ibarra
& Deshpande, 2007). While career-change entrants enact their personal aspirations,
they are constrained by social and organisational structures (Nicholson, 2007) and
this is explored in the sections ahead.
2.2.2 Career change
Traditionally, teaching careers were shaped by school structures with pathways into
the profession progressing from attending school as a student to Teachers College or
University then to a school as a teacher (Australian Government, 2003). Teachers
tended to remain with the one systemic employer for the life of a career (Fugate et
al., 2004). The increasing pace of change appears to afford less commitment to long
contracts by both employers and employees and a search for work life balance
(Patton, 2009). In this environment, role transitions are frequent and result in the
need to personally manage change. Whereas, in the past, such adaptation was
viewed as a reactive response to change (see, for example, Fugate et al., 2004), those
50
who adapt, continue to learn, and evolve their career are now viewed as proactive
initiators of change (Hall, 2004; Patton, 2009). A contrary view is that such
adaptation is associated with survival in the face of current challenges (Skilbeck &
Connell, 2004). Growing the capability to create a future in teaching where
innovation, excellence and high expectations drives practice requires more
generative forms of learning (Senge, 2006).
Adaptation in the teaching profession involves developing a level of comfort,
and confidence in being able to enhance learning for all students and in doing so
reconfigure professional identity. The expertise and experience gained in a previous
career shapes the way adaptation occurs (Mayotte, 2003) and determines
employability. Employability is, ―a form of work-specific active adaptability that
enables workers to identify and realise career opportunities‖ (Fugate et al., 2004, p.
15). It is considered more relevant in contemporary career-market environments
than job security (McMahon et al., 2003), as it enhances alternatives, and facilitates
personal change and career-change. Employable individuals consider and pursue
alternatives consistent with their salient career identities (Ashforth & Fugate, 2001),
and are predisposed to adapting to change. Successful change requires a vision,
expertise, incentive, resources and a plan. A lack of any one of these elements
impedes the career change and results in confusion, anxiety or frustration (Lippitt,
1987).
As careers appear more fluid and self-designed, career change has become
increasingly self-initiated and more frequent (Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007). Career
change, considered as ―varied experiences over time‖ (Crow et al., 1990, p. 204) is
51
rarely smooth and generally manifests through emergent or catastrophic changes
over time that are associated with an epiphany or self-discovery (Boyatzis, 2007).
The question of who is considered a career-change entrant is explored in the next
section.
2.2.3 Career-change entrants
The term career-change entrant was used to describe the teachers who are the focus
of the study described in this thesis. There are a wide variety of terms used in the
literature to describe career-change entrants. Some of these are: (a) second-career
teacher (Freidus, 1994; Haggard et al., 2006; Powell, 1997; Tigchelaar et al, 2008);
(b) career-switchers (Mayotte, 2003); (c) career-changers (Crow et al., 1990;
Manuel & Brindley, 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Resta, Huling &
Rainwater, 2001; (d) graduate trainee teachers (Richardson & Watt, 2005); (e)
career-change students (Williams, 2006); (f) beginning teachers holding a second
degree (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004); and (g) change-of-career teachers (Anthony &
Ord, 2008).
Definitions of career-change entrants considered but rejected in the study on
the basis of ambiguity or contention were:
a. ―a student who has worked for at least three years in a career other than
teaching, including full or part-time, paid or unpaid work, and /or parenting,
prior to enrolling in their current teacher education course‖ (Williams &
Forgasz (2009, p. 97);
52
b. ―people with prior occupational experiences‖ (Anthony & Ord, 2009, p. 359);
and,
c. ―candidates aged over 32 who had at least a 5 year career and recent work
experience outside education‖ (Tigchelaar, et al., 2008, p. 1545).
The term adopted in this study was ―career-change entrant‖ given that
multiple changes could have taken place prior to teaching and the fact that the study
is situated at a time of entry into the teaching profession and the early years of a
teaching career. As such, the definition of career-change entrants adopted for this
study was cognisant of the understanding that they are ―not … fresh graduate[s]
starting with teaching as … [their] first job in life‖ (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003, p. 95). In this study, a career-change entrant was a pre-service student or
beginning teacher with a degree in a non-educational field and a range of life and
work experiences and at least one previous career in a profession other than teaching.
Not included were participants in fast-track teacher preparation programs such as
Teacher for America, Teach for UK or Teach for Australia, for whom teaching was a
temporary career-change prior to returning to a field related to their undergraduate
degree. The term ‗beginning teacher‘ was used when referring to all people who
commenced a career in teaching regardless of age, experience or background.
The career-change entrants who participated in this study were
conceptualised as being Novice Teachers, or Experienced Novices or Early Career
Professionals based on the stages of teacher development suggested by Berliner
(1988) for the purposes of analysis and theory building. Novice teachers were
considered to be pre-service students with up to six months experience working in
53
schools. Experienced novices had between six months to one year experience in
schools and Early Career Professionals had between one and four years experience
in schools. Where references are made in this thesis to the participants in this study,
these terms are employed.
2.2.4 Transition
Transition, in the study described is this thesis, is considered as a personal response
to change. It is a process rather than an outcome, which is be associated with a
series of ongoing phases focussed on the past, present and future (Bridges, 1991;
Senge et al., 2005). Career change evokes a response and emotional adjustment that
is referred to in the literature a transition process (see, for example, Bridges &
Mitchell-Bridges, 2000; Vonk, 1995). This process has a time dimension that
extends well beyond the actual change and has a personal impact that varies in range
and intensity. Transitioning, however, is not merely about socialisation and
adjustment to, during or from the experience. Rather, it is a series of ongoing phases
that includes a focus on the future (Senge et al., 2005). The transition process, as
considered in this thesis is distinguishable from incremental developmental change
focussing on particular capabilities. It is planned or unplanned change with
unpredictable outcomes radically different from an existing state.
The transition phase is considered as the zone in a teaching career between
the final stages of pre-service study and the early years of employment in a school
(Vonk, 1995). More narrowly it has been considered as the initial year of
employment (see, for example, Lazovsky & Reichenberg, 2006; McCormack, Gore
54
& Thomas 2006). It is time when career-change entrants feel the need to become as
proficient as they were in their former career as quickly as possible and as a result
are often overwhelmed, as they respond to the same demands as more experienced
teachers (Crow et al, 1990; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). The concern is
that this feeling can manifest itself in an individual as not being able to cope, a key
reason for departure from the profession (Flores & Day, 2006; Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004).
Transition processes involve letting go of old identities and control, to a new
state of mind that manifests an emerging future (Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007; Senge et
al., 2005). A past identity of a career-change entrant is a ―living system‖ that cannot
be replaced by a new identity. Rather, it is continually grown and changed along
with all other personal elements as new directions are pursued. Anxiety or varying
degrees of loss are experienced during such a transition (Senge et al., 2005). As one
becomes an ―ex,‖ a sense of loss involves letting go of past ways and the associated
identity to assume a more ill-defined and provisional identity (Ibarra & Deshpande,
2007). If this sense of loss brings on anxiety about decisions made in relation to
career-change, then actions are likely to revert to practices with which we are
familiar such as teaching in traditional ways. Teaching practice is also constrained
by imperatives and expectations that perpetuate the past rather than learning from it
(Senge et al., 2005). The sense of loss is followed by realignments that take place
when in a neutral zone between the past and the new identity (Senge et al., 2005).
Following this, a sense of new energy and purpose marks the new beginning
and the reconstructing personal images of self (Senge et al., 2005) that is advanced
55
through a learning process. Additionally, during this time forging new connections
with colleagues assist the career-change entrant to explore a new professional
identity and the ideal self, and dilute strong ties with the outdated identity (Ibarra &
Deshpande, 2007). This involves cognitive reconfiguring, often through identifying
with a new role model or mentor and scanning the environment for new relevant
information. Reconfiguring approaches to working in a role become a new base on
which to further advance a career. Reconfiguration is generally successful when
capabilities, beliefs and ways of working are integrated into a professional identity
along with the development of significant relationships (Schein, 1985).
Transition experiences are shaped by social networks and the personal
narratives used to explain these changes. Additionally, experiences are facilitated or
hindered by the development of relationships (Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007). This
aspect of transition is used by some researchers (see, for example, Wenger, 1998) to
depict career change and transition as a social learning process in which career-
change entrants construct new identities in relation to the community, initially
participating on the periphery of the teaching profession.
This section has explored the construct of a career and notions of career
change and transition. It proposed that changing careers is of growing significance
in the work environment and that those who proactively make the change to teaching
experience varying degrees of loss as they ―let go‖ of past perceptions, move through
a neutral zone where the past becomes less significant and the future becomes clearer
as a new sense of purpose emerges. These concepts provide an insight into why
career-change is occurring and how career-change impacts on professional identity.
56
These insights add a human perspective to the teaching profession that is being
shaped by structures, regulatory and professional learning processes and standards
and driven by the learning needs of contemporary students. The next section
explores the human perspective in further depth through the notion of professional
identity inclusive of the attributes of career-change entrants.
2.3 Professional identity
Career-change entrants‘ talents, ambitions, expectations, fears, motives and values
generally become interrelated in a total self-concept through learning (Schein, 1985).
The construct of professional identity is explored in this section with a view to
understanding the challenge of career change as well as the investment and
commitment made as a career in teaching commences. A broad view of professional
identity was taken in this study to create a whole-of-career perspective of which a
glimpse is taken at the time of transition into the teaching profession. In the
following discussion, the literature from across the research disciplines of education,
psychology, sociology and career development, which has influenced the definition
of professional identity adopted in this study, is presented.
Conceptualisations of identity articulated in the 1960s suggested that it was a
self concept developed within social situations, or through social roles (Erikson,
1968/1994). In this context, identity was considered as the meanings individuals
give themselves or are ascribed are by others (Beijaard, Verloop, & Vermunt, 2000).
Further conceptualisations of identity from the field of psychology, suggest that a
core identity is the compilation of the person‘s enduring dispositions such as
57
unconscious motives, traits, roles taken repeatedly in social settings, and other habits
(see, for example, Boyatzis & Akrivou, 2006). Furthermore identity has been
considered, by sociologists, as: (a) of fundamental importance to personal well-
being; and, (b) constructed, fluid, multiple, impermanent and fragmentary.
Collective manifestations of identity emerged in the 1980s and 1990s and permeated
multicultural and gender research as an account for marginalisation and the ―struggle
to establish coherent identities and constructive relationships with others‖ (Bendle,
2002, p. 3).
Further to this, identity has been conceptualised as a lived experience of
participation in social communities and as such involved a ―layering of events of
participation and reification by which our experience and its social interpretation
inform each other‖ (Wenger, 1998, p. 151). Importantly, identity was connected to
practice through negotiation with members of the profession on ways of working in a
particular context (Wenger, 1998). The commitment to an identity varies according
to the degree to which that identity organises and clarifies experience (Demerath,
2006).
A career identity is a representation of career experiences and aspirations that
includes goals, hopes, and fears, personality traits, values, beliefs, and norms. It is as
longitudinal concept that reflects of the way individuals see and talk about
themselves (Fugate et al., 2004). Career identities are created, lived and altered in
social interactions with others, evolving as individuals change roles, jobs and
organisations (Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007).
58
A professional identity as a teacher, however, involves more than learning
the role (Mayer, 1999). Rather, it is based on core beliefs about teaching and
learning shaped over a long period of time and the capability to develop and
articulate an understanding about how and why particular teaching and learning
approaches are used. As such, these intellectual and reflective practices provide an
indication of how a career-change entrant perceives becoming a teacher. These core
beliefs are anchors that frame and guide professional decision making and may be
difficult to influence (Mayer, 1999).
Teachers‘ perceptions of their identity in a professional context, and how
they view and present themselves to others are co-constructed through interpersonal
communication with colleagues (Korthagen, 2004). In the absence of collegial
teaching practices, professional identity takes the form of ―an unconscious body of
needs, images, feelings, values, role models, previous experiences and behavioural
tendencies‖ (Korthagen, 2004, p. 85). Such perceptions impact on the willingness to
cope with educational change, implement innovations in their own teaching practice
and alter the way they see themselves as teachers (Beijaard et al., 2000; Korthagen,
2004, Lasky, 2005). Professional identity explored through personal narratives is a
means of tapping into the rich, complex and fluid mix of beliefs, attitudes and
expectations that develop where there is respect, mutuality and communication
(Mayer, 1999; Sachs, 2001; Walkington, 2006).
Conversely, a teaching identity develops as a set of attributes imposed upon
the profession either by outsiders or the teaching profession itself, suggesting that
teachers may adopt a set of behaviours to ensure social, cultural and political
59
acceptance and recognition (Sachs, 2001). As noted earlier through the collective
manifestations of identity which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, distinguishing
identity that is adopted through membership of the profession as distinct from an
identity shaped by personal beliefs is a challenge for research in this area.
Professional identity, for the purposes of this study, was considered as a
holistic notion that included the knowledge and expertise, expectations, confidence,
motivations and beliefs that a career-change entrant brings to the teaching
profession. Further, professional identity is shaped through individual and social
experiences, learning and ongoing life experiences. As such, professional identity
has multiple manifestations according to the application of beliefs to a particular
context and is legitimised only through personal meaningfulness as distinct from
status as a socially shared perception. Accordingly, factors associated with a
professional identity that evolve through career-change, include job satisfaction,
financial welfare, home location, sense of self-worth and career progression
(Beijaard et al., 2000; Korthagen, 2004, Lasky, 2005; Mayer, 1999; Sachs, 2001). In
the study described in this thesis professional identity was constituted by:
a. demographic characteristics (Section 2.3.1);
b. expectations about becoming a teacher (Section 2.3.2);
c. knowledge and expertise brought to the profession (Section 2.3.3);
d. confidence to teach (Section 2.3.4);
e. beliefs about teaching and learning (Section 2.3.5); and,
f. motivation to change careers (Section 2.3.6).
60
Professional identity is a construct that involves a range of attributes and
experiences that, as an amalgam, is a holistic way to explore transition. Despite
career-change into teaching being a phenomenon noted as occurring since the 1960s
and 1970s (Powell, 1997), studies of career-change entrants are not prolific. Those
available tend to focus on demographic and motivational issues rather than
significantly advance understandings of the complexities involved. The next section
explores the professional identities of career-change entrants through exploring who
is entering the teaching profession via a career-change pathway, what motivates
them to do so and what aspects of their professional identity change as they enter the
teaching profession.
2.3.1 Demographic characteristics
Who is entering the teaching profession as a career-change entrant, and from which
occupations, is of interest to an increasing number of researchers (see, for example,
Anthony & Ord, 2008; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al.,
2008; Williams & Forgasz, 2009). Reasons posited for this interest include the
changing profile of newly qualified teachers from traditional direct entry graduates
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) to older and more experienced individuals.
What is explored in this section are studies that consider: (a) previous occupations of
career-change entrants (see Section 2.3.1.1); and, (b) the impact of age and gender
on the transition process (see Section 2.3.1.2).
61
2.3.1.1 Previous careers of career-change entrants
Career-change entrants have a wide variety of backgrounds such as finance (banking,
stocks, real estate) and communication industries (advertising, publishing, and
broadcasting) (Crow et al., 1990). Other studies (see, for example, Manuel &
Brindley, 2005) have found that career-change entrants have had careers in
journalism, law, film production, tourism, medicine, acting, human resources,
hospitality, secretarial and administration, small business and graphic design as well
as parenting. Other career-change entrants have come from business/administration,
customer service and technical roles (Anthony & Ord, 2008) or entertainment,
science and information technology (Richardson & Watt, 2006). Critically, the
former role that career-change entrants leave does appear to influence the transition
experience into teaching (Crow et al, 1990; Watt & Richardson, 2008).
2.3.1.2 The impact of age and gender on the transition process
The age of career-change entrants appears to have an impact on the transition into
teaching. Age affords respect from students while camouflaging the novice status
and consequent need for support. Additionally, age influences the dynamic between
a mentor and the career-change entrants (Freidus, 1994; Mayotte, 2003). Career-
change entrants often do not receive the support they need because they are not
considered novices due to their age and prior experience (Tigchelaar et al., 2006).
Further frustrations arise for career-change entrants through their perceptions of a
lack of adequate input from supervising teachers who are uncomfortable offering
critiques to those of a similar age or older (Freidus, 1994). Furthermore, there may
62
be communication challenges when mentors are significantly younger than the
career-change entrant (Mayotte, 2003). Mentors and supervising teachers make
assumptions based upon the age and the prior experience of career-change entrants
that are at odds with the career-change entrants‘ perceptions of their need for support
(Anthony & Ord, 2008).
The feminisation of the school teaching workforce has been increasing in
recent decades (Australian Government, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). In 1978,
56% of Australian teachers were female increasing to 65% in 1998 (Richardson &
Watt, 2006). More recently in 2003, at least 79% of Australian primary teachers are
female and 55% of Australian secondary teachers are female (MCEETYA, 2003).
Current statistics suggest that this trend is continuing (QUT, 2007). The gender
imbalance is considered to impact on the achievement of male students (Mills,
Martino & Lingard, 2004) and has been attributed as one factor affecting the lower
relative salaries, especially for men (Richardson & Watt, 2005). Studies in the field
have found the career-change entrants responding to invitations to take part in
studies were overwhelmingly female (see, for example, Anthony & Ord, 2008;
Mayotte, 2003; Crow et al., 1990; Goddard & O‘Brien 2004; Richardson & Watt,
2005, Williams 2006) which is reflective of the gender imbalance in the teaching
profession. While some researchers have found no significant differences in
relation to motivations and expectations (see, for example, Manual & Brindley,
2006; Richardson & Watt, 2005), others found that for male career-change entrants
often experience a lack of support from supervising teachers (Freidus, 1992).
Further, female career-change entrants may be overlooked for promotional positions
63
for less-experienced male colleagues (Mayotte, 2003). Clearly, further research on
the gender differences in relation to perceptions about becoming and being a teacher
will further highlight concerns of career-change entrants.
2.3.2 Expectations about becoming a teacher
Discrepancies between career-change entrants‘ expectations about a teaching career
and the realities of life as a teacher appear to have an impact on retention
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Knowing that teaching is a complex and
demanding career that often provides comparatively lower financial returns and
status does not necessarily make living the reality any easier (Richardson & Watt,
2006). In this section, the continuity between former and new careers are explored
as well as the influence of recollections of former career, own schooling and
perspectives as parents.
Former careers may adversely impact on professional engagement and career
development aspirations (Anthony & Ord, 2008). This may be through: (a) a
disparity between a career-change entrants‘ former higher occupational status with
high academic qualifications and the expectations, beliefs and values of the school
environment (Watt & Richardson, 2008); or (b) high levels of competence in a
former career (Crow et al., 1990). An indicator of likely retention of career-change
entrants is the status of the career from which they have disengaged.
In the past, teaching was considered an ―implausible choice,‖ (Crow et al.,
1990, p. 190) particularly in relation to the potential of the business world. Now
career-change entrants‘ trade in career-ladder advancement and financial gain for the
64
rewards of a career that they perceived would be a socially relevant profession and
provide greater moral and personal satisfaction (Crow et al., 1990; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). Initiating forces and mediating forces shape the experiences
and perceptions of the career-change entrants. These forces result in different
approaches to career change transition, differentiated by the perceived importance of
the previous career and finding job satisfaction in teaching. Career-change entrants
who have a perceived continuity between past and present demands are more likely
to negotiate the novice role successfully than those who perceive a disparity between
the past and the present (Crow et al., 1990). While many career-change entrants
make a successful transition into teaching the issues and concerns of varying
magnitudes highlight the needs for personalised support (Mayotte, 2003; Tigchelaar
et al, 2008). Career-change entrants are potentially more: (a) focussed about their
learning; (b) responsible for their own learning; (c) knowledgeable and skilled; (d)
open to innovation in teaching and learning due to the non-recent memories of
didactic teaching methods; and (e) able to determine their place in the school
community more quickly and precisely (Tigchelaar et al., 2008).
Career-change entrants experience a magnification of the common concerns
about becoming a teacher (Haggard et al, 2006) as there is often a ―striking gap
between the aspirational desires and painful realities of a teaching career‖
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003 p. 110). Through such experiences career-
change entrants reappraise their decision to change careers (Tigchelaar et al, 2008).
A lack of continuity between a former career and a new career as a teacher (see, for
example, Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003;
65
Skilbeck & Connell, 2004) leads to varying degrees of overwhelming tension and
stress that can lead to burnout (see, for example, Flores & Day, 2006; Goddard &
O‘Brien, 2004). This occurs through condensation of the field experience
component and lack of extended development of pedagogical skills and feelings of
being ill-prepared (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
Alternatively, the stressors are family responsibilities (Mayotte 2003; Priyadharshini
& Robinson-Pant, 2003) or the difficulty of gaining permanent employment in some
systems (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
On gaining employment as a teacher in a school the stress of adjusting to and
managing on a lower salary and lower status (Haggard et al., 2006; Freidus, 1994;
Madfes, 1989) causes concerns. This is compounded by the lack of recognition of
former career expertise and rapid career progression, influence and professional
growth in the experience-based career structure (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Crow et al.,
1990; Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Additionally, there are frustrations with being a
novice again and accepting less than perfection when having already experienced
successful careers and raised families (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Crow, et al., 1990;
Eifler & Potthoff, 1998 Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). The complexity,
workload and expectations associated with administration; planning and curriculum,
working with parents and communities, (Eifler & Potthoff, 1998; Freidus, 1994;
Tigchelaar et al., 2008) is often a challenge to address. Further, aspirations and
expectations about learning from colleagues and working in teams (Anthony & Ord,
2008; Tigchelaar et al., 2008) can be tested. Indeed it has been argued that a ―culture
shock‖ is experienced when encountering the competitive and high pressure work
66
environment and ―rigid and inflexible‖ school systems or the isolation of traditional
classrooms (Freidus, 1994; Manuel & Brindley, 2005; Priyadharshini & Robinson-
Pant, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
The realities of classroom work often do not match career-change entrants‘
expectations and beliefs about teaching and learning (Freidus, 1994; Goddard &
O‘Brien, 2004; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Schein, 1985). Their passion
for a subject area may not be matched with colleague interest, student interest and or
student academic ability (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Powell, 1997; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Further, career-change entrants often
use of mental models of teaching and learning based on their own schooling
experiences (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Senge, 2006; Skilbeck &
Connell, 2004) particularly when under pressure in, for example transforming
knowledge into effective learning experiences for students (Powell, 1997). The lack
of resources compared to their former career is a concern for those who work in
practical areas (Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Often forming relationships with other staff that are suspicious of career-
change entrants‘ motivation to teach (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Crow et al., 1990) is an
unexpected challenge particularly given interpersonal experience in former careers.
This situation results in lack of feedback, isolation from adults, lack of formal
support mechanisms and serendipitous offers of assistance (Madfes, 1989) that
perpetuate ineffective practices and low confidence levels.
Concern about their sole teaching responsibilities and ability to do their jobs
well in a stressful culture (Madfes, 1989; Manuel & Brindley, 2006; Priyadharshini
67
& Robinson-Pant, 2003) are noted issues. Central to these concerns are behaviour
management and classroom control issues as well as low levels of discipline in some
schools (Haggard et al., 2006; McCormack & Thomas, 2003; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008; Watzke, 2003) to the point where
some career-change entrants conclude that they prefer to work with adults (Crow et
al., 1990, Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Career-change entrants may assume there will continuity between their
former and new careers (Tigchelaar,et al., 2008). Regardless of how much thought
they had given to career-change, many career-change entrants reappraised their
career decision as they began to experience the possibilities and constraints of his or
her new careers (Tigchelaar, et al., 2008). Their expectations about a new career in
the teaching profession appear to be shaped by previous career conditions and
confidence to teach in relation to performing the new role as a teacher (Haggard et
al., 2006). More practical and professional recognition of the experiences career-
change entrants bring alleviate some of these tensions and stressors (Mayotte, 2003).
Expectations are pivotal to the transition into the teaching profession and are
generally associated with a wide range of issues, factors, hopes and dreams (see, for
example, Haggard et al., 2006; Tigchelaar, et al., 2008). It could be that managing
expectations without dampening enthusiasm is central to supporting career-change
entrants. As expectations about becoming and being a teacher are key elements in
the transition into the teaching profession they are acknowledged in the conceptual
framework described in the next chapter.
68
2.3.3 Existing knowledge and expertise
Career-change entrants bring a wide range of knowledge, expertise and perspectives
that are of value to schools (Freidus, 1994; Haggard et al., 2006; Madfes, 1989;
Richardson & Watt, 2005; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004; Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
Knowledge and expertise brought to the teaching profession are considered, in the
study described in this thesis, to be career-related capabilities. They are generic or
enabling capabilities such as skills in analysis, organisation, team work and
communication (Mayotte, 2003; Williams & Forgasz, 2009). Alternatively, career-
change entrants bring specialist knowledge and expertise, such as qualifications and
or work experience in discipline areas such as science, maths or accounting. Many
career-change entrants believe that generic expertise such as communication, team
work and organisation is more valuable than specialist skills and content knowledge
(Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
Generic and specialist knowledge and expertise have a role in quality
teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) but require periodic adaptation in a rapidly
changing world (Banks, 2010). To reconfigure this knowledge and expertise for the
teaching in technology-rich classrooms, career-change entrants learn pedagogical
strategies to adapt and integrate knowledge and experience gained in former careers
(Powell, 1997). Such connections career change entrants keep with their former
career are initially important for establishing continuity between past and present
(Freidus, 1994; Mayotte, 2003; Powell, 1996). Reconfiguring generic and specialist
expertise to teaching in technology-rich classrooms is challenging and career-change
entrants require just as much, if not more support than direct entry beginning
69
teachers to become effective teachers (Crow et al., 1990; Freidus, 1992; Mayotte,
2003; Powell, 1997).
2.3.3.1 Generic knowledge and expertise
It is generally accepted in the literature that career-change entrants, by dint of age
and work experience, bring a repertoire of generic knowledge and skills. Career-
change entrants develop these capabilities in a previous career or life experiences
through assimilating the past with the present and the expectation that this strategy
may that may provide direction for the future. A synthesis of the literature provides
examples of such generic knowledge and skills, namely:
a. problem-solving and coping skills, management and organisational skills
(see, for example, Haggard, et al., 2006, Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003); and
b. communication skills, working with groups, facilitating cooperation,
organisation and management, and familiarity with ICT (Anthony & Ord,
2008; Tigchelaar et al., 2008; Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
This generic expertise is the point of difference between career-change
entrants and to direct entry beginning teachers (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). The
additional challenge for career-change entrants is to establish how their capabilities
are relevant in a school community. Being able to draw on these capabilities affirms
professional identity, sense of worth, and credibility for career-change entrants
(Anthony & Ord, 2008). Interpersonal capabilities assist career-change entrants in
communicating with parents of students they teach (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Mayotte,
70
2003). Other challenges exist for some career-change entrants in accepting that they
needed to learn new ideas in order to become a teacher (Williams, 2006). Building
on prior knowledge, rather than ―leaving it at the door‖ (Freidus, 1994, p. 6) enables
he career-change entrant to recognise the value for their students in building on
experiences rather than replacing preceding ones (Freidus, 1994).
Career-change entrants also bring generic expertise from working in
environments where ICT is integral to conducting the business of their former career.
ICT expertise is considered in this thesis to have similar meaning to Mishra and
Koehler‘s (2006) notion of technology knowledge that is, the ―skills required to
operate particular technologies‖ (p. 1027). Generic ICT expertise could be
developed by career-change entrants through the use of software packages or online
ebusiness tools for roles such as marketing and client support, collaboration and
networking, service promotion and design, resource and learning management,
collaboration, and publishing all of which have application in teaching contexts
(Finger, Russell, Jamison-Proctor & Russell, 2007). Career-change entrants‘ ICT
knowledge and expertise are considered in isolation as well as together as one
component of Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK)
(Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Further, as contended in this thesis, generic and
specialist expertise to work through and with ICT is also potentially valuable in a
school context.
While technological knowledge, expertise and confidence to use ICT is
useful in a school context, such capabilities are less significant than pedagogy in
creating technology-rich learning experiences (Lloyd, 2009; Reimann & Goodyear,
71
2004). A different pedagogical approach may be required to ―shift in the balance
between teacher presentation and explanation activities‖ to ―providing support and
guidance for learning activities‖ (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004, p. 5). Additionally, it
may require a more complex, situated and integrated form of knowledge – TPACK-
(Mishra & Koelher, 2006) that is developed and refined throughout a teaching
career. The challenge for career-change entrants is to reconfigure their knowledge,
expertise and confidence in order to ―challenge students‘ thinking and
understanding‖ (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004, p. 5) in authentic, integrated and
meaningful learning environments (Moyle, 2009).
The TPACK framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) highlights the
complexities of the relationship between ICT and learning as ―connections,
interactions, affordances, and constraints between and among content, pedagogy, and
technology‖ (Mishra & Koehler, 2006 p. 1025). TPACK, as conceptualised by
Mishra & Koehler (2006), is considered a basis of teaching with technology that
requires:
a. an understanding of the representation of concepts using technologies;
b. pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach
content;
c. knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how
technology can help redress some of the problems that students face;
d. knowledge of students‘ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and,
72
e. knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge
and to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones
(Mishra & Kohler, 2006).
During the development of TPACK, career-change entrants shift the technology
context and reconfigure their ICT knowledge and expertise to suit the teaching and
learning situation by adopting particular roles as designers and knowledge managers
(Reimann & Goodyear, 2004) based on roles in their former career. As a designer of
teaching strategies, teachers analyse, plan, select, configure, manage and evaluate in
the process of embedding ICT resources in student learning. As knowledge
managers, teachers ―sustain these processes of engaging with knowledge, and to
help learners to structure and organise their learning as well as articulate and share
their knowledge‖ (p. 35). Such roles challenge didactic pedagogies that are used in
traditional classrooms.
Supporting career-change entrants to gain confidence in using ICT for
teaching and learning and reconfiguring their technological and pedagogical
expertise into TPACK requires them to witness and experience effective pedagogies
during the pre-service course and during practicum (Bai & Ertmer, 2008; Moyle,
2009; Shaw, 2004). Such explicit preparation for teaching with ICT is essential to
overcome the risk that ICT is added on or fitted in to didactic teaching practices,
delegated the task of teaching (Cuban, 1993; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004) or used in
limited ways (Dexter, Anderson & Becker, 1999; Lloyd, 2005). Career-change
entrants also need dedicated time to explore specific agendas, and talk with role
73
models who demonstrate effective contemporary practices (Haydn, 2010; Shaw,
2004). Conversations about pedagogy are more value than discussions about ICT
resources (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). Further, a degree of autonomy and
collaboration in aspects of practice (Haydn, 2010) facilitates TPACK development
as well as opportunities to practise different teaching and learning approaches within
risk-free environments (Moyle (2009). Learning about and building student
behaviour management strategies for teaching in technology-rich classrooms
(Moyle, 2009) also supports the reconfiguration of ICT expertise gained through a
previous career. These notions were considered to create an understanding of career-
change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and being a teacher in technology-rich
classrooms as they reconfigured their professional identity that included
technological knowledge and expertise.
2.3.3.2 Specialist knowledge and expertise
Some career-change entrants have extensive specialist knowledge in areas such as
science, accounting or ICT that they have gained through formal academic
qualifications and a former career. Interest in the specialist field may have of been
the basis for the choice of first career with teaching an alternate avenue to use such
knowledge (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Career-change entrants with
specialist knowledge enrich classrooms through the use of real world examples. The
value of such specialist knowledge will not be realised in the absence of effective
pedagogy and is some cases is an issue of contention (Powell, 1997). Career-change
entrants, such as practising scientists, are recognised as having the potential to ―bring
74
a wealth of knowledge and understanding that is of great value to students they teach
and the schools in which they work‖ (Ritchie, Kidman & Vaughan, 2007, p. 227). A
successful transition would need to include acknowledgement and building on the
rich experiences they have had in other professional contexts.
How career-change entrants transform specialist knowledge and expertise
into teachable content is unclear. It appears that career-change entrants‘ goals in
relation to sharing knowledge with students are shaped and altered by local
challenges (Powell, 1997). It also appears that challenges exist for some career-
change entrants in transforming their specialist content-related knowledge and
expertise into student curricula (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Career-change entrants are
not necessarily able to apply the content knowledge of their former careers to
teaching without support and mentoring (Madfes, 1989) particularly as some career-
change entrants believe that their knowledge is the least important of their attributes
(Williams & Forgasz, 2009). Career-change entrants need to know the subject
matter they teach as well as the manner in which the subject matter can be changed
by the application of technology (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Further to this, a more
complex, situated and integrated form of knowledge - TPACK- needs to be
developed to support the learning needs of contemporary students (Mishra &
Koehler, 2006).
Knowledge, expertise and experiences from a range of life experiences do not
make the transition to teaching an easy path (Mayotte, 2003). Additionally, more
content knowledge does not by itself necessarily lead to greater teacher proficiency
in explaining to students the fundamental concepts in a discipline (Mayotte, 2003).
75
Furthermore, a focus on teaching a subject rather than the whole student is a key
challenge for all beginning teachers and this is possibly accentuated in the case of
career-change entrants with specialist knowledge and skills (Manuel & Brindley,
2005). Career-change entrants who are able to accurately determine the relevance of
their knowledge and experience are better positioned to select effective pedagogical
strategies (Crow et al., 1990). There are risks that knowledge and expertise is
untapped and marginalised through conventional beginning teachers‘ experiences
(Manual & Brindley, 2005) potentially impacting on the career-change entrant‘s
sense of self-worth (Anthony & Ord, 2009). How career-change entrants apply their
knowledge in a teaching and learning context is further explored in relation to beliefs
about teaching and learning in a later section.
Recognition and acknowledgement of previously developed knowledge and
expertise by the career-change entrant, teacher education staff and school staff
appears to be critical to transitions. Moreover, it is in doing so that the experiences,
qualities, and strengths that career-change entrants bring to teaching will help to
distinguish them from direct entry teachers with little or no previous career
experience (Mayotte, 2003). The potential transferability of previously-developed
knowledge and expertise needs to be explored in terms of school constraints
(Mayotte, 2003) to determine how best to support career-change entrants to
transform their knowledge and real-world experience into TPACK and classroom
practice.
Career change entrants‘ transition from a previous career necessitates a
rethinking of the application of previous uses of ICT to teaching in technology-rich
76
classrooms. Having technological knowledge and expertise will not ensure that
effective use will necessarily be made of ICT in the classroom. Additionally,
maintaining perspectives associated with past experiences and recollections of
effective classrooms hinder development as a teacher in current settings. Further, it
could be that the some of the expertise that is the basis of professional identity could
encumber the career-change entrants.
2.3.4 Confidence to teach
A growth in comfort and confidence to work in a school culture and to establish a
professional identity is an important aspect of a transition process (Mayotte, 2003).
Career-change entrants are generally confident when they feel they can bring
valuable knowledge and expertise to the teaching profession (Haggard et al., 2006).
Additionally, a sense of confidence is directly related to a growing understanding of
effective pedagogies (Freidus, 1994). How that confidence ebbs and flows impacts
on the career-change entrants‘ effectiveness as a teacher (Powell, 1997). Confidence
may be affected by a wide range of situations and stressors one of which is adapting
to the school environment.
Adapting to the school environment is less of a challenge for career-change
entrants than direct-entry beginning teachers given further developed interpersonal
skills (Tigchelaar et al., (2008). Career-change entrants are generally keen to learn
the cultural conventions of their new work environment (Freidus, 1994). Despite
this, adaptation is not generally easy (Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004), navigating school
culture being a challenging situation for career-change entrants (Manuel & Brindley,
77
2005; Priyadharshini and Robinson-Pant, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). Fixed
structures and procedures of schools are likely to be at odds with the changing,
diverse, complex and insecure world of work career-change entrants have left,
raising questions of teacher professionalism, potential, poor school culture,
bureaucratic demands and fears of marginalisation (Manuel & Brindley, 2005). The
professional culture in schools often varies markedly from that of the general
workforce. This relates to the pathways by which the majority of teachers have
entered the profession or, alternatively, is a reflection of career-change entrants‘ yet
to be developed understanding about the need for rigorous school procedures.
Settling into a school and developing working relationships with staff is
grounded in interpersonal skills but has much to do with a new teacher‘s knowledge,
the context in which they are working and the beliefs, values and ideals which form
their professional identity (Lazovsky & Reichenberg, 2006; McCormack & Thomas,
2003). Additionally, career-change entrants appear to be more aware of their
responsibility as an employee to contribute to the organisation as a whole
(Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Adaptation strategies are likely to be used in adjusting to a
new work environment to ensure social and cultural acceptance (Sachs, 2001). They
include: (a) simply adopting the existing culture; (b) adapting strategically to the
culture on the basis of gaining acceptance prior to changing their teaching approach;
or, (c) rejecting the school culture and establishing their own path within the
environment of considerable frustration (Vonk, 1995). Learning to work within a
school culture is an adaptive form of learning associated with survival (Senge, 2006)
78
and marginal levels of performance as well as the use of teaching strategies out of
context pending the wisdom of experience (Berliner, 1988).
2.3.5 Beliefs about teaching and learning
Personal beliefs have a significant role in the development of a professional identity
as a teacher, manifested as a way in which career-change entrants ―embod[y] their
principles and ‗dreams‘ as an educator‖ (Manuel & Brindley, 2005, p. 144). Further,
beliefs significantly shape professional identity, professional development
undertaken and impact on confidence. Beliefs about teaching and learning impact on
what is learned and how it is learned (Manuel & Brindley, 2005) and are well
entrenched and established by the time career-change entrants begin pre-service
teacher education courses, providing a lens or filter through which teacher education
is approached (Manuel & Brindley, 2005). Career-change entrants may simply
gather information that reaffirms pre-existing beliefs about teaching or form a model
of teaching that uses past experiences (Mayer, 1999). Pre-conceived notions need to
be explored to support career-change entrants to develop sustainable and effective
teaching (Mayotte, 2003) strategies.
Beliefs permeate decisions made by career-change entrants more broadly,
through, for example: (a) the desire to replicate personal positive experiences of
school manifested through using teaching practices recalled from own schooling
(Skilbeck & Connell, 2004); and, (b) the desire to use specialist subject knowledge
placing a focus on teaching a subject rather than teaching children (Skilbeck &
Connell, 2004). Career-change entrants often come to teaching with deeply-held
79
beliefs about the difference they can make to students‘ lives (Freidus, 1994, Manuel
& Brindley, 2005) however, they often revert to long-held personal beliefs when
dealing with the realities of classroom life and other professional challenges
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Working in a previous career is likely to
influence teaching philosophy as evidenced in lessons developed, curriculum chosen
and examples used in teaching (Mayotte, 2003).
Career-change entrants‘ specialist knowledge and work experiences in the
field do not automatically transfer to more meaningful and engaging lessons without
support to develop initial beliefs about how subjects should be taught (Powell, 1997).
This is exacerbated when career-change entrants are allocated challenging students
by school administrative teams along with few or unsuitable resources and facilities
thus ―inhibit[ing] the potential ... for improving the quality of ... instruction‖ (Powell,
1997, p. 354). Likely outcomes are feelings of frustration, and perceptions of being
a boring teacher.
Some career-change entrants initially have firm views about how subjects,
such as Science, should be taught including interactions with the real world rather
than teaching from textbooks. Concerns may emerge about limited resources or
working with students less academically gifted. As a result, career-change entrants
generally prepare less hands-on activities for students as a coping strategy. While
confidence may be high in relation to transforming personal knowledge into
teachable content, over time this confidence can diminish due to a lack of knowledge
about pedagogical strategies. This is related to a limited range of pedagogical
strategies or time and workload pressures. Current schooling cultures often fail to
80
foster the performance and professional development of beginning teachers generally
and career-change entrants in particular (Powell, 1997) resulting in erroneous beliefs
guiding practice. Career-change entrants feel unsure about teaching in technology-
rich classrooms when they were unable to transfer their personal beliefs and
ideologies into practice (Powell, 1997).
Becoming a teacher and being a teacher as a career-change entrant is fraught
with challenges in relation to the application of knowledge and expertise (Powell,
1997) as well as in the development of TPACK (Mishra & Kohler, 2006). Over time
the real world expertise and strongly held beliefs about teaching and learning are
adapted to the prevailing school culture (Powell, 1997). Beliefs about teaching and
learning have been found to be a key barrier or enabler of TPACK and associated
classroom practices that enhance learning through the use of ICT. Such beliefs are
also a mix of willingness and capability to create engaging ICT-rich learning
environments with students (Albion & Ertmer, 2002; Ertmer, 2005; Ertmer,
Gopalakrishnan, & Ross, 2001; Sime & Priestley, 2005). A challenge for career-
change entrants is to modify the functional and operational uses of ICT that have
been developed in previous careers or home use to create technology-rich classrooms
that are more constructivist as opposed to transposed traditional pedagogies (Ross,
Ertmer & Johnson, 2001).
Beliefs about teaching and learning have an impact on what is learnt about
teaching and how it is put into practice. Exploring beliefs about teaching and
learning during professional development is considered by some researchers to
influence pedagogical practices (see, for example, Loveless, DeVoogd & Bohlin,
81
2001). Alternatively, working with career-change entrants to improve teaching
strategies is be a more effective way to advance practices as discussions about
beliefs generally focus on whether ICT does enhance learning (Lloyd & Cochrane,
2006; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). Beliefs about teaching and learning shape
motivation to become a teacher and as a result bring into question perseverance in
the face of challenges experienced in the early years of a teaching career (Freidus,
1994). The discussion now moves to consider how motivation influences career-
change entrants‘ transition into the teaching profession.
2.3.6 Motivation to become a teacher
Motivation to become a teacher is a complex mix of reasons that are fluid and not
firmly considered or held (Williams & Forgasz, 2009). Career-change entrants
generally begin a career in teaching with a desire to help young people achieve and
make a positive contribution to society (Freidus, 1994) having made a conscious
decision to work with students. Their motives are also in part based on earlier work
experiences (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Career-change entrants are motivated by: (a)
perceived teaching abilities; (b) the intrinsic value of teaching; (c) the desire to make
a social contribution; (d) a desire to shape the future, and (e) a desire work with
children/adolescents (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Manuel & Brindley, 2005;
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Such motivation is a highly complex notion
that involves a commitment to action related to needs desires, beliefs, expectations
and goals
82
The motivation to change career - specifically to teaching - is linked to a
desire for self-improvement or a genuine interest in a particular discipline (Manuel &
Brindley, 2005; Richardson & Watt, 2006) or the social and economic opportunities
(Williams, 2006). It may also be linked to a desire for personal satisfaction through
a service role. Indeed, career-change entrants come to teaching with a sense of
mission that ―individuals can and should make a difference‖ (Freidus, 1994, p. 12) to
the world of students. Motivation forms a lens through which the profession is
viewed in relation to shaping beliefs, confidence to teach, and expectations of what
becoming a teacher and being a teacher will be like.
Motivation influences professional practice and shape professional identities
(Watt & Richardson, 2008). The ‗‗FIT-Choice‘‘ (Factors Influencing Teaching
Choice) framework (Richardson & Watt, 2006; Watt & Richardson, 2008) guides the
measurement of motivations for entering the teaching profession (see Figure 2.3).
The basis of the framework is that choices and behaviours are shaped by individual‘s
expectancies and their values. The framework suggests that a range of factors
impact on career satisfaction and commitment. These are: (a) socialisation; (b)
perceptions of task demands and returns; (c) self perceptions; (d) intrinsic values;
and, (e) fallback career choice (Richardson & Watt, 2006).
83
Figure 2.3 The ‗‗FIT-Choice‘‘ framework: Motivations for choosing a teaching
career (Watt & Richardson, 2006, p. 32)
Profiles have been developed by researchers (see, for example, Anthony &
Ord, 2008; Crow et al, 1990; Watt & Richardson, 2008) to consider the combinations
of factors leading to a career-change into teaching. Profiles contrast the perceptions,
desires and hopes among career-change entrants (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003) and provide an in-depth understanding of career-change entrants‘ backgrounds
and the experiences associated with their transition into the teaching profession
(Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Triggers and decision processes are be evident in the
profiles as well as career histories and trajectories and particular personal life
situations. Such profiles have been used by teacher educators designing and
84
conducting courses as well as employers developing attraction and recruitment
strategies.
Criteria used to classify career-change entrants include recent experiences
prior to joining the course (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) or reasons for
entering the teaching profession (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Alternatively, the
experiences and perceptions of the career-change entrants (Crow et al., 1990) and
push and pull factors related to previous work, family experiences, values and task
expectancies (Anthony & Ord, 2008). A synthesis of the literature demonstrates
that common categories include:
a. parents who generally have considered teaching as family-friendly
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008);
b. successful careerists who have moved from professions such as law, editing,
management, accounting, insurance, engineering, and IT and who accepted
that they were likely to have a reduced salary and status in the community
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008);
c. freelancers previously employed in a single career on short term contracts as
artistic decorators, translators, actors, and vocational teachers (Priyadharshini
& Robinson-Pant, 2003);
d. late starters from a range of careers and with no previous qualifications such
as, for example a builder (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003);
85
e. serial careerists who have several short, successful and often-well paid
careers, for example comptometer, manager, further education, TV presenter,
or has been self-employed (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003);
f. young career changers who completes a undergraduate degree, then have a
series of jobs prior to entering teaching (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
(2003);
g. individuals who have been ill or unemployed (Tigchelaar et al., 2008); and,
h. individuals with teaching experience from non-school settings (Tigchelaar et
al., 2008).
Profiles based on the experiences and perceptions used to classify career-
change entrants who participated in the study described in this thesis were the
classifications of ―the Homecomers,‖ ―the Converted‖ and ―the Unconverted‖ (Crow
et al., 1990). This approach was used to examine the demographic profile of
participants in the study described in this thesis. The model was selected based on
the identified synergies of the reasons provided by participants in this study for
making a career-change into teaching. The Homecomers‘ approach reflected the
attitude that teaching was something they always wanted to do having been
prevented from beginning earlier by ―negative parental and societal attitudes, market
forces, and or financial obligations‖ (Crow et al., 1990, p. 204). The desire for more
fulfilling work was generally an initiating influence. The Homecomers cited fear of
studying, and the responsibility for children‘s learning and decreased income as
86
concerns yet found the challenge of working in an environment where there was no
right or wrong rewarding.
A second grouping, with similarities to parent profiles (see, for example,
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008), was that of The
Converted, that is, those who only considered teaching after a significant event in
their lives such as the birth of a child. By choosing teaching, they could see the
continuity in their career despite spurning business practices such as the imperative
for profit and competition. As a new teacher, they were found to be uneasy with
their own lack of competence and the subordinate role in which they found
themselves. Additionally, they believed that there was a lack of recognition for their
management skills. They were good at organising, managing, working with adults
and handling stress.
The third grouping was a minor grouping called The Unconverted. These
career change-entrants generally achieved high status in other occupations through
qualifications and achievement. This group continued to identify with the values
associated with their business career, hoping to combine business and education.
Teaching was a career they were exploring as an alternative rather than as a
commitment, as did The Homecomers. Particularly difficult was the difference
between their own high-level of competence in their previous career and the lack of
knowledge and expertise in working with children. While developing a greater
respect for teachers, it became more difficult for them to become one as their
perception of a drop in status was unbearable. Additionally, the novice role hindered
The Unconverted‟s identification as a teacher manifested by impatience and an
87
inability to cope with ambiguity. Furthermore, this group found it difficult to make
connections between the expertise they had developed in their previous career and
teaching, demanding more specific teacher preparation courses for those from the
business world.
Reasons for changing careers are ―multifaceted, complex, at times
emotionally charged and contradictory‖ (Anthony & Ord, 2008, p. 364) based on
pushes and pulls toward a teaching career. Push factors are those that motivate and
provide momentum for career-change entrants to change from a previous career and
pulls are the elements that make teaching appear as an attractive proposition and
draw career-change entrants to teaching (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). The factors are generally related to previous work and family
experiences, values and expectations (Anthony & Ord, 2008). Notions of the weight
of the past, the push of the present and the pull of the future are ways of thinking
about creating a future as a teacher in technology-rich classrooms (Inayatullah,
2006).
Pulls to the teaching profession are generally altruistic or intrinsic such as:
(a) personal fulfilment; (b) the desire to contribute to society; (c) a sense of vocation;
(d) working with young people (e) the fulfilment of a dream; and (f) enjoyment
and/or love of the subject (Manuel & Brindley, 2005, p. 144). Career-change
entrants may be attracted to the teaching profession because of a need for greater
stability, security and a career better suited to ability and experience and need for a
challenge (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Richardson & Watt, 2006; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). Alternatively, changing perspectives on life prompted a
88
change or a readjustment of personal goals (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Positive memories and experiences of school (Richardson & Watt, 2006;
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) influence some to make a career-change to
teaching. Others have a strong desire to apply specialist subject knowledge
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Family members can tacitly influence a
decision to become a teacher as do self assessments of likely effectiveness as a
teacher. Perceptions about the role of teachers and their work also attract career-
change entrants to the profession (Anthony & Ord, 2008; Richardson & Watt, 2006).
The attractions of teaching are complex and varied to career-change entrants.
Alternatively, pushes are generally associated with dissatisfaction with the nature of
their previous career such as feeling bored, alienated or isolated (Anthony & Ord,
2008; Freidus, 1994; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). It is apparent that few
career-change entrants take up teaching as a fallback career.
Teaching is considered an important and desirable career choice even in the
face of adversity (Freidus, 1994; Richardson & Watt, 2006). Additionally, it is also
clear that motivation is based on work and life experiences as well as socialisation
factors. As such, motivation is central to understanding the perceptions of career-
change entrants about becoming and being a teacher in technology-rich classrooms.
2.4 Summary of key findings
This review of the literature relevant to the investigation established that career-
change entrants experience varying degrees of success and frustration (Tigchelaar et
al., 2008) as they transition into the teaching profession. The success and frustration
89
stems from the magnification of the stressors commonly associated with beginning
teaching (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Tigchelaar et al., 2008).
Career-change entrants bring generic and specialist expertise to the teaching
profession (see, for example, Haggard et al., 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003), including familiarity with ICT (Anthony & Ord, 2009), developed through a
wide variety of employment experiences and personal circumstances (see, for
example, Anthony & Ord, 2008; Crow et al, 1990; Manuel & Brindley, 2005).
Developing confidence as a teacher involves adaptation or reconfiguration of
expertise to the school environment (see, for example, Freidus, 1994; Manuel &
Brindley, 2005). Expectations, confidence, beliefs and motivation shape the use of
ICT by career-change entrants with generic or specialist expertise transitioning into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms (see, for example, Albion & Ertmer, 2002;
Watt & Richardson, 2008). To establish connections between these notions and
develop the cohesiveness of the study, a conceptual framework that focuses on the
process of transition is provided in the next chapter.
Much of the research on career-change entrants to date has focused on
developing an understanding of what motivates career-change entrants to endure the
frustration of once again being a novice. In building on these studies, the study
described in this thesis considered how career-change entrants with generic or
specialist ICT expertise shift the technology context and transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. To facilitate this exploration, a conceptual framework
(see Chapter 3) was created as a synthesis of the literature highlighted in this review.
90
It is to an explanation of how the conceptual framework has been assembled that the
discussion now moves.
91
CHAPTER 3
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The purpose of this chapter is to put forward the rationale for the theoretical
foundations of this inquiry into career-change entrants‘ transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. Analysis of the literature highlighted the need for a
conceptual framework to establish connections between the fields of study, draw
attention to key issues and establish cohesiveness within the study itself. In addition,
this chapter provides the initial proposition (i-proposition) which is an elaboration of
the research question about how career-change entrants with generic or specialist
ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The i-
proposition was developed from the review of the literature and the conceptual
framework.
The conceptual framework was created as a means to synthesise the
literature, create linkages amongst the elements of the study and provide guidance
for design and implementation. Additionally, the conceptual framework delineates
the theoretical boundary of the study, acknowledges the background of career-
change entrants, and respects the journey that they make personally and
professionally as they transition into the teaching profession. The assumption which
supports the conceptual framework is that career-change and transition are part of
life experience that occurs in diverse ways. This chapter explores the elements of
the conceptual framework and provides a rational for their identification and
92
selection of supporting theoretical models. The conceptual framework (see Figure
3.1) is presented in its entirety then examined according to each theoretical element
(Sections 3.1-3.4).
The i-proposition includes initial ideas about a theory to account for career-
change entrants‘ perceptions of their transition experiences. It guided the design of
the study and established explicit links between sections of the proposition and the
data collected. In addition, it was also used as a basis to review how well the survey
findings addressed the research question.
3.1 Outline of the conceptual framework
The conceptual framework of the study described in this thesis consisted of a
synthesis of four existing models, as no one model or theory highlighted the
complexity of learning and transition into teaching into technology-rich classrooms.
Theories and ideas about potential responses to change and how learning occurs
during a time of transition were explored to provide a basis for understanding the
complexity of career change. The theories and ideas were selected because of their
capacity to provide explanations for the perceptions, experiences and concerns of
career change entrants highlighted in the literature review. The theoretical elements
of the conceptual framework are:
a. Levels of impact. This element was based on The onion: A model of levels of
change (Korthagen, 2004) depicting that transition into the teaching
profession involves more than developing new knowledge and expertise
93
b. Learning from the past and the present. This element was based on
Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984).
c. Learning through creating a future. This element was based on ideas about
perceptions of reality, in the Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al., 2005)
and The Futures Triangle (Inaytullah, 2005) depicting the push, pull and
weight of the future (Inaytullah, 2005).
Figure 3.1 The conceptual framework
94
The conceptual framework inferred that for career-change entrants, the
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms marks a significant growth in
knowledge and understanding which forms the basis of learning patterns (Vonk,
1995; Watske, 2002) embedded in the broader notion of lifelong learning. As a
learner-driven process, lifelong learning is generally regarded as an aspect of
personal and career development, inclusive of career change (see, for example, Kolb,
1984; McMahon et al., 2003). As career-change entrants are learning to teach during
the transition process, learning is a highly complex, personalised and contextualised
experience (Mayer, 1999) that involves both formal learning programs and informal
learning. As with all learning, thinking and doing are integrated when interacting
with an environment that generally determines capabilities developed (Senge et al.,
2005). Learning is limited during transition as career-change entrants draw on views
of the world with which they are comfortable, re-enacting habits in the new context.
Deeper levels of learning move career-change entrants beyond mere awareness of
the context within which they are transitioning. As a result, the teaching and
learning response is likely to be more effective (Senge et al., 2005).
In the conceptual framework diagram (see Figure 3.1), technology-rich
classrooms were depicted as the background shape within which the rest of the
elements are located. The transition process was considered to occur as ICT
knowledge and expertise, depicted as an arrow linking the parts of the transition
process, was reconfigured from use in a former career to teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. The levels of impact of transition on career-change entrants were
illustrated as layered circles that were overlayed by U shaped lines indicating the
95
potential varying levels of impact that are explained through the Theory of the U
Movement (Senge et al., 2005). Movement through the first stage of the U was
considered to involve learning from the past and the present via Experiential
Learning (Kolb, 1984) and was illustrated as a text box on the left side of the
diagram. Learning through creating a future was illustrated through a text box on the
right side of the diagram that was depicted as arrows labelled the weight of the past,
push of the present and pull of the future (Inaytullah, 2005). The elements of the
conceptual framework are analysed in the sections ahead.
3.2 Levels of impact
Potential levels of impact of transition on career-change entrants were featured in the
conceptual framework as the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms
evokes a personal response (Senge et al, 2005). Korthagen‘s (2004) Onion model of
change (see Figure 3.2.) provided insight into the ―various levels in people that can
be influenced‖ (Korthagen, 2004 p. 79) that were considered in the Onion model as
perspectives of teacher functionality.
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Figure 3.2 The Onion: A model of levels of change (Korthagen, 2004, p. 80)
The Onion model was based on the premise that becoming an effective teacher
involved changes in observable behaviours and this were only possible through
understanding one‘s potential (competencies), the source of beliefs (beliefs), self-
perspective (identity) and reasons for behaviours (mission). These levels of change
were considered in this study to be related to the enduring dispositions of
professional identity (Boyatzis & Akrivou, 2006). How these levels map to the
professional identity elements considered in this study is provided in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1
Mapping of levels of influence
The Onion model of change
Korthagen (2004)
Professional identity
Environment Teaching in technology-rich classrooms
Behaviour Expectations
Competencies Knowledge, expertise & experience
Beliefs Teaching confidence to teach, beliefs
Identity All aspects
Mission Motivation
A two-way flow of influence operates towards the inner sections of The
Onion Model as well as towards the outer sections (Korthagen, 2004). The outer
levels, the environment and behaviour (such as classes, students, school) are the
observable levels, and are perceived to be the focus of career-change entrants. In the
study described in this thesis, the environment of teaching in technology-rich
classrooms formed the general context in which career-change entrants were
transitioning into the profession. The remainder of the Korthagen‘s (2004) levels
were perspectives from which teacher functionality was considered in a more holistic
manner than competency lists offered. The competencies level, that included
knowledge, expertise and attitudes blended together as potential behaviours, varied
according to general and specific contexts (Korthagen, 2004). Korthagen‘s (2004)
competencies were considered more broadly in the study described in this thesis as
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knowledge, expertise and experience to be consistent with holistic notions of
professional identity (see, for example, Mayer, 1999).
Reflection on what kind of teacher one could be is the essence of creating an
identity as a teacher (Korthagen, 2004). A career-change teacher‘s competency is
determined by beliefs about teaching that are shaped by their recollections of their
own schooling if unchallenged (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Senge,
2006; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). In addition, beliefs are shaped by many years as a
student themselves, which are ideally challenged during pre-service teacher
education (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Beliefs about teaching and learning and notions
of oneself as a teacher are more easily influenced than the inner most level, mission,
which focuses on personal questions of purpose and the meaning of existence within
the broader context of life. In the study described in this thesis, Korthagen‘s (2004)
notion of mission was considered synonymous with motivation for becoming and
being a teacher. While not considered as conceptually deep as Korthagen‘s inner
layer of mission, motivation was considered central to understanding career-change
entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and being a teacher.
The model was selected on the basis of the synergies between the
characteristics of a teacher, purported by Korthagen (2004), and the notion of
professional identify adopted in this thesis. Further, Korthagen‗s (2004) explanation
of layers of influence related well to the concept of levels of impact on professional
identity (Senge et al, 2005). Levels of impact on career-change entrants were
illustrated as layered circles in the dismantled conceptual framework diagram (see
Figure 3.3) to clarify the aspects that were influenced, questioned or challenged
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during the transition in teaching. These were motivation, beliefs, teaching
confidence to teach and knowledge, expertise and experience and expectations listed
in order of ability to be influenced and changed. The notion that these elements of
professional identity were reconfigured during career-change and transition was
investigated in the study described in this thesis.
Figure 3.3 Levels of impact on career change entrants
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3.3 Learning from the past and the present
Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984) was used to develop a deeper
understanding of the transition process and to draw attention to how learning occurs
during the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. While it is
acknowledged that no single learning theory accounts for transition processes and
learning to become a teacher (Mayer, 1999) for all career-change entrants, the theory
was adopted as the basis for the conceptual framework because of the value placed
on the past by career-change entrants (see, for example, Priyadharshini & Robinson-
Pant, 2003; Mayotte, 2003). It was also utilised because an experiential approach to
learning was often adopted during the early years of a teaching career (see, for
example, Berliner, 1988; Senge, 2006).
Experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) is a way of thinking about
knowing and lifelong learning that is based on the pragmatic philosophy of John
Dewey, Kurt Lewin‘s social psychology and Jean Piaget‘s cognitive developmental
theory (Kolb, 1984; Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2000). John Dewey believed
that we learn from experience and reflection on that experience. In so doing, we
continually reconstruct and transform experience into valued and meaningful
learning that directs the course of subsequent experience (Dewey, 1916/2006;
1938/1973). The theory posits experience and reflection as central to learning (Kolb,
1984; Kolb, et al., 2000) and provides conceptual linkages between work, education
and personal development.
The theory offers an integrated perspective on experience, perception,
cognition and behaviour relating to how people learn from a range of life
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experiences rather than what they learn. Experience is a basis for ―profoundly re-
creating ... personal lives and social systems‖ (Kolb, 1984, p. 18) with the workplace
a key source of learning that fosters career development opportunities in addition to
formal education. This involves capitalising on practical strengths and testing the
application of knowledge and skill in new contexts. Ideas are tested against
accumulated experience and wisdom (Kolb, 1984). Returning to study following
time in the workplace is considered a challenge best met by using learning methods
that combined work, study, theory and practice.
The underlying premise of Experiential Learning Theory is that learning and
knowledge building are dynamic concepts occurring in all human settings and life
stages (Kolb, 1984). Moreover, desire for continuity and certainty affects not only
the ability to learn from experience but could also fosters insecurity and restricted
capacity for effective action, and as such, is part of the weight of the past to be dealt
with by career-change entrants. Learning as the process whereby ―knowledge is
created through the transformation of experience‖ (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). As a result,
ideas are formed and reformed resulting in old ideas being modified or disposed of to
resolve conflicts and realise ideals (Kolb, 1984). During the transition process
iterative cycles of experiential learning move the focus between concrete
experiences, reflective observation, active experimentation and abstract
conceptualisation.
Experiential Learning Theory includes a four-stage cycle involving four
adaptive learning modes – concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualisation and active experimentation (Kolb, 1984, p. 40). Concrete
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experiences, as involvement in activity or processes, form the basis of observations
that are distilled into abstract concepts from which ideas for further action are drawn
and tested (Kolb et al, 2000). There are two dimensions of learning, the first is
concrete experience and abstract conceptualisation, represented in Figure 3.3 by the
vertical axis which corresponds to Piagetian concept of figurative thought (see
Figure 3.4). The second dimension is characterised by active experimentation and
reflective observation, represented in Figure 3.4 by the horizontal axis and
corresponding to Piagetian operative thought.
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Figure 3.4 Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984, p. 42)
Each dimension has two diametrically opposed adaptive orientations that
present four forms of knowledge that potentially are the basis of higher levels of
knowing, that is: (a) grasping via apprehension; (b) grasping via comprehension; (c)
transformation via extension; and, (d) transformation via intention. The vertical axis
illustrates the grasping via apprehension and grasping via comprehension
orientation. The horizontal axis illustrates the transformation via extension and
transformation by intention orientation (see Figure 3.4) These orientations are self-
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selected with individual preference determined by a ―holistic pattern of
psychological and physiological processes governing orientation towards action and
reflection‖ (p. 57). The transactions associated with their use are the structural bases
of Kolb‘s (1984) theory.
Apprehension is a process that is self-selected to grasp or grapple with an
experience through relying on tangible sensations. Alternatively, comprehension is
the process of grasping an experience through conceptual interpretation. A
contextualised example of grasping experience via apprehension is where career-
change entrants acknowledge that the school environment looks, feels and sounds
different from the work environment with which they are familiar; instantaneously
detected without analysis. Describing their understanding of the experience is more
challenging, introducing order to thought at the expense of vivid sensations requiring
narrative skills to be able to richly describe the experience. Alternatively, processes
self-selected to transform the understanding associated with grasping an experience
is through intentional internal reflection or active manipulation to extend the
experience. The choice of orientation generates a form of knowledge that involves
both a figurative representation and a degree of transformation of the conceptual or
tangible representation for learning to occur.
The forms of knowledge generated through experiential learning require both
the grasping and transformation dimensions of experience, the experience itself not
considered sufficient for learning to occur (Kolb, 1984). Four elementary forms of
knowledge, that is (a) assimilative; (b) convergent; (c) divergent; (d) accommodative
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are identified with ways of learning depicting a ―rich variety of learning processes
that vary widely in subtlety and complexity‖ (Kolb, 1984, p. 61).
Knowledge grasped through comprehension, then transformed through
intention, is labelled assimilative knowledge. Similarly, knowledge grasped through
comprehension and transformed through extension is labelled convergent
knowledge. Additionally, knowledge grasped through apprehension and transformed
through intention is labelled divergent knowledge and lastly knowledge grasped
through apprehension and transformed through extension is accommodative
knowledge. Individuals choose to grasp reality with varying degrees of
apprehension and comprehension, then transform the knowledge through degrees of
intention or extension.
Experiential Learning Theory provided a way of considering learning from
past and present experience for career-change entrants particularly in the Novice
stage of development as a teacher. The notion that experiential learning occurred
during career-change and transition in teaching in technology-rich classrooms was
explored in the study described in this thesis. In the dismantled conceptual
framework diagram, (see Figure 3.5) the role of experiential learning in the early
phases of transition and becoming a teacher in technology-rich classrooms was
highlighted through the element of learning from the past and the present. In
considering more proactive ways of shaping a future, contemporary ideas about
transition and learning are explored in the next section.
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Figure 3.5 Experiential learning during transition processes
3.4 Learning through creating a future
Improving professional practice beyond the Novice developmental stage (Berliner,
1988) is more complex than Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984) as career-
change entrants look beyond past and present events and experiences to identifying
patterns of teaching practice (Senge, 2006). As such, learning through creating a
future was included as an element in the conceptual framework for the study
described in this thesis.
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Learning to teach is a highly complex, knowledge intense process that
requires personalisation and contextualisation to effectively cater for the learning
needs of all students (Mayer, 1999). Further, becoming and being a teacher requires
a great personal commitment and extraordinary professional expertise (Darling-
Hammond, 2006). If career-change entrants are to continue to extend their teaching
and learning capabilities and create their own future, moving beyond the stressors of
the early years of teaching is essential. Indeed, surviving and adapting to the role of
a teacher is a low benchmark for schools as organisations and teachers as
professionals. While direct experience is a powerful form of learning, the
consequences are realised too far in the future to influence immediate needs. A more
generative form of learning enhances career-change entrants‘ capacity to be
innovative and creative teachers (Senge, 2006). Two theories about learning from
the ―adaptive‖ present and the ―generative‖ future (Senge, 2006, p. 14) were sought
to explore how a transition into the teaching profession progresses in early in the
new career. The Theory of the U Movement (see Figure 3.6) posited by Senge et al.,
(2005) as a means of understanding transitions was explored as well as the Futures
Triangle conceived by Inaytullah, (2005).
3.4.1 The Theory of the U Movement
In building on the work of experiential learning theorists such as John Dewey
(1916/2006; 1938/1973) and David Kolb (1984), Senge et al., (2005) devised the
Theory of the U Movement (see Figure 3.6) as a metaphor for levels of reality
perception and the impact of action that follows an altering of perceptions. The
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Theory of the U Movement explains the notion that learning occurs through seven
capacities of personal transition. The U Movement is considered to involve a
transformation of will resulting from insight and understanding is generated through
a deliberate or serendipitous experience (Senge et al., 2005).
Figure 3.6 The Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al, 2005, p. 219)
Paths though the U Movement vary according to the ―connection with deep
sources of action that arise from becoming ‗present‘ to future possibilities‖ (Senge et
al., 2005, p. 168). The relevance of the U Movement is explored as a basis for
understanding opportunities and challenges faced by career-change entrants. Three
major iterative stages of sensing, presencing and realising, as extensions of the
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learning process, form the basis of the model which is further divided into seven
capacities: (a) suspending; (b) redirecting, (c) letting go; (d) letting come; (e)
crystallising; (f) prototyping; and (g) institutionalising (see Figure 3.6).
Sensing is the capacity to ―sense what is happening from within a
phenomenon, rather than from the outside‖ (Senge et al., 2005, p. 88). To enable
deep learning, immersing in the reality of the new career is important in challenging
preconceived beliefs about teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Transforming
perceptions involves shifting from being an observer of the teaching profession to
becoming a teacher committed to shaping practice and performance. This happens
to varying degrees signifying a continuum of transition from superficial adoption of
the functions of a teacher to professional identity transformation.
The difficulty of suspending preconceived ideas is recognised as a
courageous step that requires the ability to become aware of one‘s own thoughts.
This occurs in the form of revelation (Senge et al., 2005) that potentially leads to
fundamentally shifting perceptions from ―surviving‖ as a teacher to ―becoming a
teacher.‖ Redirecting awareness to the broader view of teaching is ―real and
powerful when it happens‖ (Senge et al., 2005, p. 43). Establishing a deep sense of
connection and a heightened sense of change influences one‘s perceptions of
teaching, moving from fixed or rigid ways of working to a dynamic reality that
career-change entrants‘ are creating.
Presencing is considered to be the degree of clarity and connection of the self
with a broader context (Senge et al., 2005), in this study, is teaching in technology-
rich classrooms. It involves a shift in one‘s sense of purpose from thinking deeply
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about the past and enacting associated patterns to seeing envisioning one‘s future
potential and enacting emerging possibilities (Senge, 2006). Additionally, it is a
time of broadening perspectives and views of the world. Such a shift in thinking is a
learning process that entails a change in perception from having minimal connection
to the new career to seeing how actions create the problems experienced (Senge,
2006). Realising represents bringing into realty enduring changes that are both
internal and external, ideally through a deep understanding of the transition
experience (Senge et al., 2005). While external change is manifested through
consequences or achievements, internal change is embodied through a new capacity
for action. Instinctively drawing on professional judgement for decision making
generates confidence that actions reflect a way of working. On connecting to the
broader context, self-fulfilling circumstances tend to arise in support of the new
perspective about the future. This occurs through seeing reality more clearly,
without preconceptions and judgements. Realising a particular future involves
continual sensing and presencing to ensure problems become opportunities that are
collegial rather than singular ventures. Such an approach arises from deep
understanding (Senge et al., 2005) that shapes reality and the emerging future.
The Theory of the U Movement was a means of explaining the transition
process into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The Theory of the U Movement
highlights that transition is more than learning new knowledge and developing new
expertise. It is also associated with developing a new sense of reality that evolves
through suspending perceptions and beliefs about teaching and learning.
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3.4.2 The Futures Triangle
The Futures Triangle (Inayatullah, 2006) offers a useful conceptual tool to bring
together notions of learning from the past (Experiential Learning Theory) with
notions of learning from the future (Theory of the U Movement). As a tool to explore
potential futures, The Futures Triangle (see Figure 3.7) is underpinned by Futures
research (see, for example, Inaytullah, 2005; Slaughter, 1996).
Futures theorists (see, for example, Inayatullah, 2006) consider learning to be
programmed knowledge and questioning of the future, evaluating possible (all that
can be conceived), probable (likely given historical structures) and plausible (where
we seek to go). Questioning the future is considered to be a process of developing a
better understanding of the anticipated future, challenging these views creates more
appropriate professional practices to suit the needs of contemporary learners.
Figure 3.7 The Futures Triangle (Inaytullah, 2006, p. 660)
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The future is considered a dynamic with space, time and people orientations
that can be shaped through a process of discovery (Inaytullah, 2006). One means of
exploring these notions is through discussions about a three-dimensional Futures
Triangle to map plausible futures (see Figure 3.7) (Inaytullah, 2006). In addition to
the concept of push and pull factors are deep patterns that are resistant to change
labelled as the weight of the past. The three dimensions of the Futures Triangle (see
Figure 3.7) are:
a. The weight of the past —deep patterns that are resistant to change, for
example organisational culture, system and profession resistance to change,
personal experience, past career identity.
b. The push of the present, that is, factors such as demographics, technology
trends, globalisation, beginning teacher retention and attrition, accountability
measures, retiring teachers, personal experience, teacher registration, cultural
myths, fears, social structures.
c. The pull of the future, that is, dominant and contending images of the future,
needs of students, employers, vision, hope, self-determination, motivation
and volition.
The Futures Triangle was provided as an integrating device within the
conceptual framework of the study described in this thesis. The ―weight of the past‖
and the ―push of the present‖ was considered in relation to Experiential Learning
Theory (Kolb, 1884) and the Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al., 2005) to
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conceptualise career-change entrants‘ challenge of creating a plausible future as a
teacher.
3.5 Towards a theory of professional identity transition
In this section an initial idea is provided about a theory of professional identity
transition that was based on the key findings from the review of the literature and the
conceptual framework (see Figure 3.1). In keeping with explanatory case study
design (Yin, 1994) the initial idea was called a proposition, specifically an i-
proposition. It was a key aspect of the theory building process in the study described
in this thesis. The i-proposition expanded on the research question about how
career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
The i-proposition posits that during the transition into teaching in technology-
rich classrooms career-change entrants‘ shift the technology context, reconfigure
their professional identity and, as a result, experience varying degrees of success and
frustration (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Tigchelaar et al., 2008).
This success and frustration is represented in the conceptual framework as level of
impact (Korthagen, 2004) (see Figure 3.1). Potential levels of impact include:
a. ICT knowledge and expertise (see, for example, Anthony & Ord, 2009;
Powell, 1997);
b. Beliefs about the use of ICT for teaching and learning (see, for example,
Ertmer, 2005; Ertmer, Gopalakrishnan & Ross, 2001);
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c. Confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning (see, for example, Moyle,
2009; Haggard et al; 2006; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004)
d. Expectations about teaching in technology-rich classrooms (see, for example,
Haggard et al, 2006; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004)
e. Motivation to become and be a teacher (Watt & Richardson, 2008; Williams
& Forgasz, 2009)
In reconfiguring these elements career-change entrants reflect on concrete
experiences and actively experiment with teaching strategies (see, for example,
Tigchelaar et al. 2008), the essence of Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984).
In learning from the past and present experiences adaptive forms of learning prevail
(Senge, 2006). Career-change entrants with generic and specialist ICT expertise
who shift the technology context and reconfigure ICT knowledge, expertise, beliefs,
confidence and expectations into TPACK require a range of opportunities to see,
explore, learn, reflect and practice teaching in technology-rich classrooms (Bai &
Ertmer, 2008; Hayden, 2010; Moyle, 2009, Reimann & Goodyear, 2004; Shaw,
2004).
In learning from creating a future as a teacher, it is contended in this thesis
that career-change entrants experience the transition processes that is explained in
the Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al., 2005). Sensing, presencing and
realising on an iterative basis occurs with each new challenge as part of a transition
that includes excitement and exhilaration as well as jolts and shocks. Such a way of
considering transition experiences involves variations in intensity and defining
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moments of success and frustration that determine career development (Boyatzis,
2006; Ibarra & Deshpande, 2007; Senge et al., 2005). The initial decision to embark
on a path to become a teacher is conceived as a significant moment in preparation for
the main change, for example, resigning from a job to move into another career.
Another key moment is the realisation that what is closely held about the past needs
to be reconsidered. A process of letting go of past ways and identity is associated
with varying magnitudes of feelings of loss ranging from negligible to significant
(Senge et al., 2005).
During and following a commitment to a new direction, motivation is
suspended as challenging situations are dealt with on a day to day basis, closing out
thoughts about goal setting and whether goals are feasible. While in such a survival
mode, it is difficult to reverse direction, question goals or advance professional
practice beyond those associated with deep-seated beliefs about teaching and
learning. Further challenges follow, creating a reflection zone between the past and
the new identity with psychological realignments and repatternings that are
associated with a sense of disequilibrium.
Reconfiguring professional identity challenges career-change entrants‘
expectations, confidence, expertise, beliefs and motivation. It could involve a
spectrum of reflection from personal thinking to social and political thinking that
results in informed and committed action. As the transition process progresses, there
is a sense of new energy and purpose that marks the reconstruction of personal
images of self as a teacher and confidence as a teacher.
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This i-proposition guided the design of a study to further investigate and
contextualise these notions in relation to career-change entrants with generic or
specialist ICT expertise. The next chapter provides details of how the study was
conducted.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Through the literature review and conceptual framework it was established that in
making a career change into teaching, career-change entrants experience varying
degrees of success and frustration. In this chapter, the methodological approach and
the research design of this study is outlined along with the data collection processes
and data analysis techniques. The chapter also provides details of how an
interpretive analysis of qualitative and quantitative data framed and shaped the
methods of research used in the study. Further, the chapter details how the study
described in this thesis explored the perceptions of career-change entrants with
generic or specialist ICT expertise as they shifted the technology context and
transitioned into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Also addressed are the
processes adopted to create a theory that expresses the career-change entrants‘
perceptions about their transition experiences.
The chapter begins with a rationale for the use of Case Study methodology in
Section 4.1. Details of the components of the methodology are provided in Section
4.2. The research design details are provided in Section 4.3. Data collection
methods and analysis are provided in Section 4.4. Validity and reliability were
addressed in Section 4.5 prior to concluding with a chapter summary in Section 4.7.
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4.1 Rationale
Case study methodology formed the overarching strategy for establishing boundaries
of the research, research methods and analytic focus (Marshall & Rossman, 1999).
Case study methodology was selected on the basis that it is a comprehensive
research strategy that scaffolds an in-depth investigation of an issue that has
commonalities of time and place (Creswell, 2008; Stake, 2006; Yin, 1994). The
selection of the case study methodology was also based on its application to the
profession of teaching and the experiences of career-change entrants as they
interacted with within this culture (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). The boundaries of
the phenomenon of career-change and transition and the range of contexts in which
this occurs were clearly evident, however a career change into the teaching
profession has commonalities that are recognisable as a time of challenge that is
occurring in universities and schools. Such boundaries are consistent with case
study methodology (Yin, 1994).
An additional characteristic that influenced the selection of the methodology
was the focus on a group within a society with a distinctive culture. While the
perceptions and experiences of career-change entrants are diverse, they were
entering a regulated profession which presented paths to be navigated to enable
career development. Case studies typically enable immersion in the contextual
variations and complex situations such as career-change and transition and are
typically based on researchers‘ and participants‘ world views (Marshall & Rossman,
1999). An approach was sought in which it was possible consider variables, such as
perceptions and experiences, within a broader context given the diversity of expertise
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and experience of career-change entrants and the complexity of cultures within
which they interact. As a consequence, the study was structured as an explanatory
case study (Yin, 1994).
4.1.1 Explanatory case study
In addressing the research questions of how career-change entrants with generic or
specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms and
how these perceptions are expressed as a theory, an explanation was sought through
the data. In doing so a set of causal links was developed that were ―complex and
difficult to measure in any precise manner‖ (Yin, 1994, p. 110). The explanation of
the causal links was presented in this thesis as a theory that expresses the
relationships between independent variables through theoretically significant
propositions. The theory building process used in this study was:
a. Development of an initial proposition (i-proposition) based on the review of
the literature and the conceptual framework;
b. Testing of the i-proposition through a survey of pre-service career change
entrants;
c. Collection of further data through interviews with career-change entrants
who were working in schools and had more experience of the transition
process;
d. Enrichment of the theory building process through the use of grounded
theory methods to analyse the data and determine the point of saturation.
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e. Elaboration and refinement of the i-proposition to create the Professional
Identity Transition Theory.
4.1.2 Case study enriched by grounded theory
The use of a case study methodology enriched by grounded theory methods enabled
the investigation of the perceptions of career-change entrants with generic and
specific ICT expertise during the process of transition identified in the conceptual
framework. This enabled consideration of the level of impact on professional
identity as career-change entrants learned from the past and the present and then
created a future Individual career-change entrants studying to become teachers at
university and beginning teachers with up to five years experience working in
schools were selected as the case being investigated. The career-change entrants,
purposively selected, provided perspectives associated with diverse teaching
contexts, gender and age variations and previous careers.
Precedents for combining these research traditions exist in the literature. For
systems researchers and practitioners, the combination of case study methodology
and grounded theory analysis has provided a rich collection of fine grained research
data and allowed for flexibility within the research site (Laws & McLeod, 2004).
Use of case study as the dominant methodology with grounded theory as the tool for
analysis was used in a study from the leadership and management field to identify
and explicate the role of executives in knowledge management and their knowledge
based strategies in organisations (Lakshman, 2005). Case study and grounded theory
were similarly used in a study of traditional social and virtual networks to produce a
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theory for analysing and explaining the interaction between the ICT intervention and
the existing social fabric in communities (Andrade, 2009). Combining case study
and grounded theory for interpretive theory building overcame objectivity and rigour
limitations of case study approaches (Andrade, 2009).
Clear specification of the dominant methodology is key to preserving the
essence of the approach as theory development prior to the collection of data is
considered an essential step in case study approaches (Yin, 1994) while doing so is
in direct opposition to the tenets of grounded theory (Strauss & Glaser, 1998). The
tenets of Case Study methodology were preserved in the study described in this
thesis through developing an initial proposition (i-proposition) then standing it aside
while subsequent propositions (s-propositions) were developed from the interview
data using grounded theory methods. The i-proposition was then refined and
elaborated on in the process of developing the theory.
The use of case study methodology enriched by grounded theory warranted
the use of multiple methods such as interviews, observations, document analysis and
surveys (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). In selecting methods for the research process,
consideration was given to establishing a chain of evidence through explicit links
between the research questions, the data and propositions developed (Yin, 1994).
This consideration led to data being drawn from: (a) an electronic survey; and, (b)
semi-structured interviews. Key considerations in the choice of a research design
were ethical concerns with ensuring that participants were not harmed in any way by
participation in the research. Additionally, details of the research methods evolved
during the course of the study to ensure that adequate data could be collected to
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enable an in-depth consideration of the research questions (Marshall & Rossman,
1999).
The research methods emerged during the study as the data generation and
analysis developed a back-and-forth interplay, with constant comparative analysis of
responses from participants in the study described in this thesis driving further data
collection until a point of saturation was reached (Creswell, 2008; Strauss & Corbin,
1998). The point of saturation was marked by a clear indication amongst the
participants that they were gaining confidence as a teacher and that felt that they
were able to influence and create their future as distinct from surviving as a teacher.
Through using multiple cases, the researcher looked for contrasts and replicating
patterns of perceptions and experiences that indicated progress in transitioning into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms (Yin, 1994).
4.1.3 Grounded theory
Grounded theory enriched the research through offering a particular way of thinking
and viewing the world for the purpose of building a theory from data (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The strength of this research method is in
the conceptual and procedural approach to developing a ―theory that is derived from
data systematically gathered and analysed through the research process‖ (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998, p. 12). In adopting and adapting the Strauss and Corbin (1998) set of
procedures and techniques for simultaneously gathering and analysing data to suit
the research context, an interplay of methods emerged during the course of the study.
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In blending these methodological approaches a broad and deep understanding of the
world of career-change entrants with generic or specific ICT expertise emerged.
The use of theory-building methodology was intended to generate concepts
that provided a language for discussion and debate to create a body of knowledge on
professional identity reconfiguration during the transition into the teaching
profession (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Experiences, actions and interactions
invariably resulted in some sort of transformation or reshaping of knowledge about
self, others, an event or process, and it is this concept that the study explores.
Grounded Theory has evolved as researchers have interacted with the philosophy
and processes to the point that three approaches can be clearly identified (Creswell,
2008).
4.1.3.1 The systematic design of grounded theory
The Systematic Design in Grounded Theory, adopted, in part, in this study, was
based on the work of Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin (see Strauss & Corbin,
1998). Compared to the original theory documented by Barney Glaser and Anselm
Strauss, they recommended a more prescribed approach, emphasising the use of
open, axial and selective coding along with a diagrammatic coding paradigm to
support the data analysis process. This process was used in this study and enhanced
by other approaches, such as the Emerging Design (Glaser, 1992) and the
Constructivist Design (Charmaz, 2000), that are less structured than the Strauss and
Corbin (1998, 2008) style.
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4.1.3.2 The emerging design of grounded theory
The Emerging Design in Grounded Theory was advocated by Glaser in his critique
of the direction Strauss had taken following their original work together in 1967. He
stressed the importance of letting a theory emerge from the data rather than using
specific, preset categories associated with axial coding. Additionally, Glaser
believed that social processes were best understood using constant comparative
coding methods to compare data - incident to incident, incident to category and
category to category. This distinction takes the work beyond descriptive accounts to
a focus on the relationships between categories and the emerging theory. He
believed that reaching a deep level of abstract conceptualisation is not possible
through the use of a coding paradigm, a tool that causes the researcher to structure
the emerging theory by categories of varying relevance. Three key criteria for the
effective use of this approach to Grounded Theory (Creswell, 2008) are:
a. the explicit reality in the eyes of the participants and researchers;
b. the capacity to highlight variations in behaviours of participants; and,
c. the evolving nature of the theory as new data becomes available.
The perspective provided by Glaser (1992) is relevant to this study and was used to
ensure that the coding paradigm categories did not limit the development of the
theory.
4.1.3.3 The constructivist design of grounded theory
Constructivist Grounded Theory was conceived by Charmaz (2000) in response to
the structured and systematic approaches of both Strauss and Corbin (1998) and
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Glaser (1992). Charmaz (2000) considered that neither approach really emphasised
the meaning participants ascribed to a situation, or acknowledges the roles of the
researcher. As an approach that was closer to the thinking of post-modern
researchers who challenge the importance of methods, this design acknowledges the
feelings of the individuals as they experience the process and notes the beliefs and
values of the researcher. The participant‘s story is presented as explanatory and
probes assumptions and meanings for individuals in the study with conclusions
presented as suggestive, incomplete and inconclusive (Creswell, 2008).
In considering the strengths of each of the Grounded Theory designs, a
hybrid approach was adopted, primarily based on the Systematic Design but
enhanced by the flexibility of the Emerging and Constructivist designs. While the
Systematic Design provided a roadmap for progress, once open and axial coding had
been completed a less rigid approach was adopted to theory building. How the
processes were blended with case study methodology is outlined in the next section.
4.2 Case study components
Yin‘s (1994) case study components framed the design of the study and selection of
research methods. In the following section are: (a) research questions (Section
4.2.1); (b) propositions and links to data (Section 4.2.2); (c) unit(s) of analysis
(Section 3.2.3), and, (d) criteria for interpreting findings (Section 3.2.4).
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4.2.1 Research questions
The research questions were based on the purpose of the study described in this
thesis. As previously noted, the purpose of the study was to create an understanding
of career-change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and being a teacher. The
research questions were:
(a) How do career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms?
(b) How can the career-change entrants‘ perceptions of their transition
experiences be expressed as a theory?
4.2.2 Propositions and links to the data
Two sets of propositions were developed as the basis for testing and formulating a
theory that portrays career-change entrants‘, with generic or specialist ICT expertise,
perceptions of their transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The
initial proposition was based on the literature review and conceptual framework (i -
proposition). This proposition was tested through the first data collection
instrument, the electronic survey. In designing the survey explicit links between
sections of the proposition and the survey sections were created. As the data did not
provide the breadth of insight to fully develop a theory, interviews were conducted
and subsequent propositions (s-propositions) created from the analysis of the
interview data using grounded theory processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Examination of the interview transcripts involved the use of grounded theory
processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) and constant comparative analysis to distil the
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propositions from the themes identified in the data. The s-propositions scaffolded
the development of The Professional Identity Transition Theory.
4.2.3 Units of analysis
In this section the limits of the data collection and analysis are established through
defining what the case is and the primary unit of analysis (Yin, 1994). The
individual career-change entrants transitioning into the teaching profession who took
part in this study were both the case and the unit of analysis. The case and unit of
analysis was initially bounded by the commencement of a pre-service course which
was considered to be the early stages of the transition into teaching. The point at
which the participants were no longer sought was when perceptions of confidence
and capacity to influence and create their future as a teacher were expressed by the
career-change entrants who participated in the study.
4.2.4 Criteria to interpret findings
The propositions developed as part of the study evolved as data collection and
analysis occurred. In analysing the survey data criteria were used to interpret the
findings, that were: (a) participants responding in the same way in relation to
questions requiring 5-point Likert style ratings; and (b) coding of qualitative data had
similar meaning. In analysing the interview transcripts, data that addressed the
questions posed in the interview were included as well as data in relation to issues
raised by more than one participant.
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4.3 Research design
This section provides details of the participants in the study and the sequence of the
study. This section also serves as a brief introduction to the data collection
instruments, which were: (a) an electronic survey; and, (b) semi-structured
interviews.
4.3.1 Participants
The participants in this study were career-change entrants who were studying to
become teachers at QUT or working as a teacher in Queensland schools. Career-
change entrants were defined as pre-service students studying to become a teacher or
beginning and establishing teachers with up to five years experience who had at least
one previous career in a profession other than teaching. An additional criterion
against which the participants self-nominated was that ICT was integral to their way
of working in their former career.
4.3.1.1 Electronic survey participants
The first data collection was open to career-change entrants enrolled in ED38, a one-
year Graduate Diploma of Education course at QUT, during the period July 2007 to
August 2007 (N=940) (QUT 2007). The 64 career-change entrants voluntarily self-
identified as having had at least one previous career in a profession other than
teaching and regularly used ICT in the workplace. The invitation to participate in
the study was extended through face-to-face meetings organised according to study
cohorts, namely; Early Years, Middle Phase and Senior Phase. These meetings were
organised through the course coordinator of the Graduate Diploma of Education. At
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the meetings, a ten minute overview of the purpose and significance of the research
was provided along with an invitation to take part in the electronic survey. They
were also informed that they may be invited to take part in the semi-structured
interviews to talk further about their experiences. These meetings were followed up
with an email invitation sent to the 940 enrolled students via the course coordinator.
Following the distribution of the email, 6.8% (n= 64) pre-service students completed
the electronic survey.
While the sample appears to be relatively small compared to the number of
enrolled students, the researcher only drew on this data to gain insight into the
generic and specialist ICT expertise of the participants. This information was used
to frame interviews with a sample of these participants and others recruited who had
more experience as a teacher. As such, the aims of the study were not affected by
the sample size. All members of the population were provided with the opportunity
to take part if they believed that they met the criteria of: (a) being a career-change
entrant; and (b) having used ICT in their former career on a regular basis. No
conclusions were drawn about the population and possible bias was not relevant to
study (Pelosi & Sandifer, 2002).
4.3.1.2 Interview participants
In the second data collection, more detailed and nuanced information was sought
from nine (n=9) career-change entrants who took part in semi-structured interviews.
They comprised of three (n=3) career-change entrants who took part in the survey
and responded to an email invitation to participate in the interviews. A further six
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(n=6) career-change entrants who were teaching in schools and had less than five
years teaching experience were also invited to take part in the study. These
participants were recruited through an email invitation sent to two online
professional communities based in Australia, namely, Queensland Society for
Information Technology in Education and Oz-Teachers. The six (n=6) interview
participants worked in a variety of Queensland state schools contexts, for example,
rural and remote, urban, primary and high schools.
All participants (n=6) were assigned a pseudonym drawn from the names of
constellations to ensure anonymity in the thesis. The pseudonyms were assigned at
random and did not reflect any particular aspects of the participants‘ character or
gender. The pseudonyms of the participants along with their career stage - Novice;
Experienced Novices or Early Career Professionals - at the time of the interview are
provided in Table 4.1. The categorisations of career stages were adapted from the
five stages of skill development of a teacher suggested by Berliner (1988), namely
novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, expert. The career phases were
initially defined by time for the purposes of sourcing participants in the study
described in this thesis. Novice teachers were generally pre-service students or
beginning teachers with up to six months experience in schools. Experienced
Novices had between six months and one year of experience working as a teacher in
a school and Early Career Professionals had between one year and four years of
experience in schools.
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Table 4.1
Pseudonyms and career stage of interview participants
Novice teachers
(pre-service to 6 months in
schools) n=3
Experienced Novices
(6 months to 1 year in
schools) n=3
Early Career Professionals
(1 - 4 years in schools)
n=3
Andromeda * Circinus Lacerta
Boőtes * Delphinus Orion
Centaurus * Draco Tucana
Note to table: * Survey participants
4.3.2 Sequence of the study
As noted, the study described in this thesis was structured using Yin‘s (1999) case
study components enriched by grounded theory processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
It was based on two data collections (survey and semi-structured interviews). The
sequence of the study was as follows:
a. Data collection through an electronic survey (July 2007);
b. Analysis of electronic survey data (November 2007 to January 2008);
c. Data collection through semi-structured interviews (February 2008 to
September 2008); and,
d. Analysis of semi-structured interview data (February 2008 to December
2008).
The initial proposition (i- proposition) that was generated from the literature
review and the conceptual framework informed the initial data collection via
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electronic survey. The i-proposition was used to determine whether the survey
provided enough insight to develop a theory. As the data did not provide the breadth
of insight to fully develop a theory, semi-structured interviews were conducted.
These initial ideas on professional identity transition also informed the direction of
interviews but were put aside to enable a theory to emerge from the interview data
through a grounded theory approach. The interviews were conducted on an
individual basis in career stage groupings (see Table 4.1). Each group of interviews
and subsequent analysis informed the direction of the following interview. As
interviews and analysis were completed s -propositions were developed drawing on
grounded theory research design (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). A theory was developed
– The Professional Identity Transition Theory (see Chapter 7) - by synthesising the
propositions thus bringing together the insight gained from the literature, conceptual
framework, survey and interviews.
4.4 Research method
This section outlines the data collection and data analysis conducted in this study.
Data collection was conducted through an electronic survey and semi-structured
interviews. Data from the instruments were analysed using a range of tools
described later in this section. Data analysis was conducted by alternating between
data collection and analysis and is presented in this thesis in a similarly integrated
manner (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
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4.4.1 Data Collection
The data were collected using media that enabled convenient communication with
participants regardless of geographic location. The first data collection, the
electronic survey was hosted by QUT on an Internet server. It was available to
participants for a three week period from July 24 to August 15, 2007. The second
data collection, the semi-structured interviews were conducted using modes
convenient to the participant, which were, in person or via the telephone or via the
Internet.
4.4.1.1 Data collection through electronic survey
The electronic survey, created with technical assistance of a university officer,
comprised of 20 open and closed questions (see Appendix 1). The questions were
designed to explore the research question of how career-change entrants with generic
or specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms and
to examine understandings developed through the literature review and conceptual
framework synthesised in the i-proposition. In seeking to address the research
questions the survey gather demographic data, ICT capabilities that the career-
change entrants brought to the profession, insight into their confidence to work
effectively and a glimpse of their expectations, beliefs and motivations to work as a
teacher in a technology-rich classroom. The survey was structured according to
aspects of professional identity that emerged through the literature review. The five
parts of the survey were composed of questions relating to:
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a. Part A: Background information;
b. Part B: ICT knowledge and expertise developed in previous occupation;
c. Part C: ICT knowledge and expertise developed in previous studies;
d. Part D: Potential use of ICT for teaching and learning; and,
e. Part E: Expectations about teaching and learning.
Part A, entitled background information provided contextual data about the
participants. It was designed to collect information on: (a) student number for
subsequent communication purposes regarding participation in the interviews; (b)
age grouping; (c) gender; (d) initial qualifications; (e) when qualifications were
awarded; (f) general discipline of qualifications; and, (g) occupations or jobs held for
longer than six months in the last 5 years (see Table 4.2). Similar surveys by
Richardson and Watt, (2005) and Williams, (2006) informed the design of the
questions. Six closed questions were used in order to quantify the responses with
provision for one free-text box answer to enable participants to expand on
occupations or jobs held for longer than six months in the last five years. Another
question sought the career-change entrant‘s age at the time of the survey. The
categories presented to the survey participants (24 and under; 25-34 years; 35-44
years; 45-54 years and 55 + years) were based on the categories used by QUT to
analyse student data (QUT, 2008). This was done to enable comparison to the
broader group of entrants into the teaching profession.
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Table 4.2
Sample questions from Part A of the survey
Question
number
Question Response type
6 In what discipline is your highest degree situated?
Selection from
options
7 List the occupations or jobs you have held for
longer than 6 months in the last five years (since
2001).
Free text response
Part B focused on ICT-related experience and skills gained in previous work
roles and were linked to the knowledge and expertise level of impact in the
conceptual framework (see Figure 3.1). The questions sought to elicit how ICT was
used and in what particular context (see Table 4.3). They were based on the
Learning Functions of ICT proposed by Reimann and Goodyear, (2004) highlighted
in the literature review and adapted to general workplace environments. A five-point
Likert rating scale was used to enable a comparison of responses with options
ranging from 1 (Frequently - every day) to 5 (Not relevant). To ensure that all
possibilities were covered, a free-text input response was invited for participants to
detail any other ICT devices and resources they had used in a previous occupation.
Similarly, Part C sought to document how ICT was used in previous studies.
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Table 4.3
Sample questions from Part B and C of the survey
Question
number
Question Response type
8-10 I used ICT in my previous occupation to:
(a) communicate with colleagues and business associates
(b) create and present seminars, lectures, information
sessions;
(c) edit photos or create diagrams;
(d) research issues and work related questions;
(e) work with colleagues in creating reports, documents or
letters;
(f) bank, book, (for example travel and
accommodation)search for information, sell goods;
(g) take digital photos;
(h) draft letters and maintain records;
(i) help colleagues use ICT.
Likert scale
Part D sought opinions on how the career-change entrant might use ICT for
teaching and learning and was linked to the conceptual framework element of
learning from the past and the present. The questions requested opinions on how
ICT- related experiences and skills might be adapted in a teaching and learning
context as well as confidence to do so (see Table 4.4). The options provided in this
section of the survey were based on the Education Queensland‘s, Smart Classrooms
Professional Development Framework ICT Certificate (Queensland Government,
2009c). The responses were measured using a 5-point Likert rating scale, with
possible options of 1 (Daily), 2 (Frequently - once per week on average), 3
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(Occasionally - once per month on average) to 4 (Never) with an option to note if
they believed the statement represents ineffective practice.
Table 4.4
Sample questions from Part D of the survey
Question
number
Question Response type
14 How would you rate your current level of confidence to;
(a) plan units of work incorporating the use of ICT?
(b) provide opportunities for students to use ICT as part
of their learning?
(c) use a range of ICT resources and devices for
professional purposes?
(d) use ICT to locate, create, and record information?
(e) to store, organise and retrieve digital resources?
(f) use ICT to access and manage information on
student learning?
(g) select ICT resources appropriate to student learning
in a range of contexts and for a diversity of learners?
(h) operate safely, legally and ethically when using ICT
professionally and with students.
Likert Scale
Lastly, Part E was linked to the conceptual framework element of levels of
impact in general and expectations, beliefs and motivations in particular. Through
open-ended questions, responses were sought for: (a) why teaching was selected; (b)
what will be challenging in the work ahead; (c) expectations about learning and ICT
in the university course; (d) the impact of availability of ICT in schools; and (e) what
professional practices change on becoming a teacher (see Table 4.5). The questions
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in this section were modelled on the work of Haggard et al (2006) in relation to
career-change entrants perceptions of the extent to which teacher education programs
prepared them for their work in schools as teachers.
Table 4.5
Sample questions from Part D of the survey
Question
number
Question Response type
15 Why do you want to be a teacher? Free text response
16 What do you think will be the most challenging issue
you will face in relation to teaching and learning?
Free text response
The survey was available via the University server for a period of three
weeks. A reminder email was sent through the course coordinator during the third
week of the survey being available. Consent to participate in the research was
provided by participants through selecting the ‗Start Survey‘ button. Responses
were submitted anonymously to ensure privacy. Data from the survey was collated
in an Excel ® spreadsheet and then sorted for analysis purposes. The frequency and
correlation statistical functions in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ®
(SPSS) were used to explore relationships between the variables.
4.4.1.2 Data collection through semi-structured interviews
Survey participants were invited via email to discuss their experiences further in a
30-45 minute interview, in 2008, in order to capture each participant‘s perception of
their experience and actions. Three Novice teachers (n=3) responded to the
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invitation with two (n=2) attending a face-to-face interview on campus and one
(n=1) student, who had already commenced teaching, participating in a phone
interview. The additional insight that the latter teacher was able to provide prompted
an extension of the interviews to career-change entrants working in schools,
delineated through they having less than five years experience as a teacher, being a
career-change entrant and used ICT in their work in their former career.
To source participants for the second data collection, the interviews, an email
was sent to two online professional communities inviting career-change entrants with
less than five years experience to take part in the research. Twelve Experienced
Novices and Early Career Professionals responded and six phone interviews were
conducted with those who met the criteria for participation in the study and were
available at a mutually agreed time. The sequence of interviews was as follows.
Three (n=3) career-change entrants in their first year of teaching (Experienced
Novices) were invited to take part in the interviews and, on the basis of these
insights, a further three (n=3) in their second and third and fourth years of teaching
respectively (Early Career Professionals) were also interviewed (see Table 3.1). At
this point, data saturation was evident as the career-change entrants focus had shifted
to their ongoing development as a teacher, considered in this study to be evidence of
the realising phase of transition (Senge et al, 2005) documented in the conceptual
framework.
The interviews explored unanticipated statements, stories, and issues as they
arose. Questions used to start the discussion were broad, open-ended and non-
judgemental (see Table 4.6). More insightful and targeted questions were generated
140
as data analysis progressed (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The questions
explored the research question of how career-change entrants with generic or
specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms by
probing the conceptual framework elements, namely: (a) the level of impact on
professional identity; (b) learning from the past and the present; and, (c) learning
through creating a future.
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Table 4.6
Categories of questions used to commence interviews
Conceptual
Framework element
Question
Learning from the
past and the present
Describe your experiences in changing careers
How have you used ICT expertise developed in previous
career?
How have you used your ICT expertise for teaching and
learning?
Describe an example of teaching practices that worked for
you in your early years of a teaching?
What does effective teaching and learning look and sound
like?
How do you use ICT support teaching and learning?
Level of impact Describe a range of relationships with other teachers?
Describe some challenges and high points
Learning from the
present & the future
How did you address pedagogical challenges in the early
years of your teaching career?
How should teaching take place in a digital world?
What would you like to explore in the future in relation
to teaching and learning with ICT?
What is some advice for other career change entrants?
These questions were based on the trends and challenges identified in the
literature as well as in response to issues that emerged in the initial analysis of the
survey. The interviews were recorded using a hand held recording device that
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enabled audio files to be created on a computer. These audio files were transcribed
using Sony Digital Voice Editor 3 ® software and imported into NVivo
® for open
coding purposes and the generation of categories.
4.4.2 Data analysis
Data analysis was undertaken for the survey and the semi-structured interviews to
bring order to the data for the purpose of interpretation (Marshall & Rossman, 1999).
Procedures and tools used to conduct the analyses are outlined in the following
sections.
4.4.2.1 Analysis of survey data
The data collected from career-change entrants (N=64) was analysed to compile
demographic data and provide a sense of the ICT capabilities career-change entrants
brought to the profession, their confidence to effectively work as a teacher and a
glimpse of their expectations, motivations and beliefs about becoming and being a
teacher. The large body of data required sorting and organising to enable reporting
of findings and identification of relationships between variables. The analytical
procedure, and structure adopted, was based on the recommendations of Marshall
and Rossman (1999) in relation to the qualitative data and Creswell (2008) for the
quantitative data. All the raw data from the survey was made available by a
university officer in a single Excel® spreadsheet. The data was initially sorted into
worksheets according to the question in order to facilitate reading and interpretation.
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The analysis of the raw quantitative data involved the generation of a series
of descriptive statistics in order to summarise and describe the trends in the data
(Creswell, 2008). Frequency tables were used to present summaries of the raw data
and relative frequencies. These statistics were presented according to classifications,
some predetermined in the design of the survey, others generated from other sources
such as Australian Bureau of Statistics‘ (ABS), Australian and New Zealand
Standard Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO) (ABS, 2009). Cumulative
frequencies, the sum of the relative frequencies at or below a particular classification
(Pelosi & Sandifer, 2002), were included in discussion where they added value. The
data was further analysed using inferential statistical functions such as correlation in
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS®) software.
The analysis of qualitative questions in the survey was conducted using
grounded theory methods (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This applied to questions
relating to previous careers, ICT-related knowledge and practices, use of ICT for
teaching and learning, and perceptions about teaching and learning in general. The
analytical procedure involved coding responses, creating categories and connecting
categories of data through comparing responses in order to develop a deeper
understanding of participants‘ perceptions
Additionally, a vertical analysis of the responses of Andromeda, Boőtes and
Centaurus, was conducted through compiling descriptive stories (Creswell, 2008;
Strauss & Corbin, 1998) about their perceptions of their transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. They were identified through their student number and
selected as they had participated in both the survey and the interviews, creating a
144
link between the general survey data and the more personalised interview transcripts.
Their responses were transcribed verbatim, to preserve the essence and richness of
the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The purpose of these descriptive stories written
as much as possible using the words of the participants (Creswell, 2008; Strauss &
Corbin, 1998) was to personalise the statistics and provide a contextualised
impression of their perceptions about transitioning into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms.
4.4.2.2 Analysis of semi-structured interview data
The data collected through semi-structured interviews were analysed through using
grounded theory processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) in order to develop a deeper
understanding of interview participants‘ perceptions (n=9). The structure of the
analysis process was based on the Systematic Design for grounded theory and
included constant comparative analysis of the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). As
illustrated in Table 4.7, the process involved eight stages, each stage built on the
analysis of the previous stage.
Stages 1 to 3 involved generating and connecting categories of data by
―comparing incidents in the data to other incidents, then comparing incidents to
categories, then comparing categories to other categories‖ (Creswell, 2008, p. 443).
The inductive analysis of the interview transcripts guided further data collection and
subsequent analysis. Open coding techniques, used in Stage 1, guided the process of
―breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualising and categorising data‖
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 61) to logically document the perceptions of career-
145
change entrants (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Categories of events, objects, or actions
and interactions were created in direct response to the data as ideas were generated
during line-by-line coding and comparison of incidents until the point of saturation
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). For example, the statement by Boőtes in response to a
question about how he would use his ICT expertise developed in previous career he
stated that he ―would try to engage them [teachers] as much as possible by showing
them what I do, show them that there is nothing to fear [using ICT]‖. This response
was compared to other statements with similar intent and content and grouped
together.
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Table 4.7
Stages in the creation of s-propositions
Stage Brief description Example (Novice - Boőtes)
Stage 1 Coding (open
coding) Grouping the interview
data
―I would try to engage them
[teachers] as much as possible
by showing them what I do,
show them that there is nothing
to fear [using ICT]‖ (Response
to interview question)
Stage 2: Creating categories Grouping the open
codes
Working with colleagues
Stage 3: Creating broad
categories Summary of categories Collegiality
Stage 4 Writing descriptive stories See section 6.2
Stage 5 Identifying core
theme and causal
conditions (axial
coding)
Establishing
relationships
Core theme-Enthusiasm
Causal conditions – Expertise
differential/ connections to
former career/expectations
about resources
Stage 6:
Identifying general
orientation
Common perspectives
Past capabilities, career
achievements, and likely
transferable attributes
Stage 7: Key focus Priority identified Connections & comparisons to
former career
Stage 8: Creating s-
propositions
Statements of
relationship
Beliefs about how generic
expertise can be applied to a
teaching and learning context
are firmly grounded in past
experience at the novice stage of
the new career
147
This process was a precursor to the second step of creating categories that grouped
the open codes as a means of generating ideas without retrofitting the data to
preconceived categories. For example, Boőtes response was categorised an example
of working with colleagues.
Broader categories that summarised the essence of the categories were named
as part of Stage 3. For example, all the responses categorised as working with
colleagues and other others of a similar nature such as advice for colleagues and
perceptions about colleagues were grouped in the broad category of Collegiality.
Other broad categories were professionalism, practicality and logistics.
As data were collected and analysed, oscillating iteratively from transcripts
and notes of interviews to general codes and themes (Creswell, 2008), the emerging
themes and relationships steered decisions about further data to collect and from
whom. For example, the Novices focus on connections and comparisons with their
former career was clearly linked to the notion of sensing when learning from the past
and the present, highlighted in the conceptual framework. To explore the
perceptions of those who were more focussed on creating their future, a latter phase
of the transition process provided in the conceptual framework, career-change
entrants with more experience as a teacher were sought for interviews. This process
was continued until saturation was reached (Creswell, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998)
and evidence of capacities to realise and create a future as a teacher were visible in
the data.
Stage 4 involved the development of descriptive stories (Creswell, 2008;
Strauss & Corbin, 1998) about the perceptions of the interview participants about
148
becoming and being a teacher. These descriptive stories included quotes from the
participants throughout, to preserve the essence and richness of the data (Creswell,
2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In addition to this, the descriptive stories were
linked to the literature and compared across the participants. The descriptive stories
highlighted the perceptions that emerged in the interviews and enabled the researcher
to consider the data as a holistic narrative to compare with the categories created
through the coding process. This exercise was an integral part of the conceptual
ordering process as movement between the data, categories, stories, coding matrix
and coding paradigm (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) enabled the constant comparative
analysis that contributed to the validation of the theory as it emerged. Within the
descriptive stories are links to the core theme, causal conditions, strategies and
outcomes identified as part of the axial coding process outlined later in this section
(Creswell, 2008).
Stage 5 began the process of axial coding to reassemble the data and identify
relationships within the data, through naming core themes and causal conditions
(Creswell, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). A diagram or coding paradigm (see
Figure 4.1) modelled on the coding template of Strauss and Corbin, (1998) was
created using one causal condition as the core theme with other causal categories
considered being influential. A coding paradigm was created with this data for each
group of participants by career stage, that is, Novices, Experienced Novices and
Early Career Professionals. For example, the core theme of the Novice coding
paradigm was identified as Enthusiasm about what could be taught from past
experience to broaden and deepen the curriculum (see Table 4.7). The causes of this
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enthusiasm were identified in the data as a perceived expertise differential in relation
to the use of ICT, perceived application of expertise gained in the former career and
expectations that schools would not be resourced as well as their previous
employers. The nature of the core themes at each career stage were considered
through:
a. strategies developed in response to the core theme. An example from the
Novice coding paradigm is use of step by step instruction and visualising
opportunities to use ICT (see Table 4.7);
b. contextual and intervening conditions that influence the strategies. An
example from the Novice coding paradigm included school context and
cultural challenges, location teaching context and personal pressures (see
Table 4.7);
c. consequences of using the strategies. An example from the Novice coding
paradigm included continued use of existing belief patterns, increased
confidence, support for colleagues, and an enriched school environment (see
Table 4.7).
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Figure 4.1 Coding paradigm
Stage 6 involved consideration of the general orientation of the interview
participants at each career stage. For example, the Novices general orientation was
on past capabilities and career achievements as well as likely transferable attributes
(see Table 4.7). Within the general orientation a key focus (Stage 7) was identified
and links established to the literature and conceptual framework. The key focus was
distinctive yet had blurred boundaries that were encapsulated in the relationships
represented in a data analysis map that summarised the stages of analysis for
Novices, Experienced Novices and Early Career Professionals in a later chapter. For
example, Novices‟ key foci were connections and comparisons to former careers.
This focus was identified in the literature as a key factor in shaping a transition into
teaching (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). It is noted in the conceptual frame work as
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learning from the past and the present. The final stage involved the development of
statements, s-propositions, highlighting the relationships between the categories,
conditions, strategies and consequences in the axial coding paradigm through
conceptualising patterns and connections in the data. The s-propositions suggest
consequences of professional identity transition and offer an explanation of the
priorities of the three career groups. For example, one of the four s-proposition
generated from the Novices‘ data that has links to the example threaded throughout
this discussion is that beliefs about how generic expertise can be applied to a
teaching and learning context are firmly grounded in past experience at the novice
stage of the new career(see Table 4.7).
4.4.2.3 Theory development
The final analytical procedure brought together the s-propositions into The
Professional Identity Transition Theory. The s-propositions expanded on the i-
proposition following the analysis of the data provided by career-change entrants
who offered their insights through the interviews. The fundamental grounded theory
approach of a ―theory emerging from the data‖ (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 34) was
maintained and reflected an interpretive approach to the research by valuing the
perspectives of the participants through a deeper exploration of the participant
perception. The theory developed was a process theory that explains at a broad
conceptual level how the career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT
expertise, who participated in the study, transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. This type of theory generation process was used as existing theories
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explored in the development of the conceptual framework did not completely
address the research problem. The Professional Identity Transition Theory
represents a synthesis of all data collected during the research process.
4.5 Validity and reliability
A range of strategies were used in this study to maximise its validity and reliability.
These varied according to the research method being used and included;
a. Use of multiple data collection techniques to explore the propositions;
b. Use of analysis techniques appropriate for the nature of the data;
c. Use of both open and closed survey questions to enable participants to clarify
responses, particularly if they found the set options were not relevant; and
d. Building on the data to clarify meaning through the survey collection
informing the interviews and each interview informing the design of the next.
In aiming to build a ―valid and grounded theory that speaks to the issues and
concerns‖ (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 265) of the career-change entrants who
participated in the study described in this thesis, the following strategies
recommended by Creswell, (2008) were used;
a. Constant comparative analysis of data and emergent categories;
b. Checking data against categories during axial coding;
c. Use of discriminant sampling, that is, questioning the data.
The theory generation process also included strategies to enhance the adequacy of
the research process (reproducibility) and the empirical grounding of the study
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(generalisabilty). These two aspects are ―essential elements of theory building
research‖ (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 268). Strategies to enhance the reproducibility
and generalisabilty of the research process (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) included
explicitly documenting:
a. the grounds for the original sample selection;
b. how the categories and broad categories were generated;
c. establishing links between categories to ensure that the theory had
explanatory power;
d. the grounds on which s-propositions were formulated and validated
e. building variation into the theory through generating a range of
consequences;
f. explanation of the contextual and intervening conditions were woven into the
analysis.
The validity and reliability of the theory generated from the combined
consideration of the i-proposition and the s-propositions was maximised through
maintaining the integrity of both the case study approach and that of grounded
theory. The case study approach enabled a scoping of the boundary of the research
and the clarification of the units of research, contributing to the validity of the study.
Grounded theory processes provided rigor and a degree of reliability for the research
through a range of strategies previously noted.
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4.6 Summary
This chapter presented the methodology and research design for the study of career-
change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming and being a teacher. This was
explored through the research questions of how career-change entrants with generic
or specialist ICT expertise shift the technology context and transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms and how these perceptions could be expressed as a
theory. The study was created as an explanatory case study (Yin, 1994) enhanced
through the use of grounded theory research design (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The
cases investigated were the perceptions and experiences of career-change entrants
drawn from a pre-service course and from the beginning teacher community across
Queensland. Yin‘s (1994) case study components: (a) research question(s); (b)
propositions; (c) unit(s) of analysis; (d) linking data to propositions; and, (d) criteria
for interpreting findings were used to structure the study within which the grounded
theory methods were embedded.
The participants in the study were career-change entrants who self nominated
as having used ICT extensively in their work in a former career. The experiences
and perceptions of the career-change entrants who were studying at university to
become teachers were captured through an electronic survey. The experiences and
perceptions of career-change entrants working in Queensland schools were captured
through a semi-structured interview. The emergent challenges, dilemmas, successes
and uncertainties, were explored through open, axial and selective coding as well as
coding matrices and paradigms to present a theory that explains the process of
professional identity transitioning into teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
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The theory building process was embedded in the study, however key aspects
were the development of an i-propositions that reflected the findings from the
literature review and the conceptual framework that was tested through analysis of
the survey data. As the data from the survey only provided a partial glimpse of the
transition into teaching, further data was collected through the interviews from
beginning and establishing teachers working in Queensland schools. The s-
propositions reflected the perceptions of participants collated from the interviews
and analysed through constant comparative analysis. The Professional Identity
Transition Theory was developed by elaborating on the i-proposition, using the s-
propositions developed as a result of the analysis of the interview data. The theory
represents a synthesis of the perceptions of the career-change entrants who
participated in the study.
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CHAPTER 5
SURVEY FINDINGS
Having designed a study to explore how career-change entrants with generic or
specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms and
how their perceptions could be expressed as a theory, this chapter reports the
findings of the first data collection – a survey of pre-service career-change entrants
studying to become teachers at QUT (N=64). The purpose of the survey was to
provide broad insight into career-change entrants‘ generic and specialist ICT
expertise with a view to identifying potential participants for interviews that
explored the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms in more detail.
The aim of the survey was to explore the general notions that were apparent in the
review of the literature about career-change entrants evolving professional identity
and the varying degrees of success and frustration as they applied to career-change
entrants with generic and specialist ICT expertise. The survey also was designed to
explore how the elements of conceptual framework in relation to learning from past
and present experiences (Kolb, 1984, Senge et al., 2005) with differing levels of
impact (Korthagen, 2004) manifested through the career-change entrants who
participated in the survey.
The career-change entrants who volunteered to take part in the survey, named
‗survey participants‘ in this thesis, were enrolled in a one-year Graduate Diploma of
Education, studying to become teachers, at QUT between July 2007 and December
158
2007. The survey participants (N=64) represented approximately 6.8% of the total
enrolments in the 2007 intake for the one-year Graduate Diploma of Education.
Data collected through the survey reflected the perceptions of those who voluntarily
participated in the survey and were not indicative of all career-change entrants. In
analysing and reporting the data, the number of participants responding in a
particular way is referred to as n and the sample size as N.
The survey provided insight into the generic and specialist ICT expertise
among career-change entrants. The findings presented in this chapter were grouped
by the five parts of the survey. A summary of the findings was included at the end
of each part that mapped key ideas extracted from the review of the literature and the
development of the conceptual framework, particularly in relation to the levels of
impact (Korthagen, 2004). These parts were as follows:
a. Part A explored background information to determine the breadth of
backgrounds of the career-change entrants who participated in the study
given the diverse profiles flagged in the review of the literature (see, for
example, Anthony & Ord, 2008; Crow et al, 1990; Manuel & Brindley,
2005);
b. Part B and C investigated the ICT knowledge and expertise developed in
previous occupation and previous studies given the generic and specialist
expertise outlined in the literature review (see, for example, Haggard et al.,
2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003);
159
c. Part D probed how the career-change entrants would use ICT for teaching
and learning through perceptions and levels of confidence, to further
investigate the notion gained from the review of the literature that
development of confidence to teach in technology-rich classrooms involves
adaptation to the school environment (see, for example, Freidus, 1994;
Manuel & Brindley, 2005); and,
d. Part E examined the career-change entrants‘ expectations about teaching and
learning through motivation, beliefs about challenging issues, learning
intentions, expectations about ICT resources and changing practices. These
questions were based on the notions in the literature that beliefs about
teaching and learning shape the use of ICT in technology-rich classrooms
(see, for example, Albion & Ertmer, 2002) and motivation to become a
teacher influences practice (Watt & Richardson, 2008). Questions about
learning intentions and changing practices were related to learning from the
past and the present element of the conceptual framework.
Three (n=3) of career change entrants were profiled throughout the chapter to
provide a richer insight into the data provided by the participants (N= 64). As
Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus participated in both the survey and the
interviews, they were selected as the profiles to enrich the descriptive statistics.
Their profiles were presented as initial descriptive stories written, as much as
possible using their own words, to preserve the richness of the data (Creswell, 2008;
Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Together, they brought to life a selection of experiences
and perceptions of career-change entrants transitioning into teaching in technology-
160
rich classrooms. These initial profiles were enhanced in the next chapter following
additional data collection.
5.1 Background information
Part A of the survey sought background information and consisted of six closed
questions and one open question. The questions sought data about age, gender,
qualifications, year qualification obtained, discipline of highest qualification, and
occupations held for longer than six months in the last five years. This section was
designed to create an understanding about the survey participants based on who they
are, where they have come from and what they bring to the profession. These
questions contributed to the development of a broad understanding of the career-
change entrant cohort on which the rest of the study was based.
5.1.1 Survey responses
The majority of the survey participants, 45.3% (n=29, N= 64), were between 35 and
44 years of age with the second predominant category 25 - 34 years age range,
32.8% (n=21, N= 64) (see Table 5.1). This differed from the entire course cohort
from which the participants were sourced (see Table 5.1a) where the most populous
age group was the 25-34 years age range 46.0% (n=433, N= 950). To enable
comparison with data from the participants‘ university, the age groupings used to
analyse the data were aggregated in the 45-54 years and 55 + years age group used in
the survey for this study (see Appendix 1). This trend differed from the broader
Education Faculty of which the majority of 52.5% (n=2587, N=4925) (see Table
5.1b) were from the 24 years and under age category. This data suggests that career-
161
change entrants are not the majority of pre-service students, accounting for only 19%
of the Education Faculty in 2007 (QUT, 2007).
Table 5.1
Age and gender distribution of survey participants (N= 64)
Age category Male
Female
Total
n % n % n %
24 years & under 1 1.7 4 6.3 5 7.8
25 - 34 years 2 3.1 19 29.6 21 32.8
35 - 44 years 6 9.4 23 35.9 29 45.3
45 + years 2 3.1 7 11.0 9 14.1
TOTAL 11 17.3 53 82.8 64 100
N=64
Table 5.1a
Age and gender distribution of QUT ED38 pre-service students (N= 940)
Age category Male
Female
Total
n % n % n %
24 years & under 43 4.5 169 17.9 212 22.5
25 - 34 years 97 10.3 336 35.7 433 46.0
35 - 44 years 51 5.4 184 19.5 235 25.0
45 + years 18 1.9 42 4.4 60 6.3
TOTAL 209 22.1 731 77.5 940 100
N= 940
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Table 5.1b
Age and gender distribution of QUT Education faculty students (N= 4925)
Age category Male
Female
Total
n % n % n %
24 years & under 633 12.8 1954 39.6 2587 52.5
25 - 34 years 289 5.8 901 18.2 1190 24.1
35 - 44 years 150 3.0 602 12.2 752 15.2
45 + years 97 1.9 299 6.0 396 8.2
TOTAL 1169 23.5 3756 76.0 4925 100
N= 4925
Amongst the older students, the least populous age range amongst the career-change
entrants participating in the survey was 45 years and over (14.1%, n=9, N=64),
suggesting that a career-change was generally made prior to this age. The proportion
of 45 years and over career-change entrants was higher across QUT ED38 pre-
service students, (6.3%, n=60, N=940) (see Table 5.1a) and amongst broader
Education faculty, (8.0%, n=396, N=4925) (see Table 5.1b) than amongst the survey
participants.
A higher proportion of females (82.8%, N=53, N= 64) participated in the
survey than males. The female participation rate in this study was proportionally
higher than the female enrolment (77.5%) (see Table 5.1a) in the Graduate Diploma
of Education pre-service course targeted for this study and higher than across the
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QUT Education Faculty (76.0%) (QUT, 2008). This indicated that females were
either more interested in providing their perceptions than males or that females
thought that participation in research was an integral part of university life.
All survey participants (N=64), as part of the one-year graduate-entry,
teacher education course entry requirements, were required to hold a Bachelor‘s
degree in an area other than teaching (QUT, 2008). The highest qualification gained
by survey participants was PhD, 1.6% (n =1, N= 64), with 81.2% (n=52, N= 64)
holding a Bachelor's degree (see Table 5.2).
Table 5.2
Highest qualification of career-change entrants
Age category Male
Female
Total
n % n % n %
Bachelor degree 9 14.0 42 65.6 52 81.2
Graduate
Certificate
0 0.0 3 4.6 3 4.6
Associate/Graduate
Diploma
2 3.1 6 9.3 7 10.9
Masters 0 0.0 1 1.6 1 1.6
PhD 0 0.9 1 1.6 1 1.6
TOTAL 11 17.2 53 82.8 64 100
N= 64
* males holding particular qualifications
** females holding particular qualifications
*** males and females holding particular qualifications
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Gender differences are evident in Table 5.2 in the level of qualification achieved.
Females among the survey participants were more likely to have higher
qualifications than males (17.0%, n=11, N= 64). Possible reasons for the gender
differences in qualifications could be related to career ambition or studies undertaken
whilst rearing children.
The survey participants were generally more highly qualified compared to all
Queensland registered teachers in 2007, 80.00% of which held qualifications
associated with four-year teacher training (QCT, 2008). This was accounted for by
the fact that qualification required for registration as a teacher in Queensland in past
decades was less than four year degrees and, in addition, the register included
teachers who are not currently teaching (QCT, 2008). The year a qualification was
attained provided an insight into the currency of qualifications. As acknowledged in
Table 5.3, the cumulative relative frequency (CR Frequency) shows that 54.7%
(n=35, N= 64) of qualifications were received prior to 2000 with 9.4% (n=6, N= 64)
gaining their qualification prior to 1990 and 3.1 % (n=2 N=64) gaining their
qualification prior to 1980.
Career-change entrants for the senior years of schooling are required to have
successfully completed at least one year of full-time study in undergraduate studies
that relate to a nominated teaching area (QUT, 2009). While not all survey
participants were senior secondary teachers, the likelihood of the participants having
a formal qualification related to their expertise is low as evidenced through the data
in Table 5.3. Only 40.6% (n=26, N= 64) of the survey participants continued to
work in general area of expertise associated with their first degree. This data
165
suggests that the majority of the participants developed their specialist and generic
expertise through their work and have no formal qualification in their area of
nominated expertise. Specialist expertise reconfigured for a teaching and learning
context is considered a key benefit of employing career-change entrants (see, for
example, Ritchie, Kidman & Vaughn, 2007).
Table 5.3
Currency of qualification and related work experience
Frequency CR Frequency Related work experience
n(%) (%) Yes
n (%)
No
n (%)
Prior to 1980 2 (3.1) 03.1 01 (50.0) 01 (50.0)
1980-1989 4 (6.3) 09.4 01 (25.0) 03 (75.0)
1990-1999 29 (45.3) 54.7 13 (44.8) 16 (55.1)
2000-2009 29 (45.3) 100.0 11 (37.9) 18 (62.0)
TOTAL 64 (100%) 26 (40.4%) 38 (59.6%)
N= 64
The lack of degree connected specialist expertise among the career-change entrants
suggested that those who participated in the study view their generic expertise as
more relevant to a teaching career. The review of the literature highlighted the value
placed on generic expertise, such as ICT-related expertise, by career-change entrants
for a career in teaching (see, for example, Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
The responses to Question 7 requesting information about occupations or
jobs held for longer than six months in the last five years were categorised according
to the Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (ABS,
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2009) (see Table 5.4). The classification structure comprises of eight major groups
within which are sub-major groups. The titles and brief descriptions provided by the
participants were coded according to the sub-major group outlines developed by the
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2009). As many responses from the survey
participants were scant, a best fit approach was taken to coding the information
based on their predominant occupation during the last five years.
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Table 5.4
Work experience and related qualification
Breakdown of professions within major
groups
Frequency
n(%)
With
qualification
PROFESSIONALS n =27 (42.2%)
-Finance Brokers, Dealers, Investment Advisors 4(6.3) 2
-Education 9(14.1) 5
-Design, Engineering, Science, Transport 1(1.6) 0
-Information & organisation 12 (18.8) 7
-Sales, Marketing & PR 1 (1.6) 1
CLERICAL & ADMINISTRATION n =13 (20.3%)
-General Clerical worker 6(9.8) 1
-Officer Manager 6(9.8) 1
-Personal Assistant 1(1.7) 0
SALES n =6 (9.4)
-Salesperson 5(7.8) 2
-Sales rep or agents 1(1.7) 0
COMMUNITY & PERSONAL SERVICE n =9 (14.0%)
-Sports 1(1.7) 1
-Carer or aide 3(4.9) 1
-Social or welfare 3(4.9) 2
-Hospitality 2(3.1) 0
TECHNICIANS & TRADE n =8 (12.5%)
-Electro technology 1(1.6) 1
-Engineering, ICT, Science & Technology 5 (7.8) 2
-Construction 1(1.6) 0
-Other 1(1.6) 1
NO OCCUPATION n=1 (1.6%) 1(1.6) 0
TOTAL 64 (100) 26(40.6)
N= 64
# frequency expressed as a percentage of the whole sample
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Professionals were the most likely major group to have a qualification and
recent work experience in the same field (42.2%, n=27, N=64). The least likely to
have a qualification and recent work experience in the same field were trades and
technical workers (12.5%, n=8, N=64). This could be associated with the financial
and personal investment associated with undertaking the degree that led to work in a
profession prior to undertaking a career-change. The data were further analysed for
gender differences to provide an insight into whether gender was a factor in career-
change and in turn influenced the transition process and early career development.
Table 5.5 highlights that the proportion of males and females who have work
experience and a related qualification in each of the major grouping identified
through the use of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2009) classifications
and the number of participants in each category.
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Table 5.5
Work experience and related qualification by gender
Major Group # %
## Formal
Qualifications
Participants (n)
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Professionals 36.3 43.3 2 13 4 23
Clerical and
Administration
9.1 22.6 0 2 1 12
Sales 9.1 9.4 0 2 1 5
Community and
Professional Service
9.1 15.1 0 4 1 8
Technicians and Trade 36.3 7.5 2 2 4 4
No occupation 0 1.9 0 0 0 1
N= 64 *
# % for each occupation has been expressed in terms of the whole sample
## % expressed in terms of total male and female population within the sample
Among the male survey participants, the most common former career was in
the professions (36.3%, n=4) and technical and trade area (36.3%, n=4). Among
women, the most common former career was also in the professions (43.3%, n=23),
albeit with a lesser proportion than males. The second most common former career
was in clerical and administrative roles (22.6%, n=12) at a much higher proportion
than males (9.1%, n=1). Few of the females working in the clerical and
administrative field held an undergraduate qualification in that discipline.
Table 5.6 presents data from an alternate angle, considering the disciplines of
the participant‘s highest qualification, according to the Australian Qualifications
Framework (AQF) (AQF, 2010), and the likelihood of related work experience. The
most common qualifications were from Humanities and Human Services (23.4%,
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n=15, N=64) and Science (20.3%, n=13, N=64). Survey participants with Business
or Health qualifications were most likely to have had recent work experience in a
related field.
Participants with qualifications in Business (15.6 %, n=10, N=64) were most
likely to have related work experience. Of these participants with Business
qualifications (60%, n=6, N=64) continued to work in a Business related occupation.
Participants with qualifications in Health (10.93%, n =8, N=64) or Information
Technology (4.60%, n=4, N=64) were the next most likely to have continued to
work in an occupation related to their qualification.
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Table 5.6
Disciplines of highest qualifications
Discipline Frequency (%)* Related work experience
Yes
n (%)**
No
n (%)***
Built environment or Engineering 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)
Business 10 (15.6) 6 (60.0) 4 (40.0)
Creative Industries 5 (7.8) 1 (20.0) 4 (80.0)
Education 7 (10.9) 2 (28.6) 5 (71.4)
Health 8(12.5) 4 (50.0) 4 (50.0)
Information Technology 4 (6.3) 2 (50.0) 2 (50.0)
Law 1 (1.6) 0 (0.0) 1(100.0)
Humanities & Human Services 15 (23.4) 4 (30.8) 11 (84.6)
Science 13 (20.3) 6 (46.2) 7 (53.8)
Other 01(1.6) 0 (0.0) 1(100.0)
TOTAL 64 (100%) 25 (39.1%) 39 (60.9%)
N= 64 * Frequencies expressed as a percentage of the whole sample
** n denotes the number and relative % with related work experience
***n denotes the number and relative % without related work experience
Of the participants with qualifications in Health, 50% (n=4, N=64) continued to
work in a Health related occupation. Similarly, of the participants with
qualifications in Information Technology (50%, n=2, N=64) continued to work in an
Information Technology-related occupation. Reasons for continuing in a first career
could be many and varied, and are beyond the scope of the study described in this
thesis.
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5.1.2 Initial descriptive stories
Initial descriptive stories were developed to build on the reductionist tendency of
survey data (Creswell, 2008; Punch, 2005; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Andromeda,
Boőtes and Centaurus were included as they participated in all aspects of the study,
that is, both the survey and interview. Their stories were developed from the
responses to the open ended survey questions to add a human dimension to the data.
Andromeda was a female between 25 and 34 years of age, an age group
comprising 29.6% (n=19, N=64) of the total survey participants, slightly younger
than the majority of the female participants. At the time of the survey, July 2007,
she was in the final semester of a one-year graduate entry, teacher education course
at QUT. Like 81.3% (n=52, N=64) of the survey participants, her highest degree
was received at Bachelor level. She was awarded a Bachelor of Science (Honours)
in 1997, as did 45.3% (n=29, N=64) of survey participants who gained their
qualification between 1990 and 1999. Andromeda was, however, one of the
minority (44.8%, n=13, N=64) whose previous occupations were related to her
qualifications. Previous occupations included working as a Spatial Data Analyst,
Spatial Data Consultant and Spatial Data Manager. As a Converted teacher (Crow et
al., 1990) she considered teaching following the termination of a contact of
employment.
In contrast, Boőtes was a male between 45 and 54 years of age, a poorly
represented age group comprising of 14.1% (n=9, N=64) of survey participants.
When he completed the survey he was in the final semester of a one-year graduate
entry teacher education course at QUT. He held a Bachelor of Arts and an Associate
173
Diploma in Electrical Engineering obtained in 1999. His previous occupation for 18
years was related to his Associate Diploma qualification, namely an audio-visual
technician in a university. As with Andromeda, Boőtes was also a Converted teacher
(Crow et al., 1990) as he considered teaching following changes to his work
conditions.
As a further contrast, Centaurus was a teacher of Mathematics and Science
at a remote school in Queensland (2008). He was a male between 35 and 44 years of
age, an age group making up 45.3% (n=29, N=64) of the total survey participants of
which the majority were female (35.9%, n=23, N=64). Centaurus completed a one-
year graduate entry, teacher education course at QUT in November 2007. As with
81.3% (n=52, N=64) of the survey participants, his highest degree was received at
Bachelor level. He completed a Bachelor of Arts in 1994, this making him one of
45.3% (n=29, N=64) of participants who completed their highest qualification
between 1990 and 1999. Since that time, he has had a varied career in areas loosely
associated with his qualification, as had 44.8% (n=13, N=64) of survey participants
who completed their qualification between 1990 and 1999 (see Table 5.5).
Centaurus served in the Army as a signaller, experiencing active duty in war zones
on four occasions, worked as a service manager in marine electronics and managed
his own boat building business. Like Andromeda and Boőtes, Centaurus was also a
Converted teacher (Crow et al., 1990) as he considered the decision to teach a
pragmatic one related to his capacity to continue the work in which he had been
specialising.
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5.1.3 Summary of background findings
Part A of the survey explored the notion in the literature that career-change entrants
have a wide variety of backgrounds and profiles (see, for example, Anthony & Ord,
2008; Crow et al, 1990; Manuel & Brindley, 2005). Six open and closed questions
seeking background information sought information about age, gender,
qualifications, year qualification obtained, discipline of highest qualification,
occupations held for longer than six months in the last five years.
The survey participants were predominantly females and are aged between 35
and 44 years of age (45.3%, n=29, N=64) (see Table 5.1). Additionally, the survey
participants were generally more highly qualified compared to all Queensland
registered teachers in 2007 with most survey participants being awarded
qualifications were received prior to 2000 (see Table 5.2). Less than half of the
survey participants (40.6%, n=26, N=64) had continued to work in general area of
expertise associated with their first degree (see Table 5.3). Survey participants from
the professions were most likely to have a qualification and recent work experience
in the same field (42.1%, n=27, N=64) (see Table 5.4). Males and females were
most commonly from the professions or, in the case of males, the technical and trade
area. Significant numbers of women were from clerical and administrative
occupations, with few holding an undergraduate qualification in this area (see Table
5.5). Within the professions, survey participants with Business or Health
qualifications were most likely to have recent work experience in a related field (see
Table 5.6). This background data provided valuable demographic information about
the career-change entrants that formed the basis of their professional identity.
175
The findings lead to the conclusion that career-change entrants who
responded to the survey (N=64) had a broad range of experiences that may or may
not be transferable to a teaching context. The literature suggested (see, for example,
Mayotte, 2003), however, that these experiences do not necessarily facilitate the
transition, nor are they automatically adapted to a teaching and learning context
(Tigchelaar et al., 2008). Additionally, the data from this section suggest that the
specialist knowledge career-change entrants bring to the profession is not necessarily
linked to an undergraduate or post graduate qualification. This suggestion was
consistent with research by Williams and Forgasz (2009) who concluded that career-
change entrants believed that their generic workplace expertise and experiences were
more important than specific content knowledge.
Furthermore, survey participants did not necessarily have recent knowledge
and understanding of a discipline related to teaching young people, particularly
amongst survey participants who were awarded their degree more than ten years ago.
Only 37.9%, (n=11, N=64) of survey participants who were awarded their degree in
the previous ten years have had work experience in a teaching related field. The lack
of in-depth specialist curriculum content knowledge presented a professional
development challenge for both career-change entrants and school staff to ensure
that the career-change entrants were able to foster the improvement of learning
outcomes for students. The development of knowledge and understanding of content
areas is a priority of Australian education systems and sectors (AITSL, 2010).
Additionally, it would appear that the finding is at odds with entry requirements for
the one-year graduate entry teacher education course from which the survey
176
participants were sourced. The disparity is that career-change entrants for the senior
years are required to have successfully completed at least one year of full-time study
in undergraduate studies that relate to a nominated teaching area (QUT, 2009).
Similarly, prospective middle school teachers are required to nominate two teaching
areas based on previous study. The data showed that this course admission process
potentially draws on qualifications more than ten years old and, for more than half of
the survey participants, no recent work experience in their nominated teaching area.
Whether knowledge and expertise gained from career and life experiences
was potentially adequate to gain employment and develop as a teacher is a question
for future research in this area. What is further explored in the study described in
this thesis are the experiences of career-change entrants who made ICT integral to
their way of working in their former careers, based on the literature that suggested
the generic expertise career-change entrants bring to the profession appears to enrich
learning (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). The interpretation of data from Part B of the
survey, ICT knowledge and expertise developed in a previous occupation explored
this notion, initially beginning with the patterns of use across the survey participants.
5.2. ICT knowledge and expertise
Sections B and C of the survey (see Appendix 1) provided insight into how ICT was
used in the previous occupations and studies of the career-change entrants. The
purpose of investigating survey participants ICT expertise was to explore whether
this expertise was generic (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) or specialist, that is, as a result
of ICT qualifications and work experience in the use of ICT, or a combination of
177
both. The literature suggested that many career-change entrants believed that the
most important attributes they bring to teaching are life experiences, generic
workplace skills and experience, and personal qualities, rather than specific content
knowledge (Williams & Forgasz, 2009). The conceptual framework suggested that a
reconfiguration of knowledge and expertise will have an impact (Korthagen, 2004)
on the career-change entrants as they transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. This involved suspending preconceived ideas about the value of this
expertise and reconfiguring the expertise to enhance and personalise student learning
(Senge et al., 2005).
On a 5-point Likert style questions, participants were asked to rate how often
they used ICT in their previous occupation and studies to complete predefined work
tasks according to a list of frequency descriptors. The categories were based on the
Learning Functions of ICT (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). In Table 5.7 these
frequency descriptors are listed as: (a) F (Frequently-every day); (b) S (Sometimes –
once per week on average); (c) O (Occasionally – once per month on average); (d)
N/NR (Never/Not Relevant). This table documents the use of ICT in a previous
occupation by all survey participants.
Participants in the survey most commonly used ICT in their previous
occupation on a daily basis to:
a. communicate with colleagues and business associates (89.1% , n=57, N=64);
b. create and present seminars, lectures, and information sessions (42.1%,
n=27, N=64);
178
c. research issues and work-related questions (43.8%, n=28, N=64);
d. help colleagues/students use ICT (43.8%, n =28, N=64);
e. bank, book (e.g. travel and accommodation), search, sell goods (60.9%, n
=39, N=64); and,
f. take digital photos (71.8%, n=46, N=64).
179
Table 5.7
Use of ICT in previous occupation
Use of ICT
F#
n
(%)
S#
n
(%)
O#
n
(%)
N/NR#
n
(%)
Communicate with colleagues and
business associates/students
57
(89.1)
5
(7.8)
1
(1.6)
1
(1.6)
Create and present seminars, lectures,
information sessions
15
(23.4)
13
(20.3)
22
(34.4)
14
(21.9)
Edit photos or create diagrams
14
(21.9)
18
(28.1)
18
(28.1)
14
(21.9)
Research issues and work related
questions
28
(43.8)
23
(35.9)
6
(9.4)
7
(10.9)
Work with colleagues/students in
creating reports, documents or letters
39
(60.9)
8
(12.5)
11
(17.1)
6
(9.5)
Bank, book, (e.g. travel and
accommodation), search, sell goods
28
(43.8)
14
(21.9)
11
(17.1)
11
(17.1)
Take digital photos
12
(18.8)
19
(29.7)
12
(18.8)
21
(32.8)
Draft letters and maintain records
46
(71.8)
12
(18.8)
4
(6.2)
2
(3.1)
Help colleagues/students use ICT
27
(42.2)
14
(21.9)
9
(14.0)
14
(21.9)
N=64
#F (Frequently-every day); S (Sometimes –once per week on average); O (Occasionally – once per
month on average); N/NR (Never/Not Relevant).
180
The prevalence of communication activities reflects the nature of work undertaken in
particular roles. For example, for 42.1% (n=27, N=64) of the survey participants
who were professionals, it is likely that communication with colleagues and business
associates took place via email. Further, their roles in their former career more
commonly included creating and presenting seminars, lectures, and information
sessions, tasks traditionally associated with the work of a teacher. Editing photos
and creating diagrams were the tasks less frequently undertaken by the survey
participants.
By way of contrast, Table 5.8 documents how survey participants most
commonly used ICT in their previous studies on a daily basis. They most commonly
used ICT to:
a. research issues and work-related questions (54.7%, n=35, N=64);
b. communicate with colleagues (35.9% , n=23, N=64);
c. draft letters and records (26.7% , n=17, N=64).
In comparing the uses made of ICT across occupations and programs of study, there
were some synergies in the expertise that was developed. Other than the three most
common uses of ICT listed as being used on a daily or weekly basis in their previous
studies, all other uses are more frequently used in the workplace. This is to be
expected as the majority of survey participants completed their studies prior to 1999
(54.7% n=35, N=64) (see Table 4.3). Centaurus provided a potential explanation:
―When completing undergrad work (1994), ICT resources were still very scarce and
181
expensive and not widely used. Internet type research [was] limited to a few
academic BBS (Bulletin Board Sites) sites and library listings. Most [of the]
research [was] done via hard copy and the library‖ (Response to Survey Question
11). A further explanation provided by a survey participant included the fact that she
―graduated from University in 1975, there were no computers or other ICT devices.
Everything was hand generated. Sounds like the dim dark ages!!!!‖ (Response to
Survey Question 11). A further insight from another participant was that
―[I]completed [my] initial studies in 1995 so computers definitely weren't a big thing
back then. I typed all my assignments and only used the computer to do library
research on campus.‖ (Response to Survey Question 11). While there were
computer laboratories in universities in the 1990s, the responses highlighted that they
were not a ubiquitous part of their way of working as in the current decade, a
distinction with times past.
182
Table 5.8
Use of ICT in previous studies
Frequency
Use of ICT
F#
n
(%)
S#
n
(%)
O#
n
(%)
N/NR#
n
(%)
Communicate with colleagues and
business associates/students
23
(35.9)
17
(26.6)
8
(12.5)
16
(25.0)
Create and present seminars, lectures,
information sessions
17
(26.6)
8
(12.5)
28
(43.8)
11
(17.1)
Edit photos or create diagrams
6
(9.8)
13
(20.3)
27
(40.6)
18
(28.1)
Research issues and work related
questions
35
(54.7)
17
(26.6)
5
(7.81)
7
(9.4)
Work with colleagues/students in
creating reports, documents or letters
12
(18.8)
22
(34.4)
19
(29.7)
11
(17.1)
Bank, book, (e.g. travel and
accommodation), search, sell goods
12
(18.8)
6
(9.4)
11
(17.1)
35
(54.7)
Take digital photos
4
(6.3)
8
(12.5)
18
(28.1)
34
(53.1)
Draft letters and maintain records
12
(18.8)
12
(18.8)
21
(32.8)
19
(29.7)
Help colleagues/students use ICT
5
(7.8)
9
(14.1)
20
(31.2)
30
(46.9)
N=64
#F (Frequently-every day); S (Sometimes –once per week on average); O (Occasionally – once per month on
average); N/NR (Never/Not Relevant)
183
To ensure that the richness of their expertise and experiences were captured,
survey participants were asked to provide details, through a free-text response box,
of other ICT devices and resources they had used in their previous occupations and
how they used them. Survey participants (n=27) responded to this item with further
detail of how they used ICT in their previous work. This data were coded into three
categories that emerged using open coding techniques and constant comparative
analysis associated with grounded theory techniques (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) that
were: (a) Maintainers; (b) Designers; and (c) Users. The categories were based on
the potential roles for teachers in embedding ICT resources in student learning as
designers or knowledge managers conceptualised by Reimann and Goodyear (2004).
Survey participants who responded with reference to hardware or software
application support or network maintenance were coded as Maintainers. Those
whose responses referred to graphic design software or capturing and editing audio-
visual data were coded as Designers and those who described what they used were
coded as Users. Purposes additional to those listed in the Table 5.7 are presented as
sample responses in Table 5.9.
184
Table 5.9
Use of other ICT resources and devices in previous career
Category n (%) Sample use
User 15 (23.43%) I used software packages such as Excel ® and
statistical packages to analyse data from
instrumentation.
Designer
07 (10.93%)
DVD creation including filming, editing,
production CD creation including recording,
editing and production AUTOCAD ®
Maintainer
05 (7.81%)
Maintain and monitor servers, PC and
peripheral software/hardware support, network
support
No further
information
37 (57.81%)
TOTAL 64 (100%)
N= 64
The majority of the survey participants who provided more information about
their occupational use of ICT were Users of software applications in their work (see
Table 5.9). It was also likely that those not providing further information were users
of software applications given the responses that clearly showed that 89.0% (n=57,
N=64) of the survey participants frequently used ICT to communicate with
colleagues and business associates or students (see Table 5.6). This suggested that
the general ICT capabilities of the survey participants were linked to the use of
software applications and the type of expertise that is useful in managing student
learning data. To gain further insight into the expertise of survey participants, the
initial descriptive stories (Creswell, 2008, Strauss & Corbin, 1998) of Andromeda,
185
Boőtes and Centaurus begun in Section 5.2.1 are here extended to highlight the
diversity of expertise.
Andromeda, categorised as an ICT User, frequently used ICT in her former
career to: (a) communicate with colleagues and business associates like 89.1%
(n=57, N=64) of survey participants; (b) research issues and work related questions
like 43.8% (n=28, N=64) of survey participants; and (c) help colleagues use ICT like
43.8% (n=28, N=64) of survey participants. She was least likely to draft letters and
maintain records, and take digital photos. Andromeda described the ICT she used as
―high end computers and highly technical software to edit and create digital terrain
models, 3D viewing and 2D viewing, ... and Geographic Information Systems‖
(Response to Survey Question 9). During her undergraduate study of a Bachelor of
Science which she completed in 1997 and like 35.9%, (n=23, N=64) of survey
participants, she frequently used ICT to communicate with other students.
Additionally, like 54.7% (n=35, N=64) of survey participants, Andromeda
researched issues using ICT and like 9.4% (n=6, N=64) of survey participants, she
worked with other students using ICT to create reports, documents or letters.
Andromeda‟s use of ICT in her former career was both of a specialist and generic
nature that could potentially have applications to a teaching and learning context.
As a contrast, Boőtes, categorised as a Maintainer of ICT, frequently used
ICT to: (a) communicate with colleagues and business associates like 89.1% (n=57,
N=64) of survey participants; (b) research issues and work related questions, like
43.8% (n=28, N=64) of survey participants; (c) work with colleagues in creating
reports, documents or letters like 21.8% (n=14, N=64) of survey participants; (d)
186
bank and search for information online like 60.9% (n=39, N=64) of survey
participants; and (e) draft letters and maintain records like 23.4% (n=15, N=64) of
survey participants. Most of the computer programs he had used were designed
specifically for the needs of the organisations for which he worked. The basis of all
audio-visual programs he used was the same but having different set ups and designs
to suit different client needs. During university study, completed in 1998, he
frequently used ICT to research issues like 54.6% (n=35, N=64) of survey
participants. Boőtes ICT expertise appeared to be transferable to a teaching and
learning context.
Different again was Centaurus, who was categorised as a Designer of ICT
artefacts. He frequently used ICT to: (a) communicate with colleagues and business
associates, like 89.1% (n=57, N=64) of survey participants; (b), edit photos or create
diagrams , like 18.7% (n=12, N=64) of survey participants; (c), bank and search for
information online, like 60.9% (n=39, N=64) of survey participants; (d), take digital
photos, like 71.8% (n=46, N=64) of survey participants; (e), draft letters and
maintain records, like 20.3% (n=13, N=64) of survey participants. He never used
ICT to create and present seminars, lectures and information session. To this list,
Centaurus added that he uses ―both CAD and CAM technologies in the boat building
industry to design and manufacture component parts for hulls‖ (Response to Survey
Question 9). Additionally, he was involved in the use and development of
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for hydrographical surveying. He also has
a Microsoft network qualification (MCSC) and worked intermittently as a network
administrator and designed and installed networks for small to medium businesses.
187
During undergraduate study of a Bachelor of Arts which he completed in 1994, he
had minimal exposure to ICT. Centaurus‟s generic expertise appeared to
transferable to a teaching and learning context, a notion further investigated in this
study.
The two most common uses of ICT across the survey participants' previous
occupation and studies related to researching issues and communicating with others.
This suggested that there was a logical connection to the work of a teacher in relation
to locating resources for lesson planning and potentially networking within and
beyond the school community. ICT expertise does not a guarantee that meaningful
student learning will occur (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). How this was manifested
among the survey participants through their perceptions about how they could use
ICT for teaching and learning is explored in the next section.
5.2.1 Summary of findings
In applying the notion in the literature that career-change entrants bring generic and
specialist expertise to the teaching profession (see, for example, Haggard et al.,
2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) ICT knowledge and expertise was
explored in Sections B and C of the survey. Two 5-point Likert scale questions and
two free text questions sought responses as to how ICT was used in a previous career
and in previous studies.
Participants in the survey most commonly used ICT in their previous
occupation, on a daily basis, to communicate with colleagues and business associates
(89.1%, n=57, N=64) (see Table 5.7). In their previous studies, ICT was used to a
188
lesser extent with the dominant use of researching issues (54.7%, n=35, N=64) (see
Table 5.8). Most survey participants were users of software applications in their
work rather than designers of audio-visual artefacts or providers of network support
(Reimann & Goodyear, 2004) (see Table 5.9). The common uses across work and
study suggested that locating resources for lesson planning and networking within
and beyond the school community are capabilities the survey participants will
transfer to the teaching and learning context.
While ICT expertise is noted in literature as being a valued attribute of
career-change entrants (Anthony & Ord, 2008), the challenge for these career-change
entrants‘ noted in the ICT literature was to work with and through ICT ( Lloyd,
2009; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004) rather than focus on teaching others their skills.
The development of effective pedagogical practices was part of the challenge of
transitioning into teaching in technology-rich classrooms for career-change entrants
in this study.
5.3 Potential use of ICT for teaching and learning
Part D of the survey posed three questions on how survey participants would use ICT
in a teaching and learning context, with a view to gaining insight into beliefs or
preconceived notions about the role of ICT in learning. The questions were also
designed to explore ideas that emerged through the literature review, such as:
a. ICT expertise does not ensure that valuable student learning will take place
(Lloyd, 2009; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004);
189
b. ICT may be added on to ineffective practices (Cuban, 1993; Reimann &
Goodyear, 2004);
c. deeply held beliefs about teaching and learning influences practices (Albion,
1999; Ertmer, 2005; Rust, 2006);
d. replication of own experiences as a learner (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004); and,
e. a focus on TPACK will ensure the creation of purposeful, authentic and
integrated learning (Mishra & Kohler, 2005; Moyle, 2009).
The questions related to the potential levels of impact (Korthagen, 2004), noted in
the conceptual framework, in regard to reconfiguration of beliefs during the
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. In the following sections,
participants‘ responses to questions that explored beliefs about how ICT would be
used for teaching and learning are discussed as well as the survey participants‘ level
of confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning.
5.3.1 Beliefs about how ICT will be used for teaching and learning
The survey participants were asked about their beliefs, or preconceived notions, in
relation to how ICT would be used to enable teaching and learning. The purpose of
doing so was to gain insight into the potential impact of a reconfiguration of beliefs
about the use of ICT for teaching in technology-rich classrooms during the transition
into teaching. The conceptual framework suggests that a change in beliefs is likely
to have a comparatively greater impact than a change in confidence or expectations
(Korthagen, 2004) on career-change entrants transition into teaching in technology-
190
rich classrooms. This notion was based on the literature which suggested that career-
change entrants revert to long-held personal beliefs when dealing with the realities of
classroom life and other professional challenges (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003).
Table 5.10
Beliefs about how ICT will be used for teaching and learning
Use of ICT
D#
n
(%)
F#
n
(%)
O#
n
(%)
N/NR#
n
(%)
I will build teaching and learning
practices around my ICT skills
23
(35.9)
35
(54.7)
6
(09.4)
0
(0.0)
I will create opportunities for students
to use ICT to develop and apply new
knowledge rather than teach them just
what I know about ICT
28
(43.6)
32
(50.0)
2
(03.1)
2
(3.1)
I will need to model how to operate
safely, ethically and legally when
using ICT
30
(46.9)
30
(46.9)
4
(06.3)
0
(0.0)
I will need to critically review, select
and adapt ICT resources to create
engaging learning experiences
31
(48.4)
26
(40.6)
4
(06.3)
3
(04.6)
I will need to plan assessment tasks
that use ICT
23
(35.9)
33
(51.6)
7
(10.9)
1
(01.6)
I will need to continue my ICT-related
learning throughout my teaching
career
13
(20.1)
33
(51.6)
16
(25.0)
2
(03.1)
N=64.
#D (Daily); F (Frequently –once per week on average); O (Occasionally – once per month on average); N/NR
(Never/Not Relevant).
191
The results, documented in Table 5.10, are structured according to the
following frequency descriptors: (a) D (Daily); (b) F (Frequently-once per week on
average); (c) S (Sometimes –once per month on average); and (d) O (Occasionally –
once per month on average), N/NG (Never/Not good practice). The majority of
survey participants believed that they would use ICT at least once per week in their
teaching practice. Additionally, in order of priority, on at least a weekly basis, (i.e.
cumulative data for daily and frequently) the survey participants believe they needed
to:
a. create opportunities for students to use ICT to develop and apply new
knowledge rather than teach them just what I know about ICT (93.8%, n=60,
N=64).
b. model how to operate safely, ethically and legally when using ICT (93.8%,
n=60, N=64).
c. build teaching and learning practices around their ICT skills (90.6%, n=58,
N=64).
d. plan assessment tasks that incorporate the use of ICT (87.5%, n=56, N=64).
e. critically review, select and adapt ICT resources to create engaging learning
experiences (84.0%, n=57, N=64).
f. continue ICT-related learning throughout my teaching career (71.7%, n=46,
N=64).
192
An insight into the survey participants‘ perceptions of the importance of each of
these indicators was gleaned by considering the data regarding daily use of ICT (see
Table 5.10). The three indicators prioritised the highest by survey participants were:
a. critically review, select and adapt ICT resources to create engaging learning
experiences (48.4%, n=31, N=64).
b. model how to operate safely, ethically and legally when using ICT (46.9%,
n=30, N=64).
c. create opportunities for students to use ICT to develop and apply new
knowledge rather than teach them just what I know about ICT (43.8%, n=28,
N=64).
The way in which career-change entrants made use of their ICT expertise has
not been clarified through the responses to this question. Of concern in the literature
was the tendency of career-change entrants to focus on their passion for particular
knowledge and expertise (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Powell,
1997). In the context of this study the teaching of ICT skills that the career-change
entrants brought to the profession did not ensure that valuable student learning
occurred (Lloyd, 2009; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). Survey participants (35.9%,
n=23, N=64) believed that they needed to build teaching and learning practices
around their ICT skills on a daily basis with 54.7% (n=35, N=64) believing that this
would be the case at least weekly. The lack of clarity emerges on considering the
response to how often the survey participants believe that they will need to will
create opportunities for students to use ICT to develop and apply new knowledge
193
rather than teach students what they know about ICT. Survey participants (43.6%,
n=28, N=64) believed that this would occur on a daily basis with 50.0% (n=32,
N=64) believing that this would be the case at least weekly. Determining how
generic or specialist expertise is used was considered central to developing an
understanding of how career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. A better sense of this would
be gained through broadening the criteria for participation in next data collection to
include career-change entrants in the early years of their teaching career. This would
also enable the later phases of the transition process to be better explored (Senge, et
al, 2005).
5.3.2 Further comments from participants
Survey participants were asked for further comments to clarify their responses to the
previous question regarding their beliefs about how ICT would be used to enable
teaching and learning. Responses were lodged from 39.0% (n=25, N=64) of survey
participants. The responses were coded using open coding techniques and constant
comparative analysis associated with grounded theory analysis techniques (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998). Table 5.11 documents the uses and issues that emerged from the
survey participants who responded to this question.
194
Table 5.11
ICT use in teaching and learning
Uses/ Issues of concern n (%) Sample item
Depends on resources 9 (31.0) This will largely be dependent on the
resources available at the school in which I
teach
Within subject areas 6(20.7) I know that I will use it [ICT] - particularly
in relation to SOSE - Geography
Depends on access &
time allocations
4(13.8) It will depend on school access to
computers for students. Time is the enemy.
Professional
development
3(10.3) I am quite sure that I will learn more from
the students
Planning 2(6.9) ICT should be used just like pens and
writing paper.
Unsure
2(6.9) Still unsure how and to what extent ICT can
be incorporated in the classroom.
Prepare students for
work
2(6.9)
ICT is used so much in the workforce that
students need to have a good understanding
Communicating with
parents
1(3.4) Use visual displays as a way of
communicating with parents/carers.
* The percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified a certain use. They do not total 100% as
some participants listed more than one use. (29 uses were identified).
The most frequently documented use was to support learning in subject or teaching
areas (20.7%, n=6). Among the potential uses of ICT listed, survey participants
elaborated on issues of concern, such as the availability of resources. The majority
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of respondents made reference to the need for adequate resources as a similar
concern (31.0%, n=9) or as part of a compound issue that included time constraints
(13.8%, n=4). In building on this finding, it was contended that learning how to
integrate ICT in teaching and learning during pre-service courses was influenced by
the career-change entrant‘s attitude to the availability of resources in schools. They
needed to be assured that ICT resources existed in schools and this shaped their
expectations about what should be learned in pre-service courses about the use of
ICT. The finding regarding the value of resources to survey participants was further
explored through the interviews during the second data collection.
5.3.3 Current level of confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning
The survey participants were asked to rate their confidence to perform a range of
tasks associated with teaching and learning using ICT. Confidence to work
effectively in a school was an important aspect of the transition process (Mayotte,
2006). This question was included in the survey to gain insight into the potential
impact of a change in levels of confidence to use of ICT for teaching in technology-
rich classrooms during the transition into teaching. The conceptual framework
suggested that changes in confidence had a significant impact on transition responses
(Korthagen, 2004). Career-change entrants are generally confident when they feel
they can bring valuable knowledge and expertise to the teaching profession (Haggard
et al., 2006) such as ICT knowledge and expertise.
Confidence was measured using a 5-point Likert rating scale, with possible
options ranging from 1 (Highly confident) to 5 (Not at all confident). Suggestions
196
were provided through the listing of indicators from the Education Queensland
Smart Classrooms Professional Development Framework (Queensland Government,
2009c). The results are structured according to the following frequency descriptors:
(a) H (Highly confident); (b) C (Confident); (c) S (Somewhat confident); (d) A
(Anxious), N (Not at all confident) (see Table 5.12).
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Table 5.12
Level of confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning
Indicator
H#
n
(%)
C#
n
(%)
S#
n
(%)
A/N#
n
(%)
a. Plan units of work incorporating
the use of ICT
18
(28.1)
26
(40.6)
15
(23.4)
05
(7.8)
b. Provide opportunities for students
to use ICT as part of their learning
18
(28.1)
21
(32.8)
17
(26.6)
08
(12.5)
c. Use a range of ICT resources and
devices for professional purposes
28
(43.6)
21
(32.8)
10
(15.6)
5
(7.8)
d. Use ICT to locate, create, and
record information
37
(57.8)
19
(29.7)
04
(6.3)
04
(6.3)
e. Store, organise and retrieve digital
resources
34
(53.1)
20
(31.3)
07
(10.9)
03
(4.7)
f. Use ICT to access and manage
information on student learning
30
(46.9)
19
(29.7)
12
(18.8)
03
(4.7)
g. Select ICT resources appropriate to
student learning in a range of
contexts and for a diversity of
learners
18
(28.1)
19
(29.7)
23
(35.9)
04
(6.3)
h. Operate safely, legally and
ethically when using ICT
professionally and with students.
28
(43.8)
22
(34.4)
14
(21.8)
00
(0.00)
N=64.
#H (Highly confident); (b) C (Confident); (c) S (Somewhat confident); (d) A (Anxious), N (Not at all confident)
The survey participants felt most confident - either highly confident (57.8%,
n=37, N=64) or confident (29.7%, n=19, N=64) - to use ICT to locate, create and
record information. The survey participants felt next most confident to store,
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organise and retrieve digital resources, - either (53.1%, n=34, N=64) or confident
(31.3%, n=20, N=64). They felt least confident – either somewhat confident
(35.9%, n=23, N=64) or anxious/ not at all confident (6.3%, n=4, N=64) - to select
ICT resources appropriate to student learning in a range of contexts and for a
diversity of learners. They also felt least confident – either somewhat confident
(26.6%, n=17, N=64) or anxious/ not at all confident (12.5%, n=8, N=64) - to
provide opportunities for students to use ICT as part of their learning. This data
suggests that survey participants were confident to apply ICT expertise more
commonly associated with their former career. Identification of applications for
expertise is associated with the career-change entrants‘ desire for some continuity
between the former career and the new career (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,
2003; Tigchelaar et al, 2008). Alternatively, such application was associated with
career-change entrants determining how their capabilities are relevant in a school
community. As noted previously, drawing on expertise gained in a former career
affirms professional identity, sense of worth, and credibility for career-change
entrants (Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Application of expertise is also consistent with the literature that suggests
teachers will use ICT for teaching and learning if they at least have a moderate level
of skill (Becker & Ravitz, 2000). The survey participants felt least confident in
selecting ICT resources appropriate to student learning in a range of contexts and for
a diversity of learners (39.1%, n=25, N=64). This finding adds to the emerging
theme that resources are highly valued by survey participants in transitioning in
teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
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5.3.4 Summary of findings
Perceptions about the confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning were explored
in Part D of the survey to apply the notion that teaching in technology-rich
classrooms involves adaptation to the school environment (see, for example, Freidus,
1994; Mayotte, 2003; Manuel & Brindley, 2005). Further, this question applied the
notion in the literature that drawing on expertise gained in a former career affirms
professional identity, sense of worth, and credibility for career-change entrants
(Anthony & Ord, 2008). The conceptual framework element of learning from the
past and the present through concrete experiences and reflection (Kolb, 1984) was a
consideration in the application of these notions.
Most survey participants believed that they would use ICT at least once per
week in their teaching and learning particularly when creating opportunities for
students to use ICT to develop and apply new knowledge (93.7%, n=60, N=64).
Additionally, most believed that they needed to model how to operate safely,
ethically and legally when using ICT (93.7%, n=60, N=64) (see Table 5.10).
Further, findings suggest that, ongoing professional development in relation how
ICT can enhance learning is not a priority. This demonstrated the survey
participant‘s assumption that their ICT expertise will foster student learning more so
than a focus on pedagogy – a notion refuted in the literature (Lloyd, 2009; Reimann
& Goodyear, 2004). Furthermore, survey participants (84.1%, n=57) believed that
they will need to review, select and adapt ICT resources at least weekly (see Table
5.11). ICT use depended on availability, access and time (see Table 5.12). In
relation to confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning, survey participants felt
200
most confident to use ICT to locate, create and record information (87.5%, n=56,
N=64) and least confident to select ICT resources appropriate to student learning in a
range of contexts and for a diversity of learners (42.1%, n=27, N=64).
Developing pedagogical practices for teaching in technology-rich classrooms,
particularly TPACK was an important aspect of becoming and being a teacher
(Mishra & Kohler, 2006). For these career-change entrants witnessing and
experiencing effective pedagogical practices that enhanced learning through the use
of ICT was more important than learning about ICT resources (Reimann &
Goodyear, 2004). The confidence expressed is clearly related to the use of ICT in
their former career and their perceived value of the knowledge and expertise brought
to the teaching profession (Haggard et al., 2006).
5.4 Expectations about teaching and learning
In Part E of the survey, the survey participants were asked six open - ended questions
regarding their perceptions about teaching and learning. The purpose of these
questions was to gain insight into the research question of how career-change
entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. In so doing, key elements of the conceptual framework
were highlighted such as transition processes associated with learning through
creating a future (Senge et al, 2005) and levels of impact of the transition process
(Korthagen, 2004).
The responses were analysed for emerging patterns and themes using open
coding techniques and constant comparative analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The
201
questions were also designed to explore ideas that emerged through the literature
review, such as:
a. past and present experiences influences teaching and learning practices
(Kolb, 1984, Inaytullah, 2006; Senge et al, 2005);
b. motivation influences and is influenced by beliefs, expectations and
confidence to teach (Korthagen, 2004);
c. expectations generated through previous role conditions impacts on retention
(see Goddard & Obrien, 2004; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant,2003); and
d. confidence to teach is highest when knowledge and expertise is valued
(Haggard et al, 2006).
The responses to the questions focussing on motivation to become a teacher,
challenges foreseen, learning in relation to ICT use at university, the significance of
ICT facilities and likely changes to past practices associated with a former career
were analysed and linked to the literature and conceptual framework in the sections
ahead.
5.4.1 Motivation to teach
In applying the notion in the literature that many career-change entrants made a
conscious choice to work with children prior to the career-change (Tigchelaar et al,
2008), the survey participants were asked to respond to why they wanted to be a
teacher. This question was included to explore general reasons for becoming a
teacher and drew on connections with the uses the survey participants wanted to
202
make of ICT in teaching and learning such as personalising student learning or
showing the students their expertise. In so doing, insight into the potential level of
impact of a change in the reasons for becoming a teacher during the transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms was gained.
The responses were coded using the Factors Influencing Teaching Choice
Scale (Watt & Richardson, 2008 to explore the depth of thinking about why they
wanted to become a teacher. As documented in Table 5.13, the majority of the
participants (59.9%, n=38, N=64) provided responses that were of an altruistic
nature and had social utility value, such as shape the future of young people,
enhance social equity, make social contribution, or work with children and
adolescents (Watt & Richardson, 2008). The literature suggests that altruistic
reasons for entering the teaching profession are dominant among career-change
entrants) (see, for example, Watt & Richardson, 2008). What was not considered in
these responses however, and which was explored further in the interviews is the
broadening role of teachers. The social, behavioural, civic, economic and
technological dimensions of teaching ―may well clash with entry motivations based
simply on the desire to work with children‖ (Richardson & Watt, 2006, p. 31).
203
Table 5.13
Reasons to become a teacher
Reasons n (%) Sample item
Intrinsic value 7 (10.9) I see teaching as one of the most important
and rewarding careers you can have.
Personal utility value
Job security 2 (03.1) the work I currently do is (…) very much a
young bloke's game, and I'm thinking about
ten years down the track
Time for Family 5 (07.8) I am a single parent with 4 young children,
and need a job which keeps the school-
holidays free.
Job transferability 5 (07.8) sharing information and working overseas
Social utility value
Shape future of
children/ adolescents
24 (37.5) To play a part in the lives of young people
so that they can achieve their best in the
future
Enhance social equity
8 (12.5) I think a good education is every child‘s
right and I would like to do my best to
promote this ideal
Work with
children/adolescents
7 (10.0) I like working with young children. I like
watching them learn.
Self perception
Self perception of own
teaching ability
5 (7.8) I feel that I have a natural teaching ability
and look forward to enriching young
people's lives.
No response 1 (1. 6)
N= 64
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The motivations of Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus provided further
insight into the perceptions of career-change entrants about becoming a teacher.
Similar to 37.5% (n=24, N=64) of survey participants, Andromeda wanted to be a
teacher for intrinsic social utility reasons (Watt & Richardson, 2008) so that she
could ―teach children that they should be making their own minds up about what
they believe.‖ Likewise, Boőtes wanted to be a teacher to ―contribute to improving
the learning experiences for students, in an environment that is more student-
centred‖ unlike the traditional schooling he experienced in the late sixties and early
seventies. In contrast, Centaurus wanted to become a teacher to address a personal
utility value such as job security, time for family, or job transferability (Watt &
Richardson, 2008), as did 18.7% (n=12, N=64) of survey participants. He admitted
to being ―happiest when disseminating information and helping others to understand
an issue or problem.‖ More broadly, while the work he had been previously doing
was enjoyable, he decided to make a career change because the marine industry was
a ―young bloke's game‖ and he was concerned that in the future he would not be able
to ―physically work in the way he has in the past.‖ The responses from these Novice
career-change entrants highlighted the complexity of push and pull factors that
influence motivation to become a teacher (Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Considered together, the responses from the survey participants suggested
that further consideration of the reasons for a career-change to teaching was
warranted to more fully understand the likely influence of past notions and
experiences, present circumstances and the views about the future. As noted
previously, combinations of push and pull factors in the form of personal utility
205
values, social utility values and self perceptions are at work for career-change
entrants who participated in this study (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Watt
& Richardson, 2008). Added to this was the notion that career-change entrants have
deep patterns that are resistant to change associated with past experiences
(Inaytullah, 2006). These patterns are explored in a broad sense in the following
sections. Motivation to enter teaching among the survey participants was a complex
mix of past, present and future related factors that shape how the transition to
teaching and early career development occurs.
5.4.2 Challenging issues
In order to develop an understanding of how beliefs about teaching and learning
impacted on the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms, the survey
participants were asked what they thought would be their most challenging issue in
relation to teaching and learning. This question was included to further explore the
sensing stages of transition process highlighted in the conceptual framework, such as
perceptions of teaching from the perspective of a former career and perceptions
developed as the career-change entrants became teachers (Senge et al., 2005). The
challenges faced by survey participants were viewed discreetly rather than
holistically and are reflective of beliefs about teaching and learning developed
throughout their life (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Skilbeck & Connell,
2004).
Responses were coded according to dominant themes and patterns that
emerged in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Managing student behaviour emerged
206
as the most common concern of career-change entrants (25.3%, n=22) followed by
managing student learning (19.5%, n=17) (see Table 5.14).
Table 5.14
Challenging issues in relation to teaching and learning
Challenges n (%) Sample response
Behaviour 22 (25.2) Dealing with kids who do not want to learn!
Meeting learning
needs
17 (19.5) The change in attitude and expectations in the school
environment since I was at school.
Assessment 09 (10.3) Assessing student performance in a consistent way
that stands up under the scrutiny of the moderation
Policies 07 (8.0) Fighting to maintain an emergent early childhood
curriculum in a result orientated (…) environment.
Time 06 (6.9) Having the time to teach and allow children to learn
Professional
development
05 (5.7) Learning to think like a teacher having come from a
completely different discipline.
Planning and
implementation
05 (5.7) Having to think of things to do, five days a week, for
the whole academic year
Conditions/Culture 05 (5.7) Working within the tight framework of misc. school
systems and the lack of flexibility in some of the
things you may want to do.
Resources 05 (5.7) Lack of resources to meet the obvious needs of
students
Work conditions 04 (4.6) Managing the work load
Parents 04 (4.6) Meeting the expectations of parents
ICT use 03 (3.4) Keeping up my ICT capability
Knowledge 01 (1.1) Bringing my knowledge down to the right level
Don't know and no
response
04 (4.6)
* The percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified a certain challenge. They do not total
100% as some participants listed more than one challenge (87 challenges provided).
207
This finding is consistent with the both the general beginning teacher literature and
the more specific career-change literature, which suggests that student behaviour in
the classroom is the most concerning challenge (McCormack & Thomas, 2003;
Watzke, 2003). The focus on resource availability was a low priority (5.7%, n =5)
when ranked with broader challenges associated with becoming a teacher. This may
be an issue associated with the career-change entrants' concerns about managing
student behaviour.
Additionally, few survey participants (3.4%, n=37) considered that further
development of their ICT expertise would be a priority. Those that did flag this issue
were from occupations requiring specialist ICT expertise. Of significance is the fact
that 4.6% (n=4) of survey participants stated that they had no idea about the
challenges that lay ahead. This was associated with not knowing what there was to
know about teaching rather than a lack of understanding. The survey participants
also perceived that use of ICT will not be a challenging issue despite the fact that
they had previously indicated when questioned about their level of confidence to use
ICT for teaching and learning that they felt least confident to: (a) select ICT
resources appropriate to student learning; and, (b) to provide opportunities for
students to use ICT as part of their learning. This could be a potential source of
frustration as a novice teacher as opposed to being an expert in a previous career
(Crow et al., 1990).
In dealing with challenges, career-change entrants revert to long-held
personal beliefs (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Andromeda considered
the most challenging issue facing her would be the ―newness of it all as, after a
208
couple of years, I hope to have a handle on everything,‖ as did 6% (n=4) of survey
participants who listed working conditions as a concern. Alternatively, Boőtes, like
25.3% (n=22) of survey participants, considered managing student behaviour to be
the most challenging issue that he would face. He felt, however, that with the ―right
management strategies in place and by creating a supportive and non-threatening
learning environment," that he would make a ―good start to gaining students‘
confidence.‖ Different again was Centaurus‘s response. He considered the most
challenging aspect he faced was the change, from when he was at school, in attitude
and expectations within the school environment. In this, he agreed with 5.7% (n=5)
of survey participants who listed cultural issues of concern. In addition, he believed
that the ―ground rules‖ appeared to have ―changed a great deal and students now
appear to have set lower expectations for themselves, their teachers and the
schooling process.‖ The responses from the Novice teachers highlighted that, as
suggested in the conceptual framework, that challenging beliefs about teaching and
learning had a relatively high level of impact that potentially extends the transition
process.
Collectively, the range of responses suggested that further questioning
through the interviews would provide more in-depth data about the varied challenges
of shifting the technology context and reconfiguring ICT expertise for teaching in
technology-rich classrooms. Additionally, the interviews would enable the further
consideration of the frustrations of being a novice as the career-change entrants
applied their ICT expertise to a teaching in technology-rich classrooms. As learning
209
was an essential part of becoming and being a teacher the next section explores
expectations about learning in relation to ICT.
5.4.3 Learning expectations
The survey participants were asked to respond to the question of what they expected
to learn during their pre-service education in relation to ICT. This data were sought
to gain an insight into perceptions of the place of learning in the career-change
entrants‘ development as a teacher. Further, the question explored the sensing stages
of transition process highlighted in the conceptual framework, particularly in relation
to transforming perceptions in relation to the value of their ICT expertise.
The free-text responses were categorised into five clearly identifiable themes
that emerged in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Participants focussed on the issue
of most relevance to their perceived needs (see Table 5.15). Prioritised the highest
by survey participants was a range of responses that concerned how to enrich or
enhance learning (24.0%, n=18). The next highest priority was learning about ICT
tools and resources available in schools and advancing expertise (22.6%, n=17).
Next, was learning how to use ICT to perform a range of planning tasks (21.3%,
n=16). Of least priority was an explicit focus on professional development (4.0%,
n=3). This however, is implicit in other learning expectations. Survey participants
need to see and experience how ICT enhances learning at university and in a school
context to effectively transfer their existing knowledge and expertise to a teaching
and learning context (Bai & Ertmer, 2008; Moyle, 2009; Shaw, 2004). This is
problematic if supervisors, mentors or colleagues have not established a way of
210
working and learning through the use of ICT. Further, a lack of role modelling
during pre-service education and by colleagues in schools may lead to a loss of
confidence in how knowledge and expertise is transferred to a teaching and learning
context (Haydn, 2010).
Table 5.15
ICT learning expectations
Challenges n (%) Sample response
How to enrich or
enhance learning
18 (24.0) The best ways to incorporate ICT into units to
facilitate learning, not just for fun or filling in time
Tools and
expertise
17 (22.6) The range and scope of ICT available to teachers
as a tool for curriculum and general teaching
practice.
Planning 16 (21.3) How to use ICT to research issues in education,
study guides, planning lessons and sourcing ideas.
Nothing 10 (13.3) I come from an area that relies very heavily on
ICT so it is hard to imagine this course teaching
me much that I am not already familiar with
Not much 08 (10.7) I would anticipate most of it would be assumed
knowledge
Professional use &
development
03 (04.0) How to use ICT to research issues in education
No response 03 (04.0)
* The percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified a certain challenge. They do not total
100% as some participants listed more than one challenge.
Career-change entrants often do not accept that they need to learn new ideas
in relation to their area of expertise in order to become a teacher (see, for example,
Williams, 2006). A quarter of the survey participants (24.0%, n=18) believed that
they would "learn nothing new" or "not much" in relation to ICT at university. This
attitude was also related to the low ranking of ICT use as a challenging issue in
relation to teaching and learning in Section 5.4.2. It is at odds, however; with the
211
comparatively low confidence levels to use ICT for teaching and learning purposes.
It is also at odds with the literature (see, for example, Kennewell at al., 2008; Mishra
& Koehler, 2006; Ottesen, 2006) that suggested that knowledge and expertise with
which a teacher commenced a career in teaching will not be relevant throughout a
career. Further analysis of the responses revealed that 22.6% (n=17) of these survey
participants focused on their ability to use any ICT tool without considering how
they would enhance learning.
Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus provided further insight into how learning
expectations relate to ICT knowledge and expertise. Andromeda had no expectations
about what she would learn at university in relation to the use of ICT, similar to
13.3%, (n=10) of survey participants. As Andromeda previously worked with
spatial technologies and relied heavily on ICT, she found it hard to imagine the
teacher preparation course ―teaching me much that I am not already familiar with‖
adding that she ―would not object if it does.‖ As noted in the literature, it was
common for some career-change entrants to think that they will not learn anything
new about their area of expertise as they become a teacher (Williams, 2006).
Alternatively, Boőtes stated that he was keen to learn ―how to integrate
Middle Years level ICT technologies into the curriculum, in order to extend their
[student] experiences and produce texts that are multimodal and interesting or
engaging‖ during the pre-service university course. Similar responses were provided
by 24.0% (n=18 ) of survey participants who were enthusiastic about enriching or
enhancing learning through the use of ICT. The use of ICT to enhance learning has
been associated with a willingness and capability to create engaging technology-rich
212
classrooms (Ertmer, 2005; Sime & Priestley, 2005). Similarly, Centaurus, for whom
the use of ICT in teaching and learning was a personal interest and who believed that
he had read more on the topic than most people, felt that he only ―touched the edges‖
of ICT use in enhancing student learning in university subjects. Further, he believed
that he needed to ―learn more about technologies specifically aimed at an educational
context." Furthermore, he believed that he needed to spend some time ―sorting out
strategies for effective use of ICT by students to avoid getting off-track and off-
task," something he does himself while ―wandering around the world wide web.‖
Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus all recognised the need to adapt their ICT
knowledge and expertise to the teaching and learning context and showed some
evidence in their ideas about learning of the suspension of preconceived ideas (Senge
et al., 2005) that was an essential part of the transition process highlighted in the
conceptual framework.
Overall, the responses to the question of expectations about learning in
relation to ICT used during the pre-service courses revealed a similar level of interest
in pedagogy as well as tools and resources albeit amongst less than half of the
participants. The survey participants who expected not to learn anything new were
more focussed on the use of tools rather than pedagogy and viewed their ICT
expertise as readily transferrable knowledge and expertise (see Table 5.15). As such,
the transition process was constrained by an inability to suspend preconceived ideas
(Senge et al, 2005). Reconfiguring perceptions about the value and relevance of ICT
expertise developed in a former career while becoming a teacher necessitated
witnessing and experiencing effective pedagogies during pre-service courses and
213
while on practicum (Bai & Ertmer, 2008; Moyle, 2009; Shaw, 2004). Further
exploration of how ICT experiences and expertise are transferred to a teaching and
learning with participants in the study will illuminate manifestations of expectations
about their own learning during the transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms.
5.4.4 Availability of resources
The survey participants were asked how the availability of resources influenced their
practice in order to explore perceptions and beliefs based on experience in a former
career or ideas developed through association with a school. Career-change entrants
who perceived continuity between past career and life experiences with present
contexts were more likely to negotiate the novice role successfully than those who
perceived a disparity between the past and the present (Crow et al., 1990).
This question was included in the survey to gain insight into the potential
impact of a change in levels of confidence to teach in technology-rich classrooms
that was connected to being able to use ICT that was available in a former career.
This notion was linked to the level of impact on confidence in the conceptual
framework (Korthagen, 2004). Drawing on expertise gained in a former career
enhanced confidence to teach through affirmation of professional identity, the
development of a sense of worth and credibility for career-change entrants (Anthony
& Ord, 2008). The responses, entered as free-text, were categorised into five clearly
identifiable themes that emerged in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to provide
understanding into the survey participants‘ interest in resources.
214
The survey participants believed that the availability of ICT resources had
significant impact on teaching practice (see Table 5.16). Those who considered
resources to have a great impact numbered 24.7% (n=18) with participants typically
responding that ―It's likely to be the single biggest issue determining the use of ICTs
in the classroom‖ or ―Greatly. If there are ICT facilities it incorporates a whole new
aspect of learning as well as adding to the way in which they learn the core
curriculum.‖ The same proportion believed that the availability of ICT resources
would influence their practice generally (24.7%, n=18). Typical responses in this
category were: ―Will determine whether put things into power point or onto
overheads. Will also depend on whether you can email or 'post' information on an
intranet for student use‖ and ―ICT facilities will make my practice more efficient by
allowing me to present information (photos, videos, PowerPoint, etc.), to track
information, and to demonstrate the use of ICT directly to the class using on-site ICT
facilities.‖ The same proportion (24.7%, n=18) believed that the absence of ICT
limits teaching and learning options. Typical responses in this category were:
―Availability of ICT will enable me to provide students with a range of learning
options, and will also encourage them to research information for themselves‖ or
―Well obviously that can limit your options somewhat but I think students miss out if
they aren't exposed to some ICT resources so I will still endeavour to incorporate
them whenever possible.‖
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Table 5.16
How availability of ICT facilities will influence practice
Influence of ICT facilities on
practice: n %*
Sample response
Great impact on how teach 18
24.7
It's likely to be the single biggest issue
determining the use of ICTs in the
classroom.
Influence practice generally 18 24.7 Use PowerPoint instead of OHT etc
Limits teaching and learning
options 18 24.7
I will see ICT as another tool available
to me to support learning.
Availability is only one factor 05 6.8
Hardware is not necessarily the be-all
and end-all.
Assume schools have few
resources 05
6.8
Many schools do not have advanced
ICT and most facilities are booked out
early.
Don‘t know 03
04.1
Unknown, I feel that I am adaptable
and would plan around the ICT
facilities availability
Use own resources at school 03
04.1
If the ICT facilities are not provided
by the school, I would purchase my
own and bring into the classroom
Not applicable/No response 03 04.1
* The percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified a certain factor. They do not total 100%
as some participants listed more than one likely factor (73 responses provided).
A few participants (6.8%, n=5) pointed out that availability was only one
factor in their decision making about the use of ICT. A typical response was:
―Availability of ICT resources is an advantage. But remember time and access must
be factored in with availability for full benefit‖. The same proportion (6.8%, n=5)
made the assumption that schools have few resources. A typical response was: ―I
216
suspect ICT facilities are generally in short supply and high demand in schools‖. A
small proportion (4.1%, n=3) highlighted their intention to use their own resources if
insufficient were available. A typical response was: ―if the ICT facilities are not
provided by the school, I would purchase my own and bring into the classroom‖
(Responses to survey question 18).
Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus provided further insight into how
expectations about becoming and being a teacher impact on the transitioning into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms. Andromeda did expect to use ICT regularly
―if it was available in the classroom‖ though she thought that the ―use of a computer
lab might be difficult [to access] on a daily basis." Similar responses were provided
by 24.7%, (n=18) of participants who believed that the availability of ICT would
influence their practice in general. She would like to use ―email communication
with students‖ but was unsure if every student had access to email in their home.
Similarly, Boőtes expected that, in an ideal world, he would have to access to
―several pieces of ICT for project work research.‖ Additionally, he believed that if
data projectors were available in classrooms for displaying visual material to
students, it would be ―enormously beneficial to learning outcomes.‖ He added that
―just as we have a large ‗blackboard' (whiteboard) in each class, so too should a
large visual display medium be available to facilitate the visual design elements of
various text forms.‖ This view was clearly connected with Boőtes experiences as an
audio-visual technician in a university. To Boőtes, being able to display work was so
important that he expected to ―push to get a data projector set up in his classroom.‖
217
Similar responses were provided by 24.7%, (n=18) of participants who believed that
the availability of ICT would greatly influence their practice.
Likewise, Centaurus believed that his use of ICT will most likely be limited
by the ―single biggest issue determining the use of ICT in the classroom,‖ that is,
―availability and access to resources.‖ Additionally, he believed that ―time
management may be an issue depending on the location of ICT resources within the
school.‖ Similar responses were provided by 24.7%, (n=18) of participants who
believed that the lack of availability of ICT would limit teaching and learning
options.
Expectations about the availability of resources clearly were related to past
career experiences and perceptions about schools that have been gained through their
own experiences of schooling or through their children (Tigchelaar et al., 2008).
Career-change entrants who had a perceived continuity between past and present
were more likely to negotiate the novice stage of a teaching career successfully than
those who perceive a disparity of conditions and resources between the past and the
present (Crow et al., 1990). Significantly, as the presence of ICT does not
necessarily lead to valuable student learning (Kennewell at al., 2008; Mishra &
Koehler, 2006), the challenge the career-change entrant‘s is to develop pedagogies
that are adaptable to a wide range of circumstances. Further investigation of the use
made of available resources further illuminates past career influences and the
propensity for transferring and reshaping knowledge and expertise into engaging
teaching and learning practices.
218
5.4.5 ICT use as a teacher
To further explore expectations and beliefs about teaching and learning, survey
participants were asked what aspects of their ICT use they anticipated would change
on becoming a teacher. The purpose of exploring such questions was to gain insight
into the potential impact of a change in the way the participants used ICT during the
transition into teaching. Drawing on expertise gained in a former career or studies
affirms professional identity, self-worth and credibility for career-change entrants
(Anthony & Ord, 2008). The conceptual framework suggested that a change in
knowledge and expertise will have some impact (Korthagen, 2004) on career-change
entrants as they transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
Reconfiguring expertise and developing pedagogies to ensure that valuable student
learning occurs was a potential source of stress for career-change entrants (Powell,
1997).
The responses, entered as free-text, were categorised into themes that
emerged from the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Table 5.17 documents the
responses to the question regarding potential change in ICT use. The most common
response was that survey participants intended to use ICT for learning purposes
(21.0%, n=13), less clear was how they would engage and challenge students
through ICT. Typical responses were: ―I will be using ICT for presentations which
were not a large part of my previous jobs. I expect to be using more photography
and perhaps video equipment‖ and ―It will change from being about my personal use
and entertainment to being about teaching others‖.
219
For others (11.3%, n=7), the change would be to use of ICT for the
professional purposes of locating, creating and recording information and resources
represented a more significant change in their way of working. A typical response
was: ―More record keeping, less messenger, more editing applied to Facebook and
My Space profiles, greater knowledge of basic functions and troubleshooting.‖ A
proportion of survey participants, (6.5%, n=4), thought they would use less ICT than
they do now and had concerns about not using the expertise they currently have. A
typical response was: ―It may reduce considering the resources that are available in
schools‖. Some participants (9.7%, n=6) responded that nothing would change
about their use of ICT, they potentially not having had much of an opportunity in
schools to explore applications of their expertise. Alternatively, this response could
be related to a reluctance to acknowledge that they needed to adopt different ways of
working or learn new practices (Responses to survey question 19).
220
Table 5.17
Perceived changes in ICT use
Perceived changes in ICT
use n %*
Sample response
Enable student learning
13
21.0
I think a lot more of the curriculum
will be based around and available in
ICT formats.
Locate, create and record
information and resources
07 11.3
I will also store a lot more files for
lessons and will need to devise a good
filing system.
Operate more safely and
ethically
04 06.5
I will have to use it in a much more
professional manner
Expand use of ICT
07 11.3
Breadth will increase and depth will
decrease.
Nothing will change about
use of ICT
06 09.7
Not a great deal. Mainly adjusting the
ICT teaching processes
Depends on the resources
available
07 11.3
Completely depends on the facilities in
the school I'm teaching in.
Don't know how use of ICT
will change
05 08.0 I'm not sure at this stage. I haven't had
enough experience teaching to know
this at this point in time.
Use ICT less than now 04 06.5 I will de-skill
Make more presentations 04 06.5 The emphasis will be on presentation.
Learn how to use ICT from
students
03 04.8
I may learn new skills and sites from
the children.
Learn how to use specific
software
02 03.2
I will have to learn how to design web
pages so that I can better assist
students * The percentages represent the proportion of participants who identified a certain perceived change. They do not
total 100% as some participants listed more than one likely change in their ICT use (62 changes listed by
participants).
221
Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus provided further insight how ICT use
changes between careers. Andromeda was unsure as to what aspects of her ICT use
would change in becoming a teacher, clarifying that she currently uses ICT as a
management tool. She thought there was ―value in allowing children pencil and
paper activities and letting them feel the value in sitting down and reading a
paperback.‖ Similar responses were provided by participants (8.0%, n=5) who were
uncertain about what will change in relation to their ICT use.
Alternatively, Boőtes expected that his use of ICT in his former career would
change to ―hopefully engaging students in their learning by integrating more ICT
tasks in projects.‖ Similar responses were provided by 11.3%, (n=7) of participants
who believed their use of ICT would be more integrated in their practice than in their
previous career. For Centaurus, being more aware of issues relating to legality,
ethics and supervision of ICT was a significant change. Similar responses were
provided by 6.5%, (n=4) or participants who believed that they would need to
operate more safely and ethically.
A key finding from this question relates to the expectation of change. While
the majority of survey participants appeared to be open to working in new ways,
approximately 20% thought that they could rely on existing knowledge and expertise
to enhance learning through the use of ICT. Reconfiguring knowledge and expertise
to a teaching and learning context was considered to be a key aspect of the transition
process. Career change involved letting go of some past practices and is associated
with a degree of sense of loss (Senge et al., 2005).
222
5.4.6 Summary of findings
Part E of the survey sought insight into the survey participants expectations about
teaching and learning in relation to motivation for becoming a teacher, beliefs about
challenging issues, learning intentions, expectations about ICT resources and
changing practices. These questions were linked to the levels of impact (Korthagen,
2004) and learning form the past and the present in the conceptual framework (Kolb,
1984). Further, these questions were based on the notions in the literature that
beliefs about teaching and learning shape the use of ICT in technology-rich
classrooms (see, for example, Albion & Ertmer, 2002) and motivation to become a
teacher influences practice (Watt & Richardson, 2008).
In applying the idea in the literature that many career-change entrants made a
conscious choice for working with children prior to the career-change (Tigchelaar et
al, 2008), social utility values were found to be dominant amongst the survey
participants. Survey participants expressed a desire to shape young people‘s future
(37.5%, n=24) and generally work with children (10.0%, n=7). Salary and
conditions were not a high priority for the survey participants although job security
and time to spend with family were noted as significant factors in choosing teaching
(10.0%, n=7) (see Table 5.13). Whether the motivation to support the learning of
young people is about what the career-change entrants think the students should
know or about the learning journey of students requires further investigation.
Changing this mindset will be difficult given the tacit nature of the characteristic
(Korthagen, 2004), the risk being that the broadening dimensions of teaching ―may
223
well clash with entry motivations based simply on the desire to work with children‖
(Richardson & Watt, 2006, p. 31).
Managing student behaviour (25.2%, n=22), and managing student learning
(19.5%, n=17) were considered the most challenging issues survey participants were
likely to face. In dealing with challenges career-change entrants generally revert to
long-held beliefs (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) and patterns of behaviour
which are sometimes hard to change (Tigchelaar et al., 2003). Use of ICT for
teaching and learning was not seemingly an issue of concern despite confidence not
being high in relation to resource selection and use in the classroom (see Table 5.14).
Survey participants described their learning expectations about their
university course as that they would learn how to enrich or enhancing learning
(24.0%, n=18) through the use of ICT. Notably, some (13.3%, n=10) believed that
they will learn nothing new or not much (10.7%, n=8) in relation to ICT at
university with almost half of these survey participants responding that there had
been little focus on the use of ICT to enhance learning within their pre-service course
(see Table 5.15).
The availability of ICT resources will have a significant impact on teaching
practice for survey participants (24.7%, n=18) (see Table 5.16). Further, using ICT
for tasks related to enabling and managing student learning was considered a key
change in the way survey participants (21.0%, n=13) currently worked with ICT.
Some survey participants believed that their use will not change or have no idea how
it will change (8.0%, n=5) (see Table 5.17).
224
5.5 Review of the survey data collection
The survey provided a broad illustration of the general characteristics and
perceptions of career-change entrants who participated in the survey. Additionally,
an insight was gained into the generic and specialist ICT knowledge and expertise,
confidence to use ICT in a teaching and learning context, as well as expectations,
motivations and beliefs about teaching and learning. In this section the main
findings are synthesised with the literature and the conceptual framework.
The conceptual framework established that career-change entrants learn from
past and present experiences as they transition into the teaching profession (Kolb,
1984). Such learning has differing levels of impact on professional identity that
challenges for example, motivation to continue teaching, and beliefs about teaching
and learning (Senge et al., 2005). The survey considered indirectly the levels of
impact and resistance to change on visible and deep seated aspects of professional
identity based on Korthagen‘s (2004) metaphor of the closer to the centre of the
onion, the more deep seated, resistant to change and tacit is the characteristic.
The survey and accompanying analysis provided rich data in relation to
career-change entrants‘ perceptions about becoming a teacher and being a teacher
and provided a glimpse of the challenges that are associated with reconfiguring
generic capabilities for teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The survey was
included as a research tool to determine whether the generic and specialist ICT
expertise of the career-change entrants who participated in the study provided the
basis for a study into the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. In
identifying that there clearly was a research problem worth investigating in relation
225
to how career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise make such a
transition, a theory that encapsulates the perceptions of these career-change entrants
was developed following further data collection.
In analysing the data from the survey, limitations were identified to fully
testing the i-proposition and exploring the transition process. The survey did not
provide an in-depth or integrated story about transition. No insight was gained into
how career-change entrants focus moves from the past and present to the future. The
survey instrument encouraged the compartmentalisation of responses rather than a
view of career-change across a career-change entrant‘s professional identity. The
survey data did not provide an in-depth understanding of the following matters:
a. how ICT expertise gained in previous career was used to shape teaching
practices technology-rich classrooms (see Section 5.2.2);
b. how confidence to teach in technology-rich classrooms became linked to
pedagogy rather than ICT knowledge and expertise (see Section 5.3.3);
c. whether motivation to become a teacher based on a desire to work with
young people was based on a desire to show others what is known or to
enhance the learning journey of students (see Section 5.4.1);
d. whether perceptions about challenging issues and expectations about the
availability of resources were linked to a lack of pedagogical knowledge and
confidence (see Section 5.4.3); and,
e. what is seen and experienced by career-change entrants in relation to ICT
use, influences practices (see Section 5.4.3).
226
Moreover, what was not evident from the survey data is evidence the latter
phases of transition (Senge et al., 2005), i.e. creating a future as a teacher. As a
result the study was extended to include data collected through semi-structured
interviews with career-change entrants‘ with experience teaching in schools as well
as several of the participants in the survey. Potential participants for interviews that
explored the transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms in more detail
were sourced through the survey and in online communities.
A clearer indication of the relationships between the challenges associated
with becoming and being a teacher emerged through conducting interviews with a
broader range of career-change entrants. Additionally, the interviews provided
further insight into how professional identities that included ICT knowledge and
expertise were reconfigured while transitioning into the teaching profession. The
stories and analysis presented in the following chapter are the result of in-depth
questioning of career-change entrants with generic and specialist ICT knowledge as
they transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
227
CHAPTER 6
THEORY BUILDING
It was established through the literature review and conceptual framework that in
making a career change into teaching, career-change entrants experience varying
degrees of success and frustration. The first data collection instrument - the survey -
contextualised and further explored these notions through the survey of pre-service
career-change entrants, for whom ICT had been integral to their way of working.
The analysis of the survey findings showed that the generic and specialist ICT
expertise that some career-change entrants bring to the profession was an asset if
there was a willingness to shift the technology context from functional tasks based
on their skills and expertise to using ICT as a tool to enhance students‘ learning.
Further reconfigurations that enabled the change of focus of ICT knowledge and
expertise and growth of confidence were motivation for becoming a teacher, beliefs
and expectations about teaching and learning in technology-rich classrooms. In
expanding on these notions, this chapter continues the theory building process and
explores how these reconfigurations occurred among the career-change entrants who
participated in the second data collection that were in the form of semi-structured
interviews.
This chapter provides details of the findings and analysis from interviews
with nine career-change entrants (n=9) at Novice, Experienced Novice and Early
Career Professional stages, named interview participants in this thesis. The
228
interviews were conducted in order to gain a more complete and deeper depiction of
the research question of how career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT
expertise transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The interviews,
conducted in 2008, also explored all elements of conceptual framework in relation to
learning from past and present experiences (Kolb, 1984, Senge et al., 2005) and
learning through creating a future (Inaytullah, 2006; Senge et al., 2005) with
differing levels of impact (Korthagen, 2004) manifested through the career-change
entrants who participated in the survey. Questions used to commence the interviews
discussion were open-ended and non-judgemental designed to tease out all aspects of
the conceptual framework.
The career-change entrants who took part in the interviews were pre-service
teachers who also had participated in the survey (n=3). Additionally, six beginning
and establishing career-change entrants (n=6), were sourced through online
communities and invited by email to share their perceptions about the transition into
technology-rich classrooms. The additional career-change entrants met the criteria
of:
a. at least one previous occupation other than teaching;
b. up to five years experience in schools; and,
c. use of ICT to support work in the former career.
Novice career-change entrants Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus, who were
Converted career-change entrants were invited to participate in the interviews
because they had participated in the survey and had indicated their interest in doing
229
so. As the interviews and analysis process took place concurrently, the participants
were sourced until the point of data saturation and evidence of growing confidence
as a teacher was identified. Circinus, Delphinus, Draco, Lacerta, Orion and Tucana
provided an insight into how career-change entrants transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms that was not afforded through the Novice participants.
This chapter provides the analysis of the interview data that employed
Grounded Theory processes (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to create subsequent
propositions (s-propositions) about the transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. The s-propositions expanded on the initial proposition (i-proposition)
created from the review of the literature and the development of the conceptual
framework. The chapter is structured according to the stages of analysis, the stages
being grouped where it makes sense to do so. Section 6.1 includes the findings from
Stage 1: Open coding, Stage 2 Category selection and Stage 3: Broad category
identification (see Table 6. 2 and Figure 6.1). Section 6.2 provides the findings from
Stage 4: Coding paradigm development. This section also includes enhanced
descriptive stories about the experiences and perceptions of each participant,
organised by their classification as Novice, Experienced Novice and Early Carer
Professional (Berliner, 1988), written using the expressions of the participants as
much as possible to preserve the richness of the data and the breadth of perceptions
(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Section 6.3 provides the general orientation at each career
stage, key foci and s-propositions (Stages 5-7) (see Table 4.3). The chapter
concludes with a summary of the theory building process.
230
6.1 Coding and categorising
In this section, the initial analysis (Stages 1-3) of the interview transcripts is
provided (see Figure 6.1). The outcome of the open coding and categorisation
process is provided first followed by an analysis of the broad categories across all the
participant data that provided a holistic view of the data across the Novices,
Experienced Novices and Early Career Professionals.
Process Theory elements
Stage 3
Broad
categories
Profession
related
Collegiality
Practicality
Logistics
Stage 2
Categories
Motivation/Links
to past career
Expectations/
Acceptance as a
teacher
Advice for
peers
Perceptions
about
colleagues
Working with
colleagues
Employment/
Survival
Pedagogy/Career
opportunities,
Student learning
Tools/resources
Behaviour
management
Stage 1
Coding (Open
coding)
Open coding of interviews with career-change entrants
Career Stage3: Early Career Professional with 1 year to 4 years
experience
Career Stage 2: Experienced Novice with 6 months to 1 years experience
Career Stage 1: Novice pre-service to 6 months
Figure 6.1 Summary Stages 1-3 of interview data analysis
Using open coding techniques the interview transcripts were coded using 14
categories of interview participants‘ perceptions (see Table 6.1). From these
231
categories the data was further distilled into four broad categories, namely: (a)
professionalism; (b) collegiality; (c) practicality; and (d) logistics. The broad
category Professionalism encompassed the sub-categories of: (a) motivation; (b)
links to past career; (c) expectations; and, (d) acceptance as a teacher. The broad
category Collegiality included: (a) advice for peers; (b) perceptions about colleagues;
and, (c) working with colleagues. The broad category Practicality included: (a)
employment and survival concerns; (b) pedagogy; (c) career opportunities; and, (d)
student learning. The broad category Logistics included: (a) tools and resources;
and, (b) behaviour management.
232
Table 6.1
Open coding categories
Broad categories/categories Frequency Interview participants
PROFESSION RELATED
i. Links to past career
ii. Motivation
iii. Expectations
iv. Acceptance as a teacher
7
6
5
5
Boőtes , Centaurus / Delphinus, Draco,
/Lacerta, Orion, Tucana
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco ,/ Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes, Centaurus, / Circinus, Draco ,
Lacerta, Orion
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Orion
COLLEGIALITY
v. Working with colleagues
vi. Advice for peers
vii. Perceptions about
colleagues
9
6 0
6 0
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco / Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes / Delphinus,, Draco / Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes / Circinus, Draco / Lacerta, Orion,
Tucana
PRACTICALITIES
viii. Student learning
ix. Pedagogy
x. Survival
xi. Employment
xii. Career opportunities
9
9
7 0
7 0
2 0
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco / Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco /, Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes Andromeda,, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco / Orion
Boőtes ,Centaurus / Delphinus, Circinus ,
Lacerta, Orion, Tucana
Lacerta, Orion
LOGISTICS
xiii. Resources -ICT tools
xiv. Behaviour management
9
5 0
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus, Draco / Lacerta,
Orion, Tucana
Boőtes , Andromeda, Centaurus /
Delphinus, Circinus
Significant concerns acknowledged by all participants were: (a) working with
colleagues (n=9); (b) student learning (n=9); (c) pedagogy (n=9); and, (d) resources
(n=9) (see Table 6.1). The least significant topic was career opportunities (n=2).
233
Those that did raise issues related to career opportunities were the more experienced
career-change entrants. While the data highlighted in Table 6.1 brings together the
responses for all interview participants, the significance of the categories to
interview participants is explored in more detail in the next section.
6.1.1 Collegiality
All interview participants believed that interactions with other staff were a
significant aspect of their transition. There was a clear distinction in the way
Experienced Novices and Early Career Professionals perceived working with other
teachers and variations among the interview participants at each stage. The
experiences ranged from purpose-driven, collegial and supportive to dysfunctional
and stressful.
Among those who had collegial and supportive relationships Boőtes valued
the support offered by his supervising teacher and offered to contribute his expertise
to the school community. Alternatively, Delphinus valued highly the advice from a
colleague in navigating a challenging first year of teaching and Tucana fostered
positive relationships with supervisors and staff, establishing mutually beneficial
arrangements when she was completing her practicum experience in the school in
which worked as a teacher aide. Conversely, Lacerta considered collegial support of
colleagues as an avenue to career progression. Similarly, Orion identified
interaction with colleagues as a way to fast-track promotion, however, through
imposing his expertise on staff he managed to alienate resulting in him feeling of
disconnected. He explained that a he regretted:
234
not meeting people ... being so engaged , so busy and doing so many things. I
didn't get it as a direct comment but ... there was still that ‗what are you
trying to prove bucco you are only a fresh teacher you don't know anything
sort of thing‘
(Response to interview question).
Some career-change entrants found ―their place in the school organisation more
quickly and precisely‖ (Tigchelaar, 2008, p. 1537) than other beginning teachers.
Amongst those who had minimised their interactions with others,
Andromeda limited her interactions with colleagues to her supervising teacher and
focussed only on what was required of her. She reported that she ―just wanted to
concentrate on the prac, I didn‘t let them know about my ICT skills‖ (Response to
interview question). Similarly, Centaurus did not encourage support from his
supervising teacher, preferring to work out strategies on his own. He related, ―I was
in the fortunate position as the eldest prac[ticum] student. Because of that I was
treated differently by both staff and students... people leave you alone...which was
great‖ (Response to interview question). Circinus found the pressure of responding
to requests for support from staff overwhelming in his early years of teaching. He
recounted that ―every day [during the practicum] I am teaching people how to use
basic programs I take for granted‖ (Response to interview question). Similarly,
Draco avoided collegial interaction in her first year as she felt that survival was best
enabled by a focussed individual effort. She recalled that ―it is so survival orientated
in the first year that they [the staff] do not really bother you that much, they let you
just survive‖ (Response to interview question). The career-change entrants who
235
participated in the study often found that working with other teachers was an added
complexity to becoming a teacher, a notion that is reflected in the literature (see, for
example, Manuel & Brindley, 2005; Priyadharshini and Robinson-Pant, 2003;
Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
6.1.2 Practicalities
The interview participants all expressed their ideas on how student learning best
occurs as well as their concerns about knowing and using teaching and learning
strategies. Both of these matters are included in this section about the practicalities
of teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
Andromeda, a Novice, acknowledged the value of authentic learning
experiences, and a desire to create them, yet she felt compelled to focus on her
supervisor‘s way of working. Boőtes, also a Novice, negotiated an engaging
approach to lessons following discussions with his supervising teacher related to his
expertise. Like Andromeda, Centaurus recognised the value of authentic and
contextualised learning experiences yet practiced a more regimented approached to
learning. Similarly, Circinus, an Experienced Novice believed that student learning
was enhanced through the use of ICT, however knowledge, time and resources
challenged him at his stage of development as a teacher. Delphinus, also an
Experienced Novice, initially created student learning experiences similar to the way
other teachers taught in the school prior to establishing her own way of enhancing
student learning through and with ICT. Draco, as an Experienced Novice,
considered herself to be creating learning experiences that reflected the world of
236
students unlike many of her colleagues. Lacerta, an early career professional,
believed that he had made a transition from a skills based approach to learning to an
integrated and authentic view of student learning. Similarly, Early Career
Professionals Orion and Tucana reported that they had experienced a change in
thinking about student learning and found they were better able to cater for the needs
of students.
Ideas about student learning were linked to motivation to become a teacher.
Most of the interview participants (n=7) came to teaching with wanting to shape the
world of young people. As Draco related, ―I guess I would like to see them
[students] think that anything is possible. They don‘t need to go and do what their
parents did, for better or for worse ... they can do different things‖ (Response to
interview question). Such a response suggested that her motivation to become a
teacher was based on social utility values (Richardson & Watt, 2006) that were either
teacher or student focussed. What was evident in the data across the Novices,
Experienced Novices and Early Career Professionals was a difference in perceptions
about the value of past expertise. The Novices initially considered their expertise to
be something that the students needed to know and replicate irrespective of the prior
knowledge of students or learning goals whereas the Early Career Professionals
integrated their expertise with the learning needs of students. As an example, Early
Career Professional, Lacerta reflected, ―I wrote an excellent language program but it
didn‘t enhance learning at all. It was me providing an environment ....to teach skills.
Not them [the students] using ICTs to enhance the skills‖ (Response to interview
question).
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The interview participants were also concerned about their teaching and
learning practices. In some cases this related to a divergence from their beliefs about
how student learning best occurs. Others‘ concerns were related to the stresses of
beginning teaching shaping their practice rather than their beliefs about teaching and
learning. The Novices drew on their knowledge and past practices in their former
career. Andromeda planned to use strategies that would enable her to share what she
knew about her area of expertise. As she shared, ― Being a GIS (Geographical
Information Systems) person, to my mind anyone can produce some sort of map on
a computer but need to know how to actually create a good map to get the good
results. I teach them about how colour works, how people respond, red is danger,
yellow caution‖ (Response to interview question). Similarly, Boőtes and Centaurus
wanted to show students how to learn skills in a step-by-step manner. In all cases,
their perceptions reflected their beliefs about learning and their understanding of
pedagogy at the point in time of the interviews. For example, Centaurus related that
as a Novice teacher he was:
drawing on skills learnt in army than anything I learnt at uni. I was an
instructing sergeant in the army. The army teaches in a particular manner-
very much directed learning. Explain, demonstrate, practice, repeat-that's
how an army lesson goes. I use the phrases them in class every day when I
demonstrate something
(Response to interview question).
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Transforming knowledge and expertise into effective learning experiences for
students, a challenge noted in the literature, (Powell, 1997) was also considered by
other career change entrants to be a demanding process.
There was a clear distinction in the way Experienced Novices and Early
Career Professionals perceived the challenge of establishing teaching practices.
Circinus taught from the text book when he felt challenged by the workload of his
initial year of teaching. As reported, he is ―finding that I am having to do some
lessons that are straight from the textbook. Open to page such and such which I hate
doing, I hate doing. It is just time wise it has to happen‖ (Response to interview
question). Over time, Delphinus developed a more engaging approach to teaching
through and with ICT as she became more confident in the classroom. She noted
that ― a lot of these things (teaching strategies) you have to learn by doing- the first
time you do something is not your best time‖ (Response to interview question).
Draco, struggled with the time challenges of the first years of being a teacher but
was able to gradually include the use of active and engaging pedagogies in her
practice. She explained , ―it has been the toughest six months of my life. I think that
... [I am] rolling with it much more... you stop trying to be in control of every single
bit of paper (Response to interview question). The Experienced Novices that
participated in this study clearly perceived that stresses of beginning teaching shaped
their practice rather than their beliefs about teaching and learning. The literature
supports this notion, noting that a lack of pedagogical strategies is considered by
career-change entrants generally as a significant source of stress (see, for example,
Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004).
239
The Early Career Professionals shared their stories of progress during their
first years teaching in schools which included concerns voiced by their less
experienced colleagues. Lacerta was able to describe the change that had occurred
in his pedagogy from a didactic approach based on what he thought the students
should know and be able to do, to a more student focussed approach. As he related,
I was doing skills, skills, skills thinking I was doing it right .... It needed to
be to enhance learning not for skills. It [ICT] is not a KLA (Key Learning
Area) like Maths and English in that we don‘t teach a skill then report on a
skill learnt. But until that point that was all I was doing. Then it clicked that
it was to enhance learning
(Response to interview question)
Similarly, Orion had evolved his pedagogical approach from one focussed on his
knowledge and expertise to an approach that was more in touch with the knowledge
base of the students. He described the shift in his practice as ―slowing it [teaching]
down and showing the kids more of the base level stuff instead of assuming that they
know more than they do already. Where I found the most success was to expose
some of that magic‖ (Response to interview question). In the same way, Tucana
considered her pedagogical practices to be continually evolving. A key moment for
her occurred when she was encouraged by a colleague to try a different way of
teaching physics. As she related,
When I first went into the class I was a bit grumpy because this guy was
saying give it a go, give it a go. It was probably my own insecurity because I
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went in not fully knowing how the software would work. By the end of the
lesson I had learnt so much because the kids just had a play. They go ‗oh
Miss, look it will do this, it will do that‘. I learnt more from the kids
(Response to interview question)
The differences between the perceptions of the Novices, Experienced Novices
and Early Career Professionals highlighted the potential change in approach to
teaching and learning during the transition into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. All Early Career Professionals reported that their change in thinking
about the use of ICT was due to a shift in perception facilitated by colleagues. The
literature also supports this notion that to develop effective pedagogical strategies
was essential to ensure that that student learning is enhanced by ICT (Lloyd, 2009;
Reimann & Goodyear, 2004).
6.1.3 Logistics
The level of ICT resourcing was an issue that all interview participants identified as
a situation that influenced their practice. Given that the interview participants had
self-identified their proficiency with using ICT in their previous occupations,
comparisons with the facilities available to them in their former career were expected
(Anthony & Ord, 2009). The responses ranged from acceptance and disappointment
to not having a similar level of the resourcing to which they had been accustomed to
acceptance and determination to source what was needed to create technology-rich
classrooms.
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Amongst those who perceived a disparity of resourcing between their former
career and teaching was Andromeda who did not expect to be able to use ICT to the
same level of speciality that she had in her former career. Similarly, Centaurus was
disappointed at the level of resourcing in the school as well as the age of the
computers. Circinus also believed that every student should have a computer in the
classroom and that he would be better equipped to engage students in learning if
more ICT resources were available. For Lacerta, the level of ICT resourcing in the
school and his expertise led to him being focussed on teaching skills to both students
and teachers. As, Early Career Professional, Lacerta reported, ―I was teaching my
kids how to use PowerPoint, Word, the Internet and making the parents go ‗Oh ah
you are really smart`‖ (Response to interview question). In the absence of
pedagogical models and strategies, ICT expertise was focused on resources and
skills, elements that in isolation do not enhance student learning and fosters the use
of ineffective pedagogical strategies (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). It also suggests
a desire for continuity with previous work conditions (Tigchelaar et. al., 2008) or the
inherent value of the career change entrants ICT expertise to be recognised in school
communities (Anthony & Ord, 2008).
Among those who had ideas about improving the situation was Boőtes who
believed that ICT was so essential to engaging students in learning that if appropriate
levels of resourcing were not available to him he would raise funds through the
community to resource the school. As he explained: ―If I was in a school that didn't
have [ICT hardware] resources I am thinking I would do whatever I can to try to get
a sponsor. There might be ways of getting resources [ICT hardware] through private
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businesses‖ (Response to interview question. Similarly, Delphinus advocated for
ICT resources so that she could use them for group work and discussion, reporting
that, ―I try and do a lot of group work and discussion, that is something that the
technology works well with‖ (Response to interview question). Draco, in the
absence of ICT hardware she used her personal laptop at school and advocated to
acquire ICT resources in her classroom. As she explained:
I insisted that the data projector be mounted as a permanent fixture in
a classroom rather than they wanted to put it on a trolley. I was really
determined that it had to stay in the classroom because … there
shouldn‘t be a classroom without it in this day and age so having one
on a trolley just encourages them [school administration teams] to buy
less.
(Response to interview question)
Orion initially considered that his value to the school was changing the way ICT
resources were used and advocated for digital administrative processes. He related
that when he first started at the school he was ―surprised and shocked at how little
people would use technology- even email it was 'what do we need to use it for‘,
everything was paper based‖ (Response to survey question). Tucana‟s focus on ICT
resources related to how they were being used by staff and what she could do to
support others to enhance learning. She noted that ―Even though we have had our
laptops for almost 12 months now, I think that there are some still in the box. We
focus our energies on the people that want help‖ (Response to interview question).
The career-change entrants‘ participating in this study, like many others interviews
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in other studies were enthusiastic to apply their generic expertise to a teaching and
learning context (Williams & Forgasz, 2009) as a means of establishing their value
to the school community and self-worth (Anthony & Ord, 2009).
6.2 Enhanced descriptive stories and coding paradigms
This section provides details of Stage 4 and Stage 5 of the analysis process, that was
the development of enhanced descriptive stories (Creswell, 2008, Strauss & Corbin,
1998) about the career-change entrants who participated in the interviews and coding
paradigm development. The descriptive stories, Stage 4, were partial accounts from
the interview participants about the perceptions of what and how they have learned
from the past and the present and in creating a future teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. Further, the level of impact on their professional identity was evident in
the stories. The descriptive stories enabled consideration of the data as a holistic
narrative and were an integral part of the conceptual ordering process. A process of
constant comparative analysis that was continual consideration of the data,
categories, descriptive stories, coding matrix and coding paradigm (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998) contributed to the validation of the theory about professional identity
transition as it emerged.
Stage 5 of the analysis process (see Figure 6.2) involved determining the
interrelationships between the categories, identified as part of the open coding
process and illustrating in coding paradigms (see Figure 4.1). The coding paradigms
diagrammatically represented the relationships between the core theme, or concern
of the career-change entrants, and the response strategies, conditions and
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consequences associated with the strategies. The coding paradigms were collated for
each group of interview participants according to career stage from individual coding
paradigms created for each interview participant. In this section, three coding
paradigms are presented, representing the relationships between the categories at the
three identified career stages: Novice, Experienced Novice and Early Career
Professionals. An s - proposition is proposed at the end of each subsection to
highlight the meaning that interview participants made of the experience of changing
careers and to offer an insight into their evolving professional identities, their views
of the profession and their ideas on early career progression.
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Process Theory elements
Stage 5
Core theme &
causal
conditions
(Axial coding/
coding
paradigm)
(Further
interviews)
Career Stage 3:
Advancing
practice and
career
Career Stage 2:
Going with the
flow
Career Stage 1:
Enthusiasm
Career Stage
3: Meaningful
professional
learning
Career Stage
2: Capabilities
and
contributions
Career Stage
1: Skill
differential
Career Stage 3:
Enhancing
student learning
Career Stage 2:
Keeping up,
fitting in and
finding strengths
Career Stage 1:
Connections to
the former career
Career Stage
3: Learning
through
coaching
Career Stage
2: Acquiring
better resources
Career Stage
1: Expectations
about school
resources
Stage 4 Descriptive story development
Stage 3
Broad
Categories
Profession
related
Collegiality
Practicality
Logistics
Stage 2
Categories
Motivation/Links
to past career
Expectations/
Acceptance as a
teacher
Advice for
peers
Perceptions
about
colleagues
Working with
colleagues
Employment/
Survival
Pedagogy/Career
opportunities,
Student learning
Tools/resources
Behaviour
management
Stage 1
Coding (Open
coding)
Open coding of interviews with career-change entrants
Career Stage3: Early Career Professional with 1 year to 4 years
experience
Career Stage 2: Experienced Novice with 6 months to 1 years experience
Career Stage 1: Novice pre-service to 6 months
Figure 6.2 Summary Stages 1-5 of interview data analysis (extended from Figure
6.1)
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In addition to this, an overview of the participants who took part in the
interviews was provided through creating summaries based on models and schemas
adopted in analysing the literature (see Table 6.2). Used in the summaries were
profiles of career-change entrants (Crow et al., 1990), classifications of motivation to
become a teacher (Richardson & Watt, 2006) and general orientation in the use of
ICT (Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). The model and schemas were selected for their
capacity to describe a wide range of approaches and characteristics.
Table 6.2
Comparison of interview participants
Interview
Participants
(N=9)
Profile
Crow et al, 1990
(Section 2.3.6)
Motivation
Richardson & Watt, 2006
(Section 2.3.6)
ICT
classification
(Section 5.2)
Novices
Andromeda* Converted Social utility User
Boőtes * Converted Social utility Maintainer
Centaurus * Converted Personal utility Designer
Experienced Novices
Circinus Homecomer Socialisation User
Delphinus Homecomer Social utility value User
Draco Converted Socialisation factor User
Early Career Professionals
Lacerta Homecomer Socialisation User
Orion Unconverted Personal utility Maintainer
Tucana Homecomer Socialisation User
Note to table: * Survey participants
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6.2.1 Novice career-change entrants’ descriptive stories
Interview participants Andromeda, Boőtes and Centaurus also participated in the
survey data collection. They were introduced in Chapter 5 based in data provided in
the survey. In this section only additional information collected during the second
data collection is provided in this section.
Andromeda
Andromeda‟s reasons for becoming a teacher were typical of a Converted teacher
(Watt & Richardson, 2008). She ―never wanted to be one [a teacher] immediately
after school‖ but now that she has had ―experience with two kids of my own‖
teaching was a plausible proposition. (Response to interview question) Her family
influenced her decision to become a teacher. Career-change entrants often evaluate
the job of a teacher through their children‘s‘ experiences at schools (Priyadharshini
& Robinson-Pant, 2004; Skilbeck & Connell 2004).
Andromeda‟s uncertainties about how specialist expertise developed in her
previous career would enhance student learning were initially made evident in
survey responses and then consolidated during the interview. Conversely, she had a
clear idea of how her generic expertise would assist her as a teacher believing that
her organisational skills, previous presentation work and project management would
assist her in her new role. Andromeda reported that to the teaching profession she
brought ―Organisational skills, ... [experience in] presentation type work with adults,
... project management [experience] and had always dealt with people‖ (Response to
interview question).
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Andromeda‟s was focussed on surviving as a teacher (Berliner, 1988).
During her first practicum experience, she did only what was required of her by
supervising teachers and relied only on the expertise of the supervising teacher to
support her in her work. Andromeda did share some possibilities about using ICT in
teaching and learning with the supervising teacher such as using ―Mandela art or
something like that which is pretty cool stuff‖ but did not witness or experience
pedagogies that included ICT (Response to interview question). Such a lack of role
modelling was likely to impact on the adoption of TPACK (Moyle, 2009; Shaw,
2004) Andromeda did not want her supervising teacher to know about her ICT
expertise as she did not see much ICT used in the classroom and as such believed
that the teachers did not have reasonable ICT expertise or understand how it could be
used to enhance learning. She was also concerned about time and resources, for
example she was going to ―do a maths/art exercise in relation to computers but
finding the time to sit it down at the computer and find out if they had the relevant
software was a big issue‖. The unanticipated complexities of the workload
(Tigchelaar et al, 2008) and frustration at being a novice again (see, for example,
Crow et al., 1990) are some of the means through which Andromeda‟s challenges,
were manifested during this time as reported during the study
Andromeda‟s beliefs about the role of ICT in teaching and learning went
beyond the use of software ―for the sake of it‖ illustrating continuity of beliefs from
her former career (Tigchalaar et al., 2008). She was enthusiastic about the
application of her ICT knowledge and experience, and described potential
applications for teaching in technology-rich classrooms. She believed that
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Geography should include geographical information systems and ICT. She was
enthusiastic about the prospect of being able to integrate some of her ICT expertise
in relation to spatial technologies in her teaching stating that she would start with
―some really simple ways like getting a satellite image and changing the colours so
that the vegetation turns up as red‖ then there is competition that I would do in a
school in a flash.‖ The literature supports the notion that a strong belief about what
should be taught is common amongst career-change entrants with specialist expertise
(see, for example, Powell, 1997) and highlights the need for the contextualisation of
expertise brought to the profession from a former career.
Andromeda‟s uncertainties reflected the early Stages of her development as a
teacher in that she had ideas about what students should know based on her work in
her former career. This provided her with some sense of confidence through her
belief that her knowledge and expertise would be useful in teaching in technology-
rich classrooms. As Andromeda developed her understanding of effective
pedagogies and the relevance of expertise developed in her former career, the
literature suggests that her confidence is likely to grow (see, for example, Haggard et
al, 2006).
Boőtes
Boőtes‟s enthusiasm for teaching, learning and ICT was clearly apparent when he
shared his ideas and experiences. Like Andromeda, his reason for becoming a
teacher was aligned with that of a Converted teacher (Watt & Richardson, 2008).
Throughout the interview, he referred to his background as a technical advisor in a
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university. He clearly enjoyed his previous occupation as he proactively was ―a few
steps ahead of the game, constantly informing them [university staff] of what is out
there, researching what is out there and what can match the needs for their students
and the courses. It is crucial business finding the right technology.‖
Boőtes‟s identified applications of his expertise in the school context, for
example ―I [..] got them [students] to do a piece on software called Photostory.
That‘s what I had been doing in the university system and private enterprise.
Produced and directed that sort of stuff‖ (Response to interview question). His
explicit actions and words showed that he was keen to share his expertise with
students. This expertise was based on his level of understanding of effective
teaching, his beliefs, confidence and expectations about his future career. This
enthusiasm was also evident with other Novice teachers, Andromeda and Centaurus,
in relation to the potential of applying their expertise in a teaching and learning
context (see Figure 6.2).
Boőtes practicum experience in schools involved one four-week field
experience at an urban primary school where he taught Year 7 students (11 and 12
year olds). As Boőtes talked about his practicum experiences, his beliefs about the
role of ICT in teaching and learning became evident. Through what he taught, how
he taught and ideally how he would like to teach, his preference for step-by-step
instructional styles used in his former career as a technical advisor was evident. In
explaining how he planned a particular lesson that made use of ICT, he related that
he ―gave students the steps and task sheet‖ (Response to interview question) and
believed that they could self-direct their own learning once they know the steps
251
required. He felt the need to reinforce the use of the steps on a daily basis despite
acknowledging that students tended to explore software functionality at their own
pace, accounting for this in terms of having more time than teachers to do so. The
step-by-step approach to learning was an integral part of his way of working in
producing audio-visual presentations. As he related:
I was given the opportunity during field experience to explore a piece
of software, design a student learning experience and implement the
plan with two classes. My supervising teacher asked me to explore
PhotoStory®. It was pretty easy compared to what I was used to.
The school had a computer lab and I worked with two classes,
rotating them between their classroom and the lab. Firstly, I talked
about file management then the planning process involved in creating
a story board. Then, I briefly showed the students around PhotoStory
®. Some of the students already knew how to use it, so I used the
students‘ expertise as they have more time on their hands to explore
things more so than teachers.
(Response to interview question)
Boőtes clearly showed that he had a didactic approach to teaching that was linked to
the experiences in his former career as he used teaching strategies that he had either
used or witnessed in his former role at the university. The literature suggests that
didactic forms of teaching are an ineffective approach to teaching in technology-rich
classrooms (see, for example, Kennewell et al., 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
252
Boőtes expected a minimal level of technology to be available in schools and
he had suggestions on how it could be obtained. His ideas for community
fundraising or business sponsorship were clearly drawn from his experiences in his
first practicum school compared with what had been available to him in his previous
career. Boőtes‟s practicum experience was in a school that had one data projector on
a trolley that ―you had to go and find‖ and one ―oldish laptop‖ (Response to
interview question). He found that sharing equipment was not a viable option in
schools because of the constant disruptions to class when teachers needed to locate
the data projector trolley and cables class. Boőtes‟s concluded that ―it took two
people to set up the data projector in a classroom as one needed to control the class‖
(Response to interview question) while the other set up the equipment.
Boőtes believed that ―ICT engaged students in learning and minimised
behaviour management issues.‖ He found that ―when they [his students] were
engaged in any sort of computer technology activities in the computer lab or showed
something on the data projector, there was far less disruption in class, [and] they
suddenly woke up‖ (Response to interview question). Boőtes believed that teaching
would be so much harder if he did not have hardware resources, and considered that
his workload would increase without it. He believed that there has to be a practical
reason for using the technology as part of learning and, as such, used a data projector
and screen during lessons to display images and lesson notes. An essential pre-
requisite for these views was that learning was enhanced through the use of
resources to engage students and support their achievement.
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Layout and projection in the computer labs were also issues of concern for
Boőtes. His experience with inflexible rows of computers where the students‘
screens were not visible to the teacher differed markedly from his experience in a
university. He firmly believed that he needed to see all the screens to manage
student learning. In his view, the best layout was around the edge of the room so
that the ―lecturer‖ could stand in the middle along with tables in the middle for group
work. Such a panopticon model of classroom management enabled control over
student activity rather than fostering student responsibility for their own learning.
Clearly, Boőtes believed that a key use of ICT was as a didactic tool and display
device.
To Boőtes, teachers were reluctant to use ICT because they thought that it
was impossible to manage student behaviour with inefficient layout of computers,
adding that ―we have got these tools, we should use them, it requires a bit of effort
but once they are there at your fingertips ... and it makes teaching a whole lot easier.‖
He added that ―teachers are less likely to use technology if they do not have the
projection resources, within a suitable classroom layout ready to turn on‖ (Response
to interview question). His ideas about teachers‘ use of ICT appear to be based on
the belief that teachers, in general, do not have ICT expertise or an understanding of
how it can be used. This was yet another reason for enthusiasm about the value of
his ICT-related knowledge and expertise.
Rapport with other teachers was an important aspect of ICT use according to
Boőtes. During his first practicum experience, Boőtes felt that he created positive
relationships with a range of teachers and supported the work of the school while he
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had the opportunity to prove himself as a potential staff member. He felt that the
rapport he established with his supervising teacher was a positive one that resulted in
lessons being organised that drew on the expertise of Boőtes. More broadly, he took
an active role in the school community using his technical skills to connect devices
in the library, ―check-out‖ a new interactive whiteboard and using his own sound
system to create a ―totally different experience‖ for the students at a social event,
namely a ―rock and roll‖ night. He proudly spoke of his relationship with the
principal who told him that he would be in demand as few teachers have audio-visual
technical skills as well as teaching skills.
Boőtes wanted to use his technical expertise to engage other teachers by
showing them what he can do and ―show them that there is nothing to fear‖
(Response to interview question). Now that he had seen what worked in a school, in
relation to the use of ICT in teaching and learning, he believed that there was an
attitude that ―we cannot do this because we do not have that.‖ Being open to
changes in ICT was a challenge for teachers that he saw as a collaborative
experience without which there is no progress. It seems that Boőtes considered his
expertise of high value to the school and a means to raise his profile while searching
for employment. Consequences of Boőtes‟s enthusiasm for drawing on knowledge
and expertise associated with a former career appears to reflect his (a) preparedness
to support colleagues to make use of ICT; (b) confidence to teach as a teacher; and,
(c) capacity to enrich the school environment. It appears that, in the absence of
alternative ways of thinking, Boőtes‟s teaching and learning practices will continue
to be based on didactic beliefs. The literature suggests that this consequence is a
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challenge for career-change entrants, particularly for those whose beliefs remain
unchallenged by their colleagues or teacher educators (see, for example, Ross, et al.,
2001).
The knowledge and expertise Boőtes brought to the teaching profession was
clearly linked to his background. He was confident in his expertise and felt that he
would add value to the profession, a matter of significance to many career change
entrants (see, for example, Haggard et al., 2006). Further, Boőtes, like many career-
change entrants, clearly had generic coping, management and organisational
expertise that appear to be an asset to the school community (Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003). He had a tendency, however, to add ICT on to outmoded
teaching practices, given that pedagogical strategies appear to be developing
according to his beliefs about effective teaching and his technical capabilities. The
literature suggests that the development of pedagogical strategies requires a change
in beliefs about how ICT can enhance teaching and learning (see, for example,
Cuban, 1993; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004).
Centaurus
Being a career-change entrant had its advantages for Centaurus. During practicum,
he preferred to be ―left alone to get on with the job‖ without his supervising teacher
―looking over his shoulder‖ all the time (Response to interview question). He was
also aware, however, that the younger pre-service teachers were provided with more
mentoring and support than he did, noted in the literature as being a common
observation of career-change entrants (see, for example, Mayotte, 2003). Centaurus
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believed that being a career-change entrant helped him cope with a challenging start
to a career in teaching (see, for example, Haggard, et al., 2006; Priyadharshini &
Robinson-Pant, 2003), in a remote Indigenous school.
Centaurus‘s frustration with his experiences in changing careers was clearly
apparent. He was shocked by the relocation problems of moving to a remote school
and the physical condition of the classrooms. Further, he found settling in difficult
as he was teaching outside his area of expertise, namely Year 11 and 12 History, as
there was a lack of curriculum documents, work programs and resources in the
Maths and Science areas he was required to teach. He claimed that ―if this had been
a mission I was putting together for the Army, I would have scrubbed it, there is no
way I would have gone in with logistical support this bad‖ (Response to interview
question). In spite of all this, he stated that he and his partner (fellow teacher)
―would stay as they had committed for two years.‖ He added that if he was not so
―bloody minded,‖ he probably would have left teaching (Response to interview
question). He and his partner were determined to make sure that beginning teachers
commencing in the remote school in the future would have a better experience
through sharing his experiences. The literature also notes potential discrepancies in
the expectations of career-change entrants and the reality of a career in teaching as
one cause of stress and potential attrition (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004).
In Centaurs‟s school context, being accepted as a teacher ―just because that
is what it says on the business card‖ was not a foregone conclusion. On
commencing teaching, he was told by colleagues that the students will not ―do
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anything for you‖ until Term 2. He found that to be the case and attributed the
perceived mistrust of new arrivals to the phenomenally high attrition rate of
beginning teachers in remote communities. In developing a teaching style, he found
himself drawing on the skills he learnt in the Army. In the Army:
You spend five minutes explaining it, you demonstrate it, they do,
then they repeat it, that is how it works. It doesn't matter if you are
teaching them how to march or to shoot, every lesson is exactly the
same, every lesson follows a strict format. I use these phrases in class
every day when I demonstrate something. You cannot, for my kids,
put a list of instructions on the board and expect them to follow them,
it won‘t happen.
(Response to interview question)
The literature also suggests that career-change entrants rely on expertise gained in a
previous career in the early stages of a teaching career (see, for example,
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Like Boőtes, Centaurus adopted a didactic orientation to teaching using a
step-by-step manner associated with his former career. Such reliance on didactic
pedagogy was noted previously as being an ineffective approach to learning in
contemporary times (see, for example, Kennewell et al., 2008; Mishra & Koehler,
2006). Use of strategies that worked in other contexts in the past in the absence of
alternatives is related to an enthusiasm to use knowledge and expertise associated
with a former career or a reliance on known practices while experiencing the
stressors of beginning teaching (Skilbeck & Connell, 2004). Centaurus‟s lack of
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comfort in the school context appeared to be adding stress to changing careers and as
a result he relied on expertise gained in his former career.
Centaurus found that the students ICT expertise did not meet his
expectations. He found the skill level of the students to be so low that he had to
―walk back probably 20-30 paces‖ from where he thought they should be. In
discussing this matter with the students and reflecting on the issue, he had come to
believe that it was because most of the students do not have access to computers at
home. He felt that there was ―just not enough time in the semester to teach the
students all the necessary ICT skills‖ (Response to interview question) but he did
endeavour, however, to spend a week on the prerequisite skills prior to commencing
a unit of work. Centaurus believed that this approach was unnecessary in other
schools where students have ―taught themselves by trying out and fiddling‖ both at
home and in school. Similarly, the literature suggests that problem solving
capabilities of career-change entrants are generally effective (see, for example,
Haggard, et al., 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), though some career-
change entrants have challenges in applying knowledge and expertise to a teaching
and learning context (see, for example, Powell, 1997).
In looking ahead, Centaurus saw more of his expertise being relevant to the
students in his school. He found that his students were fascinated with the vehicles
and boats that they saw on a daily basis and planned to use his boat building skills to
engage students. He believed that the students had no concept of the ―world south of
the local river‖ and consequently he planned to use this interest in boats and ICT to
show the students that not everyone has a ―four-metre open dinghy with an outboard
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on the back of it.‖ To Centaurus, his knowledge and expertise had a valuable
application to student learning albeit through his judgment on what students needed
to know.
In considering why Boőtes and Centaurus became teachers, it was evident
that their perception of what they could offer students in terms of knowledge and
expertise was an important aspect of their decision. Whether this will serve Boőtes
and Centaurus well within the profession is an interesting question for further
research, particularly in Centaurus‟s case as he had considered resigning. Boőtes
and Centaurus more strongly recognise the need for ongoing professional learning
and adaptation to a new working environment as they generally have a high level of
awareness of their responsibilities (Tigchelaar et al., 2008). What will have a greater
impact is the complex blend of motivation and expectations (Crow et al., 1990) that
manifests on a daily basis as the ongoing professional learning and adaptation to the
school working environment occurs. It could also be that the egocentric approach to
teaching and learning was a coping mechanism that during the transition into
teaching masks the feelings of inadequacy as a novice teacher.
6.2.2 Novice career-change entrants’ coding paradigm
As Boőtes, Andromeda and Centaurus all were enthusiastic about the potential to
connect learning to their own real world experiences; this notion was selected as the
core theme of the Novice coding paradigm (see Figure 6.3 or Appendix 2). Career-
change entrants have been found to be keen to quickly establish how their
capabilities are relevant in a school community to affirm professional identity, sense
260
of worth, and credibility (Anthony & Ord, 2008). Establishing a form of continuity
between present and past facilitates the transition process (Crow et al., 1990) and
potentially represents a reluctance to let go of past professional identities (Senge et
al., 2005).
The source of Boőtes, Andromeda and Centaurus‟s enthusiasm was the
perceived value of their broad generic experiences. Further, their responses related
to the contexts in which they found themselves. For example, Boőtes‟s background
in technology gave him the confidence to involve and engage the students,
Andromeda‟s organisational skills proved to be an asset, while Centaurus found
himself drawing - on a daily basis - on skills learnt in the army. Boőtes, Andromeda
and Centaurus wanted to become teachers for altruistic reasons related to what they
had to offer students. Career-change entrants are noted as having a wide range of
generic and specialist skills that are highly valued by themselves and school staff
(see, for example, Haggard, et al., 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant 2003;
Richardson & Watt, 2005; Williams & Forgasz, 2009).
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Figure 6.3 Coding paradigm for Novice Teachers
As a result of being enthusiastic about the perceived connections to their past
career, the three Novices who participated in this study drew on strategies associated
with their former career, that were: (a) step-by-step instruction; and, (b) application
of specialist expertise, for example, boat building, map making and audio-visual
production. Through using these strategies the consequences and outcomes were
that the Novices: (a) continued using existing belief and action patterns; (b)
developed confidence to teach; (c) looked for opportunities to share their knowledge
and experience with colleagues; and, (d) generally enriched the school environment.
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The most likely general conditions for Novice career-change entrants‘
enthusiasm was the proximity in time to their previous career. This was a highly
recurring theme for career-change entrants during pre-service to six months
experience as a teacher. Other general conditions were: (a) inexperience as a teacher
and an immediate need to quickly identify a clear professional contribution; (b) the
facilities, and resources available at the school; (c) the level of support received in
the school environment; and, (d) general culture of innovation and flexibility. The
other factors that influenced career-change entrants‘ enthusiasm to connect learning
to their own real world experiences were the specific contextual conditions of the
school and cultural challenges as well as location, teaching context and personal
pressures. The s - proposition associated with this analysis is that Novice career-
change entrants maintain psychological connections with the former career as a
coping mechanism to overcome feelings of inadequacy and to self-justify their
transition into teaching. The psychological connections to a former career also
manifested as altruistic motivations to teach through a focus on teaching students
what they know rather than addressing particular learning needs. The particular
reasons for career-change entrants‘ enthusiasm to connect learning to their own real
world experiences were a perceived: (a) expertise differential, (b) connections to
former career; and (c) expectations that schools would not be as well resourced as
their previous workplaces.
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6.2.2.1 Expertise differential
Boőtes, Andromeda and Centaurus clearly brought valuable generic expertise in the
use of ICT to the teaching profession. Consideration was given to whether their ICT
expertise was of a specialist nature linked to qualifications. The data showed few
links between qualifications and work experience amongst the Novice career-change
entrants and more generally amongst the survey participants. Additionally, as noted
previously the career-change entrants generally believed that their transferable
generic expertise, such as communication, team work and organisation, was more
useful for a career in teaching than specialist knowledge (Williams & Forgasz,
2009). They appeared to be enthusiastic to connect learning to their own real world
experiences in relation to ICT because they believed that most practicing teachers
did not have the same level of expertise as they did. The Novice career-change
entrants held a common belief that they were more skilled in the use of ICT than
many of the experienced teachers they met, Boőtes resolved to ―show [teachers] that
there is nothing to fear,‖ Andromeda aghast at the lack of understanding of the
potential for map making and Centaurus recognising that he was probably ―a little
more ICT savvy than most.‖ There was, however, no evidence that their expertise
was used with effective pedagogies at this juncture of their career.
As previously noted, ICT expertise of the career-change entrants who
participated in this study was not necessarily associated with contemporary
perspectives on teaching effectively in technology-rich classrooms nor did it
necessarily lead to valuable student learning (Kennewell, et al., 2008, Mishra &
Koehler, 2006). Further, in isolation, or in addition, ICT only enables faster access
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to information, more efficient processing and clearer presentation. Career-change
entrants focusing on how to use ICT, rather than enhancing learning through the use
of ICT, generally draw on didactic methods of teaching (McNair & Galanouli,
2006). The way ICT is used generally reflects teachers' beliefs about pedagogy,
which in turn relates to knowledge creation and learning (Loveless, et al., 2001).
A challenge for interview participants was to transform functional and
operational uses of ICT that had been developed in previous careers or home use and
this involved shaping or forming new beliefs about how learning occurs. Those with
ICT skills gained in previous occupations brought perspectives that challenged
traditional notions of teaching. The participant responses showed that this generally
occurred when beliefs about contemporary learning were shaped and formed through
witnessing and experiencing the digital pedagogies in pre-service courses and in
schools (Bai & Ertmer, 2008). The s-proposition derived from this examination of
expertise differential is that beliefs about how generic expertise can be applied to a
teaching and learning context appear to be firmly grounded in past experience at the
Novice stage of the new career (see Figure 6.3).
6.2.2.2 Connections to the former career
The Novice interview participants‘ enthusiasm to draw on knowledge and expertise
gained in a former career was related to the desire to be a proficient teacher as soon
as possible (Crow et al, 1990). This enthusiasm was enacted through drawing on
ways of working that were effective in their former career.
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Boőtes, Andromeda and Centaurus made numerous and links to their former
career throughout their interview. Boőtes‟s early practicum lessons were modelled
on the operations of his previous work in a university. Similarly, Andromeda
emphasised the importance of her prior experience and passion in using computers as
being an essential aspect of ICT integration. Centaurus used methods of instruction
with his students that he had successfully used in his previous career and drew
comparisons to work conditions. Through the interviews Boőtes, Andromeda and
Centaurus all expressed the belief that they had knowledge and skills that would be
useful for students. Beliefs about learning are acknowledged in the literature as a
key enabler or barrier of contemporary teaching practice. For example, teachers‘
beliefs about students, teaching, pedagogies and change determine classroom
practices and are a mix of willingness and capability to create engaging technology-
rich learning with students (Ertmer, 2005; Sime & Priestley, 2005). The s-
proposition related to this issue is that maintaining connections to former careers is a
coping strategy for career-change entrants and used as source of initial teaching
strategies, particularly in times of stress.
6.2.2.3 Expectations about school resources
The Novice interview participants assumed that schools were not as well resourced
as their previous workplaces. This is a means of managing their own expectations
about their new career as all were keen to find ways to replicate the environment in
which they had previously worked. Despite this acceptance, considerable interest in
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the level of ICT resourcing and a belief that schools should be resourced to the same
level or better than their previous workplace (see Figure 6.3).
To Centaurus, the issue of outdated computers paled into insignificance
when he had no curriculum of planning documents to use. For Boőtes, if schools did
not have what he needs in terms of ICT resources, then he intended to investigate
sponsorship deals with local businesses. Andromeda assumed that she would need
to modify her ideas based on a lack of hardware and software resources. Career
change entrants have been found to be critical of a lack of resources in comparison to
previous job environments (Anthony & Ord, 2008). The s-proposition drawn from
this thinking is that, among career-change entrants, concern exists about being able
to use their knowledge and expertise gained through a former career without a
similar level of resources.
The career-change entrants participating in this study believed that their
generic expertise related to previous career is more valuable than the specific skills
and content knowledge (see, for example, Mayotte, 2003; Williams & Forgasz,
2009). While this assertion was consistent with the general direction of the survey
findings and Novice interviews, it warranted further exploration with more
experienced teachers given the Novices enthusiasm to broaden and deepen learning
through their knowledge gained in their former career.
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6.2.3 Experienced Novice career-change entrants’ descriptive stories
Circinus
Circinus was between 35 and 44 years of age, an age group comprising 45.3%
(n=29, N=64) of the total survey participants, and, at the time of contact (July, 2008)
was in his first year of teaching at a suburban high school. He also graduated from a
one-year graduate, entry teacher education course at QUT. For the purposes of this
study, Circinus was classified as an Experienced Novice with between 6 months and
one year of teaching experience in schools. He taught Studies of Society and
Environment (SOSE) and Information Technology Systems (ITS) and was offered a
permanent role prior to completing the teacher preparation course.
In a previous career, he spent six years in the federal public service,
specifically in Centrelink in an IT systems testing centre where he checked code,
designed macros and spreadsheets for testing programs. In the late 1990s, he worked
in South East Asia as an archaeologist. This role involved the use of geographical
information systems (GIS) and high-end ICT analysis tools. Circinus had ―initially
planned on being a teacher when he first went to university but got distracted. It was
a natural progression. The time and place was right so went I went back to
university‖ (Response to interview question) and, as such, was a Homecomer who
considered teaching likely to be more fulfilling than his former career (Crow, et al,
1990).
Circinus was classified as an ICT Designer on the basis of his responses to
the questions about ICT use in the interviews (see Table 6.2). Considered an ICT
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expert, Circinus was called on during his practicum to provide students with an
insight into how workplaces functioned. He related the following example.
One particular student was interested in becoming a computer
programmer. I talked with the student about systems testing and told
him that how no matter how good you wanted to make your program
the business analyst would insist that deadlines had to be met and the
program go out as is.
(Response to interview question)
Circinus named ―filling the gaps in his knowledge‖ as a priority and, as such, he was
developing a clearer sense of his capability as a teacher (see Figure 6.4). To achieve
this, he was focused on an additional priority of ―getting through the year‖
(Response to interview question). His stated need to focus on getting through the
first year was acknowledged in the literature (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004) as a key source of stress for career-change entrants.
The beliefs Circinus brought to teaching were clearly shaped by his prior
work experiences as an IT programmer. He believed that, in a perfect world, ―every
student would have a computer in the classroom,‖ although he acknowledged that
―technology alone would not change practices in classrooms‖ (Response to
interview question). With ―better ICT resources,‖ he believed that he would help
students engage with and understand Social Science topics, for example, the fall of
Rome and poverty, through the use of ICT. It may be that he thought he needed ICT
resources to continue to develop as a teacher (see Figure 6.4).
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Additional pressures existed for him, as during both pre-service practicum
and first year teaching, he was called on to share his knowledge and experience with
other staff. During practicum, he trained fellow staff members on a daily basis,
teaching them how to use the basic programs he took for granted. This was noted,
by Novice teachers in this study, as a consequence of their enthusiasm to share the
expertise gained in their previous career (see Figure 6.3). In his first year as a
teacher in a school, he felt pressured to provide professional development for
teachers who ―insisted on in-service sessions prior to using interactive whiteboards‖
(Response to interview question). He had worked out how to use the interactive
whiteboards himself ―having no fear about pushing a few buttons.‖ He expected that
other teachers would at least ―try to do the same‖ but he found that they ―refused to
try to learn how to use anything without an in-service session‖ (Response to
interview question).
On reflection, he felt that the ―majority of older teachers at his school were
either scared of ICT or had no understanding of how technology works and were not
going to change at all‖ (Response to interview question). He felt some consternation
with the prospect of having to support teachers to use computers as getting through
the first year of teaching was his priority. This experience highlighted the paradox
of the value expertise career-change entrants bring to the profession (see, for
example, Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003) and the need to be supported as a
beginning teacher as they are often considered ―new to the building, not new to the
profession‖ (Madfes, 1989, p. 4). As Circinus‟s reported, ―Every day I am teaching
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people how to use basic programs I take for granted‖ (Response to interview
question).
Circinus highlighted a key challenge for teachers, who are very good at
teaching in traditional ways but whom, with a class of students who are ICT savvy
and using computers, ―would be eaten alive.‖ His recent experience with staff at the
school led him to think that other teachers would not necessarily use ICT to enhance
learning. Indeed, it has been noted in the literature that, in addition to beliefs about
how ICT can enhance learning, teachers‘ willingness to use ICT is a factor
determining the extent of use (see, for example, Ertmer, 2005).
The challenge of first year teaching manifested itself, for Circinus, through
the types of lessons taught. He found that he needed to revert to textbook teaching
on occasions when he had no time to prepare lessons the night before he taught them.
He looked forward to the next year when he would have prepared lessons to fall back
on and consider how he could improve them. Circinus believed that, from his
second year, he would be able to consider the use of teaching strategies that
enhanced learning through the integration of technology. In doing so he would
develop ways of teaching that were more consistent with his beliefs about student
learning rather than the ―chalk and talk‖ approach he used when he did not have time
to prepare more student-centred lessons (see Figure 6.4). Circinus‟s experiences
provided an insight into the likelihood of continuing survival based practices during
the transition into the teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
Circinus considered his practices to be slowly evolving from using ICT
tools with which he was familiar from his former career, through to managing the
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presentation of information to students, and enabling student learning through the
use of ICT. His next focus was on enhancing learning through the integral use of
technology and more authentic tasks. Like many beginning teachers, he was
challenged by behaviour management (Haggard et al, 2006) and he was working on
improving a small range of strategies as he was not comfortable extending his
repertoire at the time.
Strategies Circinus used to gain a clearer understanding of his own capability
as a teacher and what he offered to school communities were: (a) focussing only on
the teaching classes of students; (b) trying not to default to ―chalk and talk textbook‖
teaching; and, (c) keeping in mind a vision of ideal teaching and learning.
Consequences associated with these strategies, for Circinus, were: (a) a sense of
progress; (b) development of a professional identity as a teacher; and, (c) a clearer
sense of the capabilities that require development (see Figure 6.4).
Circinus‟s expertise and experience highlighted the challenges faced by
career-change entrants‘ in relation to rationalising beliefs and practices while under
pressure to be competent as a teacher during the initial stages of a teaching career.
Clearly evident was the expertise he had in the use of ICT, however, he was
developing the application of this expertise to a teaching in technology-rich
classrooms. Like Boőtes, Circinus had a tendency to add ICT on to outmoded
teaching practices (Cuban, 1993; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004). The mismatch
between Circinus‟s beliefs about teaching and learning and his classroom practices
are a transition issue to be overcome as his gained more experience and confidence
to teach as a teacher.
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Delphinus
Delphinus was between 35 and 44 years of age, an age group comprising 45.3%
(n=29, N=64) of the total survey participants and, at the time of contact (July, 2008)
was in her first year of teaching at a suburban primary school. For the purposes of
this study, Delphinus was classified as an Experienced Novice with between six
months and one year of teaching experience in schools. Her first degree was a
Bachelor of Science, completed in 1991, with majors in maths and psychology and
minors in Computing, Chemistry and Biology. She had planned to teach when she
was younger but felt that, at the age of 21, ―she had not enough life experience‖
(Response to interview question) and lacked the confidence to teach Maths and
Science. As such, she reflected the mindset of a Homecomer who generally believed
that they have always wanted to be a teacher (Crow et al., 1990). As a data analyst
in the federal public service for ten years, specifically the Department of Health, she
held numerous roles working on data management, systems testing and database
development. These were technical roles organising specifications and making sure
that the databases were usable in the ―real world.‖ She was classified as an ICT
Designer as she designed applications for her clients.
Delphinus returned to study as she wanted to teach in order to help students
and make a difference to their future. This intrinsic motivation for teaching was
indicated by 37.5% (n=24, N= 64) of survey participants and considered to be a
social utility value (Richardson & Watt, 2006) (see Table 6.2). She commenced a
post-graduate Bachelor of Primary Teaching in the Australian Capital Territory
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which she completed in Queensland. Her concern for her own children‘s education
influenced her to become a teacher.
Delphinus believed that gaining a four-day per week contract at a Brisbane
school was a good achievement in her first year of teaching, but it came with some
complications that were almost unbearable. She was originally offered a Year 1
class in the second week of school, but, at the last minute, was asked to take a multi-
age Year 1 and 2 group. She encountered a massive workload in preparing for, and
getting on top of, teaching two grades at once and managing the whole group
working at different levels. Additionally, other teachers at the school and many
parents were not happy with the multi-age structure. She took this personally and
felt under scrutiny and vulnerable. As she related, she was ―the new teacher who
many [teachers and parents] did not realise was in her first year‖ (Response to
interview question). Delphinus, like Centaurus felt that people assumed she had
been teaching for a while and did not need support with the contentious challenge
she had accepted (Madfes, 1989).
As a first year teacher, Delphinus, like Circinus named ―getting through the
first year‖ as a priority and, as such, she gradually developed a clearer sense of her
capability as a teacher (see Figure 6.4). Her need to focus on getting through the
first year was acknowledged in the literature (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004) as a key source of stress for career-change entrants. As she related:
The university course did not necessarily prepare me for the things I really
needed in relation to behaviour management, dealing with teacher aides and
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parents, and dealing with all of those things which have nothing to do with
the curriculum and everything to do with managing a group of people
(Response to interview question).
The first weeks of teaching were ―absolutely horrific,‖ and she found that
―not knowing school procedures or the teachers or parents or students
overwhelming‖ (Response to interview question). She particularly wanted to do a
good job and was worried about doing so, noted in the literature as a common
stressor for career-change entrants (see, for example, Manuel & Brindley, 2005). By
comparison, she felt that younger beginning teachers would just ―take all this on
board and not worry about it too much.‖ Career-change entrants generally exhibit
higher levels of emotional exhaustion as a beginning teacher (Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004). Delphinus considered career-change entrants to have a disadvantage
compared to younger beginning teachers. As she related, ―Her life experiences, and
in particular her own children gave her a strong appreciation of the responsibility of
the job‖ (Response to interview question), a view noted in the literature (see, for
example, Tigchelaar et al., 2008). This appreciation she considered as added
pressure. The tendency to vicariously perceive teaching based on the experiences of
their children is noted in the literature as common among career-change entrants
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
In addition, Delphinus believed that conforming and fitting in with ―how
things were done in the school‖ was leading her ―down a path‖ that she was not sure
she could continue to endure. What ―kept her going on the bad days‖ was the ―light
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going on in the students‘ eyes‖ and some advice from a colleague that eventually
―turned things around for her‖ (Response to interview question) and provided an
insight into the significance of professional identity. Adapting to a school culture is
a challenge for some career-change entrants (Vonk, 1995).
Delphinus was also focused on ―working out her strengths as a teacher.‖
Advice from a colleague helped her feel more settled in the school and stronger in
her sense of who she was and what she brought to the school community. The
advice was to ―take on board what people tell her, but always think about what are
her own strengths‖ (Response to interview question). To Delphinus, a strength was
her skill and understanding in the use of ICT to enhance teaching and learning. She
found that her confidence grew as she developed her teaching style using software
applications, such as presentation packages, to model practice and demonstrate
concepts. The effective adoption of ICT for teaching and learning is associated with
levels of confidence gained through experimentation (Haydn, 2010).
Delphinus believed that she ―used ways of working that she had not seen
elsewhere in the school‖ (Response to interview question) such as using technology
to support group work and discussion. Her reputation and confidence to teach were
steadily growing as she accepted invitations to demonstrate her work with literacy
and language development at a staff meeting. Having their knowledge and expertise
valued in the teaching profession was important to many career-change entrants (see,
for example, Haggard, et al., 2006).
As a result of learning to become a teacher, Delphinus realised that she best
learned through concrete experience and that she needed to accept that her teaching
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practice will evolve over time. As she settled in the role, she found that she reflected
more on her practice. Delphinus‟s experiences can be explained in terms of the
learning theory underpinning the study described in this thesis. Kolb‘s (1984)
Experiential Learning Theory suggests that concrete experience and reflective
observation are adaptive learning modes associated with career-change entrants
modifying their thinking to suit the context.
Through concentrating on developing her own style, she believed that she
could offer advice to other career-change teachers entering the profession. Her
advice to other career-change entrants is as follows. When beginning teaching:
Stay true to yourself because what you bring [to the profession] is
more valuable than what your interpretation of the way things are
done at a particular school. Every teacher brings something different
and some things you will do better than others and some not so well.
(Response to interview question)
Delphinus ―stepped back from her challenging situation‖ to realise that the students
had been having ―problems before they were in her class and the problem was not
one she had to solve on her own‖ (Response to interview question). In saying this,
she believed she was moving the students forward and realised that that was a good
achievement. While Delphinus‟s advice may not be appropriate for all career-
change teachers, it does highlight the potential level of stress (Goddard & O‘Brien,
2004) that is associated with career-change as well as the need to reconfigure
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expectations and beliefs about teaching and learning (see, for example, Ertmer, 2005;
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Pragmatic strategies that Delphinus used to develop a clearer understanding
of her strengths as a teacher were: (a) taking on only what she needed to do in her
own job; and, (b) keeping in mind a vision of ideal teaching and learning.
Consequences associated with these strategies, for Delphinus, were: (a) a clearer
sense of progress; (b) development of a professional identity as a teacher; (c) a
clearer sense of the capabilities that require development; and, (d) some
experimentation with the integral use of ICT in her classroom (see Figure 6.3).
Delphinus‟s experience highlights the risk of early-career burnout. Career-
change entrants are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion, low levels of
accomplishment as a result of coping with the frustration of being a novice (Goddard
& O‘Brien, 2004). Additionally, navigating school culture is a challenging situation
for career-change entrants (Manuel & Brindley, 2005). Together, these factors
suggest that career-change entrants require personalised support and mentoring
throughout the transition into the teaching profession. Delphinus, unlike Andromeda
and Boőtes, had started to make sense of her new career and was creating her place
in the profession. This turning point of Delphinus‘ is a key moment in the transition
process for career-change entrants.
Draco
Draco was between 25 and 34 years of age, as were 29.6% (n=19, N=64) of survey
participants, and, at the time of contact (July 2008), Draco was in her first year of
teaching Year 11 and 12 Physics, Maths and Science at a regional high school in
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Queensland. For the purposes of this study, Draco was classified as an Experienced
Novice with between six months and one year of teaching experience in schools.
Her first degree was a Bachelor of Science with majors in Chemistry and
Oceanography. She had worked as a research chemist for seven years and, in that
role, she used ICT to record and manipulate data. She was classified as an ICT User
(see Table 6.2) as she primarily used software applications in her work rather than
supported the use of them.
Draco‟s motivation to become a teacher was related to her self-perception of
her capabilities developed through her previous career. She commenced a part-time
postgraduate teaching qualification to improve her presentation skills and while
undertaking the course, she made the change to full-time study that would lead to her
qualification as a teacher and a career change. Like Andromeda, Boőtes and
Centaurus her reasons for becoming a teacher were in line with that of a Converted
teacher (Watt & Richardson, 2008) as she became interested in teaching through the
experiences in her former career (see Table 6.2).
To Draco, teaching and learning was exciting and she believed that her role
was to ―open up the horizon for her students to a bigger world than where they live.‖
She wanted students to think that ―anything is possible‖ and that they ―do not need to
go and do what their parents did. For better or for worse, they can do different
things‖ (Response to interview question). Her goal was to improve the school‘s
university enrolment, on the basis that ―if the students do not go to university, it was
because of the choice they made and not because they did not think it was an option‖
(Response to interview question). She drew her inspiration from her own
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opportunities at university as a student and as research chemist. Draco‟s deeply held
personal beliefs were consistent with many career-change entrants who see ―teaching
as a potent force for change in society‖ (Manuel & Brindley, 2006, p. 144).
In sharing the stories of her career as a research chemist, Draco believed that
she has made other career options real and tangible for her students through sharing
―what she had tried, done and seen.‖ She found that students wanted to know about
what she had achieved in her former career as they had ―no other opportunities to
hear about such experiences‖ (Response to interview question). Through her
networks, she has connected students with other professionals, bringing them into
the classroom to talk about careers and to confirm that the ―people who work in
these areas do exist‖. She believed that she could help students by ―drawing on [her]
life experiences to open doors and make opportunities real for them‖ (Response to
interview question). Expertise that adds value to teaching in technology-rich
classrooms was important to career-change entrants (see, for example, Haggard et
al., 2006; Mayotte, 2003).
Draco was clearly focused on developing a clearer sense of her capability as
a teacher through expanding ―students‘ horizons.‖ To do this, she felt she needed
better ICT hardware in the classroom to be able to teach in a manner consistent with
her beliefs. Additionally, she felt that she was ―starting to go with the flow‖ and was
not as ―stressed about every demand on her time‖ (Response to interview question).
Draco‘s way of working in the classroom, and expectations about the hardware that
should be available to all teachers, were clearly linked to her previous career
experiences, in that she had access to a more extensive range of resources in her
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previous role, a link noted in the literature (see, for example, Anthony & Ord, 2008).
She related that ―there was little ICT available to teachers in the school, in fact ...
[she] used her own personal laptop to support her work in the classroom‖ (Response
to interview question). On acquiring a data projector, initially to run ―real-world‖
animations for physics, she insisted that it was mounted as a permanent fixture in her
classroom ―rather than on a trolley as this just encourages school leaders to buy less
technology and use a loan system.‖ When she was at school as a student, she could
not imagine ―talking to a class across the world,‖ but when her teaching classroom
was connected to the Internet she planned to ―track satellites during astronomy class
and connect students to other classes to expand and widen their horizons‖ (Response
to interview question) and, in doing so, her own.
Draco believed that ICT should ―be as much a part of school life as are desks
and chairs‖. However, she had reservations about students‘ use of individual
computers on a broad scale as, in her experience, ―students do not respect them.‖ In
her mind, as with Boőtes, there should a data projector, smart board and Internet
access in every classroom ―in this day and age.‖ She believed that ―teachers should
be able to plan a lesson knowing that these resources are available and that they have
the skills to use them‖ (Response to interview question). A discrepancy gap
commonly exists between career-change entrants‘ expectations of available
resources and the reality of schools (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Draco believed that her colleagues tend to focus on ―their way of doing
things rather than a way of working in the students‘ world.‖ She believed that until
ICT is in every classroom, it will not be used to extend students‘ learning.
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Additionally, Draco believed ―that teachers learn through playing with ICT‖ and
thought ―that there is no point in attending training until the equipment is in the
classrooms and teachers have had time to build confidence in using it for teaching
and learning‖ (Response to interview question). Further, she believed that learning
to use ICT in teachers‘ own time would be an issue as many teachers as they did not
want to use their own time to work out how to use the tools available in the student‘s
world. Draco did not offer to support other colleagues in her area of expertise as
she was focused on ―surviving‖ her first-year, a strategy also mentioned by
Centaurus and Circinus.
Like Delphinus, strategies Draco used to develop an understanding of her
own capability as a teacher were: (a) taking on only what is required; (b) asking
questions; and, (c) keeping in mind a vision of ideal teaching and learning.
Consequences associated with these strategies, for Draco, like Circinus and
Delphinus, were: (a) sense of progress; (b) development of a professional identity as
a teacher; and (c) a clearer sense of the capabilities that require development (see
Figure 6.4).
Draco demonstrated that the challenge of the first year of teaching was
generally greater for career-change entrants than for other beginning teachers (see,
for example, Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004; Tigchelaar et al., 2008) through the pressure
associated with her desire to be an effective teacher as soon as possible. As a
beginning teacher, Draco believed that the first six months of teaching had been the
―toughest of her life.‖ She felt that things were becoming ―a little more
comfortable‖ and she has learnt to stop trying to ―control every single bit of paper‖
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and to ―roll with it all more.‖ She recommended ―keeping your head up, keep going
and keep asking questions‖ of those people ―who can answer them for you‖. She
found that some people can ―pick you up and offer suggestions about strategies to try
out,‖ adding that those who ―wallow with you, pull you down‖ (Response to
interview question).
Draco clearly brings a depth of life experience and diverse expertise into the
teaching profession as do many career-change entrants (Manuel & Brindley, 2006).
Additionally, beliefs based on her life experiences appear to guide her approach to
teaching and learning. For example, she was keen to ‖ run animations for physics so
I can actually give the kids a real world experience‖ (Response to interview
question). This was another common finding among interview participants (see, for
example, Boőtes and Centaurus) and other studies of career-change entrants (see, for
example, Freidus, 1994; Manuel & Brindley, 2006; Mayotte, 2003). Like Delphinus,
she experienced a realisation that there were limitations on what she could control
and how well. Additionally, she had found meaningful and authentic ways to
incorporate her knowledge and expertise gained in her previous career in her
teaching practices. These ways demonstrated the value career-change entrants‘ bring
to the profession and that there is a point in the transition into the teaching profession
where past experience is reconfigured from being the weight of the past to become
the pull of the future (Inaytullah, 2006).
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6.2.4 Experienced Novices’ coding paradigms
This core theme of the Experienced Novices‟ perceptions about transitioning into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms was the growing understanding their
developing capabilities and the nature of potential personal contributions to the
school community. This theme was noted in coding paradigm as capabilities and
contributions (see Figure 6.4 or Appendix 3). The former careers of these
Experienced Novices permeated the interviews far less, and in different ways, than
the Novices (Mayotte, 2003; Tigchelaar et al, 2008). For example, Circinus linked
his progress to having drawn on the expertise gained in his former career. Delphinus
used her previous career skills to integrate ICT in her way of teaching once she
realised that this was a key way in which she could make a contribution to the school
community. Additionally, she linked her desire to do a good job to the fact that she
had children and therefore projected maternal responsibilities to students in her care.
Further to this, Draco saw that she could help students to envisage broader career
possibilities by sharing general skills and life experiences that she believed most
teachers did not have.
The conceptual framework of the study described in this thesis offers insight
into the transition processes occurring at this stage of a teaching career. The
Experienced Novices transition time, in this study, was typically and critically
marked by a growth in knowledge and understanding which formed the basis of
future learning patterns (Vonk, 1995; Watske, 2002). They rescinded past identities
and control to enable a new state of mind as they gained confidence as a teacher (see,
for example, Bridges, 1991; Senge et al., 2005). The s – proposition inferred from
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this discussion is that prolonged valuing prior experiences over the development of a
new professional identity slowed the transition process and general career
development.
Figure 6.4 Coding paradigm for Experienced Novices
Strategies to enable the development of a clearer picture of capabilities as a
teacher and personal contributions to the school community were: (a) taking on only
what is needed to do their own job; (b) asking questions of colleagues until answers
are sourced; (c) resisting ―chalk and talk‖, textbook teaching or the dominant method
in the school if it was contrary to beliefs; and, (d) keeping in mind a vision of ideal
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teaching and learning. The outcomes of using these strategies were: (a) a sense of
making progress to being an effective teacher, (b) developing a sense of identity as a
teacher as well as what they are doing and why; (c) experimentation with ICT-
related pedagogy; and, (d) a clearer sense of what expertise needs to be developed.
Other factors that influence the development of a clearer picture of
capabilities as a teacher and realising potential personal contributions to the school
community were the general conditions of: (a) school culture, (b) a perception of
lack of resources; and, (c) perceptions about colleagues‘ lack of knowledge about
pedagogy related to effective ICT use. These conditions influenced the strategies
used by the Experienced Novices during this period of perceived high stress and
personal challenge. In addition, specific conditions for the development of a clearer
picture of capabilities as a teacher and realising potential personal contributions to
the school community appeared to be: (a) experience as a teacher in particular
locations and teaching contexts and with particular personal challenges; and (b) a
desire to connect students to world beyond the classroom.
The reasons for career-change entrants‘ growing understanding of
capabilities as well as the realisation of potential personal contributions to the school
community: (a) going with the flow, (b) keeping up, fitting in and finding strengths;
and (c) acquiring better ICT resources.
6.2.4.1 Going with the flow
Circinus, Delphinus and Draco‟s development of a clearer picture of their own
capabilities as as teachers and realisations of their potential personal contributions to
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school communities resulted from: (a) developing a level of comfort with the school
routine, culture and the workload; and, (b) working out ways of working that are
consistent with beliefs about student learning (see Figure 6.4). To Circinus,
becoming comfortable with lesson planning was a prerequisite to being able to
integrate a broader range of strategies. For Delphinus, using her own strengths
rather than teaching the same way as other teachers was central to becoming more
comfortable in the school environment. Adopting a set of behaviours to ensure
social and cultural acceptance and recognition in this way increases perceptions of
confidence, understanding and professional identity (Pietsch & Williamson, 2005;
Mayotte, 2003; Sachs, 2001). What was peculiar to career-change entrants in this
study was the benefit of generic expertise gained in a former career (Mayotte, 2003).
To Draco, overcoming the tendency to try to control every teaching and
administrative moment made her feel more comfortable and flexible in her work
practices. It was evident that experience was being melded with adaptation to the
school context and guiding behaviour and identity development (Berliner, 1988) as
strategic decisions were made about ways of teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
The Experienced Novices identified the practices they wanted to change but,
in dealing with the stresses of the first year, each admitted to relying on memories of
teaching how they were taught or as happened in other classrooms in the school. A
key challenge for the career-change beginning teachers in this study was to avoid
reverting to long-held personal beliefs and memories of teaching and learning when
dealing with the realities of classroom life and other professional challenges
(Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). Professional identity is based on core
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beliefs about teaching and being a teacher formed and reformed with practical
experience and intellectual engagement (see, for example, Walkington, 2005). The
s-proposition derived from this analysis was that adaptation to the school
environment contextualises past experience and forms the basis of initial decision
making about effective practices.
6.2.4.2 Keeping up, fitting in and finding strengths
The significance of survival as a teacher during the first years in a school (Berliner,
1988) was a phenomenon discussed by all Experienced Novices and, as such, was
noted as a key focus of this group. Circinus, Delphinus and Draco developed a
clearer picture of their capability as a teacher and potential contributions to the
school community through: (a) focusing on getting through the first year; (b)
keeping up with lesson planning; (c) finding out what is not known; (d) focussing on
their own work; (e) fitting in at the school; and, (e) working out their strengths (see
Figure 6.4). To Circinus, getting through the first year was his priority and getting
past preparing lessons the night before a class and as a result teaching in didactic
ways. For Delphinus, worrying about doing a good job and the feeling of being
overwhelmed abated through adopting advice from a colleague to ―take on board
what people tell you but think about your strengths‖ (Response to interview
question). For Draco, finding people that ―pick her up‖ has helped her formulate
solutions to challenges and kept her going through the ―toughest six months of her
life‖ (Response to interview question). Career-change entrants often feel
overwhelmed, isolated and inadequate as they respond to the same demands as more
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experienced teachers (see, for example, Churchill & Walkington, 2002; Lazovsky &
Reichenberg, 2006). Varying degrees of stress, self-doubt and disillusionment are
common concerns among career-change entrants during the transition into teaching
(Flores & Day, 2006; Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004). Additionally, of concern is the
anxiety and frustration at being a novice again when they had previously been
considered a capable professional (Madfes, 1989).
The transition from a career in another field to becoming an experienced
teacher with positive beliefs and high capability levels clearly was a difficult
process. The Experienced Novices in this study were undoubtedly anxious to be
accepted as a teacher and relieved that they were starting to be able to articulate what
they needed to know and be able to do on a professional basis. The rush for self
recognition and professional identity became a reason to further explore the career
development of career-change entrants by interviewing Early Career Professionals.
Focussing on the value of past career experiences is evidence of difficulties in letting
go of former professional identities. The s-proposition deduced from this discussion
was that the career-change entrants had a need for self-recognition that was related to
re-establishing a credible professional identity.
6.2.4.3 Acquiring resources
Experienced Novices‟ confidence in their capability as a teacher and potential
contributions to the school community was linked to them acquiring the resources
they believe are essential to their work (Anthony & Ord, 2008). Advocating for
purchases of ICT equipment along with its physical placement and use was a
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recurring theme amongst the Experienced Novices. Unlike the Novices, these new
teachers were able to more clearly articulate how and why they would use these
resources to enhance learning. For example, Circinus believed that students are
more engaged in learning with the use of ICT because they were used to seeing ―so
many forms of visual input‖ (Response to interview question). Similarly, Delphinus
believed that students were more ―comfortable in a digital world than most teachers‖
and that, through the integration of her ICT expertise in her work, she was able to
―better cater for students with a range of learning styles‖ (Response to interview
question). Draco viewed ICT as ideally being a seamless part of learning that is
part of a generational change in how learning occurs. Additionally, she recognised
that teachers had a tendency to assume that students learn in the same manner as they
do. The career-change entrants considered that having access to resources was
essential to connect students to the world beyond the classroom.
As noted previously, the career-change entrants in this study were critical of
school resourcing and are often keen to replicate previous work conditions. What
distinguished the Early Career Professionals from the Novices was the awareness of
procurement procedures in schools and a better understanding of what knowledge
and expertise was relevant from their former career. The s-proposition formed from
this discussion was that career-change entrants gradually contextualise their
expertise as a result of experience and adaptation to the school environment.
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6.2.5 Early Career Professionals’ descriptive stories
Lacerta
Lacerta was between 30 and 39 years of age, and, at the time of contact (September,
2008) was in his third year of teaching Year 4 at a metropolitan primary state school
in Queensland. He completed a four-year teaching degree in 2005, prior to which he
had been working as an office administrator and personal assistant to a company
director. In this role, he used databases and ensured that financial records were
accurate and up to date. Lacerta was classified as an ICT User on the basis that he
mainly used software applications for the work in his former career. His decision to
become a teacher was influenced by his family who were also teachers, this being
noted in the literature as a socialisation factor (Watt & Richardson, 2008).
Additionally, he believed that a teaching career would lead to a reduction in working
hours to enable him to spend more time with his wife and three children. This
priority was also identified by 7.8% (n=5, N=64) of survey participants (see Table
5.13). Like Circinus, as Homecomers, teaching was a career Lacerta always thought
he would eventually pursue (Crow et al., 1990).
As a Early Career Professional with between one and four years teaching
experience in schools, Lacerta listed ―advancing his own teaching practice‖ as a
priority and, as such, he considered himself ready to take on more responsibility.
Additionally, he appreciated the value of knowledge and expertise associated with
his former career to a similar extent as Draco. Further, he worked with colleagues to
enhance learning through the use of ICT to advance his reputation within the school
with a view to gaining a promotion. As noted in the literature (see, for example,
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Anthony & Ord, 2008), the frustration associated with experience based career
progression was a concern to some career-change entrants in this study. For
example, Draco reported that ―the biggest thing I keep coming against in my career
with teaching is the you are only indexed on simply how many years you have been
on the payroll ... and that is an incredibly frustrating situation‖ (Response to
interview question).
Lacerta admitted that in the past he, like Boőtes, focussed on ICT ―skills,
skills, skills.‖ He believed that the teachers generally did not understand what it
meant to enhance learning with ICT, and, nor did he when he was at university. Yet,
when on practicum, he was considered to be the expert in the use of ICT. His
supervising teachers did not use ICT in the classroom and he believed that the lack
of ICT use by teachers was ―a large part of the issue.‖ He was very critical of what
he did during practicum, despite supervising teachers wanting to learn the skills that
he taught students. Critically, he believed that the learning activities he planned did
not enhance learning. As an example, he wrote a language program, which he
believed, merely provided an environment for him to teach students ICT skills.
Lacerta believed that having ICT expertise was significant in obtaining his
current role as a teacher (Mayotte, 2003; Williams & Forgasz, 2009) but that
becoming a teacher was a ―scary experience‖ despite having taught in other contexts
(Madfes, 1989). In hindsight, he realised that he knew nothing about ―enhancing
student learning through the use of ICT,‖ nor in his opinion, did any other teachers at
the school. He was considered highly skilled in relation to teaching and learning
with ICT because he ―could turn on the computer faster than they could‖ (Response
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to interview question). His thinking changed through taking part in Education
Queensland, Smart Classrooms Digital Pedagogy Licence (Queensland Government,
2009c). Through this program, he found that there was ―a much better way to be
working with ICT‖ and believed that ―getting it‖ (Response to interview question)
was about more practice and confidence than any other factor. Lacerta‟s experience
draws attention to the relationship between pedagogy and the use of ICT in that
pedagogical beliefs and strategies determine the nature of outcomes for students
(Ertmer, 2005). Lacerta‟s experience also highlights the notion that having ICT
expertise is no guarantee of effective pedagogical practices (see, for example,
Kennewell, et al., 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). During his first experiences as a
teacher Lacerta was able to enable faster access to information, efficient processing
or clearer presentation but, as the literature (see, for example, McNair & Galanouli,
2006) suggests, and Lacerta agreed, this does not enhance learning.
Lacerta has found teachers were generally not using the ICT that students are
exposed to outside the classrooms. He believed that teachers, who were using ICT
for teaching and learning, thought they needed to show students how to use software
programs, by ―going A-Z through every [ICT] skill with a checklist and provide
verbatim directions‖ (Response to interview question). Lacerta became conscious
that this was not the case once he realised that ICT use was not a ―key learning area
that needed to be taught then reported on‖ (Response to interview question).
Previously, he had been teaching students how to use software applications, whereas
his use of ICT became secondary to a primary purpose of, for example,
understanding graphs. He believed that teachers were ―baffled about how much
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students already know about using ICT‖ (Response to interview question). He found
that while there was generally a student in a class who was keen to share their
knowledge with other students and teachers, convincing ―teachers to accept the fact
that the students know more than they do and it is alright for that to be the case‖
(Response to interview question) was a challenge. Lacerta believed that once
teachers understood that, the next challenge was to focus on how they were using
ICT to enhance learning.
Lacerta believed that it was very hard at university to see the difference
between viewing ICT as a set of skills and ICT as a tool to enhance learning.
Despite taking subjects at university that promoted the use of ICT, he admitted that
―he just did not get it.‖ He believed that if he had seen ICT used in curriculum
subjects ―then it may have twigged for him‖ (Response to interview question).
Further, he believed that if lecturers had made ―more explicit connections between
ICT and learning,‖ it would have ―made more sense to him‖ (Response to interview
question). Lacerta‟s views suggested that modelling of effective practices and
making connections to the curriculum needed to be visible in teacher education
courses to influence the practices and beliefs of career-change entrants (Bai &
Ertmer, 2008; Luke et al., 2000).
Strategies Lacerta used to advance his own teaching practice included: (a)
continuing to seek professional development opportunities; (b) joining professional
networks; and, (c) being open to sharing practices. Consequences associated with
these strategies appear to be: (a) enthusiasm for teaching; (b) capability
development; and (c) a need for career advancement (see Figure 6.5).
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Lacerta‟s perceptions and experiences highlighted an issue more specific to
career-change entrants. While the knowledge and expertise career-change entrants
was widely recognised in the literature as an asset to the teaching profession (see, for
example, Haggard, et al., 2006; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Tigchelaar
et al., 2008), it does not make the transition to teaching easier for those doing so
(Crow et al., 1990; Freidus, 1992, Mayotte, 2004; Powell, 1997). Further,
expectations about teaching and deeply held beliefs are problematic for the career-
change entrants as they transition into the teaching profession (see, for example,
Freidus, 1992, Mayotte 2004).
Orion
Orion was between 25 and 34 years of age, an age group comprising 29.6% (n=19,
N=64) of the total survey participants, and, at the time of contact (July, 2008), was in
his second year of teaching Information Processing and Technology and English at a
metropolitan state high school in Queensland. His pathway into teaching involved
several changes of undergraduate course and his motivation reflected the view of an
Unconverted teacher in that teaching was not his career of first choice (Watt &
Richardson, 2008). As for Lacerta, his motivation to become a teacher was
associated with the need for more time with his family, a reason put forward by 7.8%
(n=5, N=64) of the survey participants.
Orion worked briefly as a journalist in technology companies, producing web
sites and media releases about new products. Following these roles, he worked as a
systems engineer for a web hosting company, building their hosting environment and
development platform and providing help desk support. He was classified as an ICT
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Maintainer as he provided network administration services to clients in his former
role. His enthusiasm to use technology to ―get things done‖ and create a more
contemporary work environment led to him take leave because of a feeling of
―burning out‖ (Response to interview question). He took leave to work as Chief
Technology Officer and Managing Director of Australian operations of a plastics
card company.
Orion subsequently returned to teaching after ten months after reconsidering
his motivation to enter the teaching profession. Reconsideration of a career-change
is noted in the literature as a common occurrence with career-change entrants and
was associated with feelings of being ill-prepared (see, for example, Crow et al). He
now believed that, in addition to a lifestyle that was better suited to spending time
with his young family, teaching provided an opportunity to make a contribution to
society that was not possible for him to do from the private sector. His reasoning
appeared to relate to his perceptions of his expertise rather than a focus on the
learning journeys of students. Orion has made many career changes, such as
journalism and IT, and is an example of a serial-career-changer. Serial Career-
changers are described in the literature as one who has had ―several short, successful
and often well-paid careers‖ (Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003, p.100).
Whether his motivation to be a teacher was enough to sustain him as his teaching
career develops remains to be evidenced.
After returning to the school, he took a more strategic approach to both career
development and school renewal. As an Early Career Professional with between
one and four years teaching experience in schools, Orion named ―changing practices
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in schools‖ as a priority. Through changing how schools worked, he thought that he
would be advancing his own practice. To achieve this, he was focused on
developing relationships with colleagues and his own professional development.
The self-serving nature of Orion‟s ideas were associated with serial career-change,
he suggesting that he ―really didn‘t feel that (he) was giving back to society at all
making money in the private sector- that's why (he) wanted to come back‖
(Response to interview question).
Orion believed that his own teaching practice and confidence had advanced
during his time in schools. As Delphinus did in the first months of his new career,
Orion felt the need to blend-in to the existing school culture, a perception of other
career-change entrants (see, for example, Vonk, 1995). Additionally, he believed
that he had learnt to ―slow down and focus on the basics,‖ showing the students
―more of the base level stuff instead of assuming that they know more than they
already do.‖ He believed that ―students pick up ICT-related concepts‖ far quicker
than adults but they think ―there is lot of magic behind ICT‖ (Response to interview
question). As a result, he had success in exposing some of the ―magic‖ and
fostering questioning of aspects of ICT use taken for granted by students.
Additionally, he believed that:
...the reason some of the ‗digital natives‘ feel comfortable around
technology is that the technology does not own them, it‘s one tool
they can use to get things done and they just work out how they can
go about using it.
(Response to interview question)
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Orion‟s reflection highlighted that career-change entrants with specialist subject
knowledge had a tendency to focus on the content rather than the students, a issue
noted in the literature (see, for example, Powell, 1997).
During his time at the school, Orion has seen and experienced a change in the
way of working generally and teaching in particular. When he commenced at the
school in 2005, he thought he had entered a sector that was ―living back in the
1990s‖ and was shocked at ―how little people used technology‖ and he attributed this
to the fact that most of the teachers he had met ―left school, went to university and
into teaching‖ (Response to interview question). He related that at times he
thought he did not fit in with the other teachers at the school as there was little
interest in renewing practices to reflect the workplace outside of schools. Despite
this view, he did not agree with those people who said that ―teaching is not the real
world‖ as from what he has seen and experienced, ―it is more real-world than people
realise‖ (Response to interview question). He was keen to broaden his focus from
students to supporting teachers to change their attitude to the way they use
technology.
Orion‟s experience highlighted the concern about career-change entrants‘
risk of early-career burnout, previously highlighted in the case of Delphinus
(Goddard & O‘Brien, 2004). Further, like Lacerta, Orion‟s enthusiasm to create a
contemporary workplace enabled by ICT also highlighted the concern that a focus
only on automation of teachers‘ administrative practices results in the continuation
of traditional methods of learning albeit faster, more reliable and with increased
interactivity (McNair and Galanouli, 2006). Orion‟s perceptions about the ICT skills
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of his colleagues could be related to frustrations that career-change entrants
commonly experience in adjusting to their new work environment. Schools were
generally more rigid and controlling compared to the environments that career-
change entrants had left (Manuel & Brindley, 2005). School culture may be such
that negativity and cynicism prevails and career-change entrants may not have
expected to find teaching a competitive and high pressure profession (Priyadharshini
& Robinson-Pant, 2003).
Orion believed that it was important for career-change entrants coming into
the profession with substantial background knowledge and experience, as he did in
the IT area, to ―choose their battles‖ in trying to prove what they can do.
Additionally, like Delphinus, he thought that there was no need to ―try to prove that
you can do it all‖ (Response to interview question). Career-change entrants often
want to be competent in the new career as soon as possible (see, for example,
Haggard, et al., 2006; Powell, 1997). Orion had discerned that a small percentage of
staff thought that he was ―showing them up‖ as he could not possibly ―know
anything because he was a fresh teacher‖ (Response to interview question). In
addition, he was overlooked for promotion because of his minimal teaching
experience, a situation he found frustrating given the breadth of his experience. He
wanted to achieve advancement, as a Head of Department ICT and continue to
change the school environment to one that has a holistic approach to the use of ICT.
This perception highlights that the frustration associated with being considered a
novice (see, for example, Crow et al., 1990; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant 2003)
was a challenge for career-change entrants.
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Strategies Orion used to influence school practices appeared to be: (a)
maintain a belief that learning can be enhanced through the use of ICT; (b)
proactively identify opportunities to improve practices; and (c) adjusting teaching
style to suit the culture of the school. Like Lacerta, consequences associated with
these strategies appear to be: (a) engagement as a teacher; (b) capability
development; and (c) a need for career advancement within the teaching profession.
Orion‘s account highlights a similar challenge noted by Delphinus in relation
to adapting to school culture. While adapting to a school culture is less of a
challenge for career-change entrants (see, for example, Haggard et al., 2006;
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003), high expectations such as those previously
espoused by Orion makes the transition difficult (Crow et al., 1990).
Tucana
Tucana was between 45 and 54 years of age, an age group comprising of 3.1% (n=2,
N=64) of survey participants. and, at the time of contact (September, 2008), was in
her fourth year of teaching Year 8, 11 and 12 Maths and Science at a regional high
school. She had worked as a clerk early in her career and, after the birth of her
daughter in 1988, she used her Bachelor of Music qualification to start a private
music teaching business. In this, she taught them on an individual basis and used
theory-based software and games to help students learn. She was classified as an
ICT User as she primarily used software applications to undertake her work in her
previous career.
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Tucana was approached to take on a teacher aide role at the local school.
During this time, she completed Certificates III and IV in Education then
commenced a Bachelor of Education (Further Education and Training) in part-time
mode between 2000 and 2004. She had wanted to become a teacher on leaving
school but her family could not afford to send her to University. Being able to
commence a career in teaching later in life was akin to a homecoming (Crow et al.,
1990).
Tucana‟s experience highlighted the advantages of an apprenticeship model
of teacher preparation. While she was studying to become a teacher, Tucana worked
full-time as a teacher aide. She believed that working as a teacher aide was a
valuable preparation for teaching as she ―worked in classes most of the time helping
students, getting hands-on experience‖ (Response to interview question). As a
preservice teacher, Tucana experienced many different classes, teaching styles and
behaviour management strategies and, because of this, she felt she ―learnt more
about teaching at school rather than university‖ (Response to interview question).
Working in schools made me ―sceptical of the theoretical aspects of the course, as at
school, I was seeing what actually happened in a classroom and able to relate theory
to practice‖ (Response to interview question). Tucana believed that there were many
advantages of an apprenticeship model of teacher preparation to overcome the fact
that the ―basic practical things that are done every day can only be learnt while at the
school‖ (Response to interview question).
Tucana prioritised ―enhancing her own practice and that of other teachers‖.
To achieve this she was focused on sharing her own practices with colleagues and
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working collaboratively to explore new practices as did Lacerta and Orion. In
making the transition from teacher-aide to teacher, Tucana became aware of the
―lengths that teachers can go to do just about anything in the job,‖ and conversely,
―the lack of effort some teachers make.‖ She found that ―some teachers do not use
ICT in their work as it has no personal relevance to them,‖ and they consider it to be
―something else they have to learn.‖ Additionally, she believed that those who saw
ICT as a tool to enhance learning ―get really excited and as [she was] ... just blown
away‖ every time she saw the potential. She believed that ―once teachers saw an
example of how learning could be extended using ICT, they would be keen to know
more‖ (Response to interview question). Tucana, like Orion believed that students
could assist teachers in learning how to use software as they ―can work it out quicker
than we can‖ and give teachers time to concentrate on enhancing learning.
Tucana considered professional development to be important in advancing
her own practice. She supported staff to use ICT in teaching and learning at her
school. Rather than being ―a sole voice for change in the school,‖ she had three or
four teachers around her who were also ―keen on ICT.‖ She related that ―it is a
shared load and all make sure they take turns at putting on voluntary afternoon
professional development sessions that are also attended by students and parents‖
(Response to interview question). Despite the professional development sessions,
she felt that there were ―colleagues who are not getting it all‖ and following
discussions with the administration team, the consensus was to ―help those who want
to be helped and the others will get dragged along in some ways‖ (Response to
interview question). In addition to this school-based role, Tucana was a state-wide
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online facilitator for the Education Queensland Smart Classrooms Digital Pedagogy
Licence.
Strategies Tucana used to enhance her own practice appear to be: (a)
continuing to seek professional development opportunities; (b) taking on peer
leadership responsibilities; and, (c) being open to learning new teaching practices.
Consequences associated with these strategies, for Tucana, appear to be (a)
advancing practices; and (b) further leadership opportunities.
Tucana‟s perceptions and experiences represented the point of data saturation
in this study. In her fourth year of teaching, she was clearly beyond being concerned
about survival in the classroom unlike for example Circinus, Delphinus, and Draco.
She found ways to advance her own career through supporting other teachers using
the expertise that she not only brought to the profession but has continued to develop
as she gained teaching experience. Whether her pathway into teaching via an
apprenticeship model facilitated her transition is difficult to determine. It could be,
however, an option that better supports some career-change entrants to transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms.
6.2.6 Early Career Professionals’ coding paradigm
Advancing practice and career was the core theme of the perceptions of the Early
Career Professionals about transitioning into technology-rich classrooms (see Figure
6.5 and Appendix 4). The perceived value of professional learning networks was
noted by each of Orion, Lacerta, and Tucana as a strategy for advancing teaching
practices (Mayotte, 2003). For example, Lacerta was part of state-wide networks
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that enhance teaching practice through the use of ICT and had been recognised for
their work in this area. Orion enjoyed the ICT professional community beyond his
own school. Tucana enjoyed the excitement of those who see ICT as enhancing
learning. It was evident that active involvement in learning communities supported
these career-change entrants to continually improve, build knowledge and
pedagogical expertise and create their future as a teacher (Senge, 2006; Wenger,
2008).
Strategies that enabled the development of the career-change entrants‘
practice and their career as a teacher were: (a) being open to learning new strategies;
(b) working with colleagues; (c) continuing to take up professional development
opportunities; (d) applying work ethic from previous career; (e) maintaining beliefs
that there was a better way of working; (f) committing to creating a better learning
environment for students; (g) participating in professional learning networks; and.
(h) being open to sharing practices. The outcomes from using these strategies tended
to be: (a) commitment to the profession; (b) capability development; (c) seeking
advancement on merit; and (d) leadership of reform in schools.
Specific conditions that were associated with this occurring related to: (a)
work ethic; (b) breadth of perspective; (c) openness to change; and, (d) working
through localized challenges. In addition, the more general conditions that influence
this enthusiasm are: (a) school culture; (b) limited resources compared to past
career; and (c) ongoing motivation related to student learning needs. These
conditions appeared to influence the strategies used by the Early Career
Professionals as the key priority was to develop a career as a teacher. The emergent
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s-proposition was that involvement in professional communities are a means of self-
generative professional development for career-change entrants. In the section ahead
the reasons for the core theme of advancing practice through professional
development opportunities and networks were explored: (a) meaningful personal
learning; (b) enhancing student learning, and, (c) learning through coaching.
Figure 6.5 Coding paradigm for Early Career Professionals
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6.2.6.1 Enhancing student learning
Advancing practice through professional development opportunities and networks
among Early Career Professionals occurred through understanding: (a) what was
useful from a former career for teaching in technology-rich classrooms; and (b) what
was valued by students and teachers. Establishing a professional identity as a
competent, experienced teacher as rapidly as possible was important to Lacerta,
Orion, and Tucana. Each spoke of how they began sharing their expertise with
colleagues once the pressures of beginning a career in teaching were perceived to
have passed. For example, Tucana organised a professional community within the
school to share practices in relation to enhancing learning with ICT. Orion
supported staff to use ICT to purposefully enhance learning, having abandoned the
tool based workshop approach he had initially adopted. Lacerta initially taught his
colleagues how to use ICT tools and has now changed his focus to supporting staff to
enhance practices using ICT. Interestingly, the Early Career Professionals all
viewed this type of work as an integral part of being a teaching professional.
The notion of teachers leading development and change is associated with
higher levels of teacher morale and sense of confidence to teach (Harris & Muijs,
2003). Those who were able to draw effectively on their previous work experience
were more likely to act as effective agents of change in schools (Anthony & Ord,
2008). The s-proposition formulated from this evidence is that leadership
capabilities were generally evident amongst career-change entrants and their
potential should be nurtured and recognised in school communities.
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6.2.6.2 Meaningful professional learning
Advancing practice through professional development opportunities and networks
occurred through: (a) school-based learning; and, (b) individual readiness to take on
more responsibility either on request, through positional recognition or through peer
recognition (see Figure 6.5). The Early Career Professionals in this study had
varied paths into the profession. School based learning was a significant part of
Tucana‟s teacher education. She believed that this was better preparation than
formal training for the behaviour management, administrative and communication
challenges that beginning teachers‘ face. Lacerta‟s early experiences during
practicum made him feel like the expert when it came to using ICT but he now
realised that he had no real idea how to enhance learning. This realisation came
about through later school based learning as part of a professional development
program with ongoing support. For Orion, the learning gained through a ―burnout‖
changed his views of on how best to modernise teaching practices.
Collaborative planning, designing, researching, evaluating, and preparing
teaching materials were considered as the most effective means of advancing
teaching practices (Little, 1993). Such problem solving and reflection on learning
was considered as learning when outlook, attitude and skills were modified (Dewey,
1938/1973; Kolb, 1984). The Early Career Professionals in this study all spoke of
such modifications and how this has led to more collegial leadership practices. The
s-proposition established from this thinking was that developing and advancing the
practices of career-change entrants are best supported through collaborative planning
with peers and experienced teachers.
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6.2.6.3 Collegial learning
Helping colleagues to use ICT to enhance learning was a means of advancing career-
change entrants‘ own practices. Each of the Early Career Professionals shared
experiences that signalled a change in thinking about the application of their former
career skills to the teaching and learning context. For example, Lacerta used a
skills-based approach to learning with ICT throughout his Novice career stage period
until a professional development experience showed him that this approach was not
enhancing learning. Orion, on commencing teaching was determined to modernise
teaching at his school and, in attempting to do so, had alienated himself from
colleagues through over-emphasising the application of ICT to school systems. He
has since slowed down and is focussing on relationship building with a view towards
a promotional position. For Tucana, working with a colleague opened her mind to
how ICT could extend and enhance learning beyond integrating tools and resources.
A mind shift or change in perception was considered to be an integral part of
the transformation of will generated through a deliberate or serendipitous experience
(Senge et al., 2005). The mind shifts signalled that more generative forms of
learning were possible through an increasing focus on the future rather than the past
and present (Senge, 2006). The s-proposition emerging from this discussion was that
a shift in thinking about the application of knowledge and skills from a former career
takes time and involves a range of collegial professional learning experiences.
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6.3 General orientation, key foci and s-propositions
Stages 5-7 of the grounded theory analysis process (Strauss & Corbin, 1998)
involved distilling the coding paradigms of each career stage to establish the general
orientation of the groups. Additionally, the stage involved identifying a key priority
and developing notions (s-propositions) that encapsulated the perceptions of the
Novice, Experienced Novices and Early Career Professionals as they transitioned
into teaching in technology-rich classrooms. The s-propositions were listed in the
previous sections as a conclusion to each section. Figure 6.6 summarises the Stages
5-7 process and the theory elements that emerged in the data.
Stage 6
General orientation
Stage 7
Key focus
Stage 8
s-propositions
Early career
professionals
Future prospects,
career directions and
collegial learning
opportunities
Creating a career as a
teacher
Advancing practice &
career
Enhancing student
learning
Meaningful
professional learning;
Collegial learning
Experienced
novices
Present stressors of
beginning teaching
Surviving as a teacher Capabilities &
contribution
Going with the flow
Keeping up, fitting in
and finding strengths
Acquiring better
resources
Novice
Past capabilities,
career achievements
and likely transferable
attributes
Connections and
comparisons to
former career
Enthusiasm; Skill
differential;
Connection to former
career
Expectations about
school resources
Figure 6.6 Stages 5-7 of interview data analysis
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Novice career-change entrants (Boőtes, Andromeda and Centaurus) had a
general orientation on past capabilities, past career achievements and potential
transferable attributes. The key focus on connections and comparisons with a former
career led to four s-propositions created in relation to: (a) Enthusiasm (b) Skill
differential; (c) Connection to former career; and (d) Expectations about school
resources.
In contrast, Experienced Novice career-change entrants‘ perceptions had a
general orientation toward the stresses associated with beginning teaching. The key
focus on surviving as a teacher led to four s-propositions being created in relation to:
(a) Capabilities and contributions (b) going with the flow; (c) keeping up, fitting in
and finding strengths; and (d) acquiring better resources.
Different again were Early Career Professionals‟ who had a general
orientation toward future prospects, career directions and collegial leadership
opportunities. The key focus on developing a career as a teacher led to four
propositions being created in relation to: (a) advancing practice and career; (b)
enhancing student learning (c) meaningful professional learning; and, (d) collegial
learning.
6.4 Chapter summary
The purpose of this chapter was to develop, from a synthesis of findings and
literature, a deeper understanding of the complexities of shifting the technology
context and transitioning into teaching in technology-rich classrooms as a career
change entrant. The perspectives shared by the career-change entrants became the
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basis for formulating a theory that portrayed the elements of the conceptual
framework that encompassed: (a) learning from the past and the present; (b) level of
impact on professional identity; and, (c) learning through creating a future.
As previously noted, the interviews were semi-structured using open-ended
questions on a range of topics (see Table 4.2) related to the conceptual framework
that progressed according to issues of concern for participants. The data were
analysed using Grounded Theory processes in general and more specifically the
System Design advocated by Strauss and Corbin (1998). The Grounded Theory
process scaffolded the formulation propositions named s-propositions that were
elaborations of the i-proposition generated earlier in the study from the literature
review and the conceptual framework.
The findings from the interviews were presented in this chapter, firstly, as an
eight stage analysis of the data that included coding, categorising, writing descriptive
stories, creating coding paradigms to illustrate the inter relationships and distilling
the essence of the concerns and issues for the participants. The findings associated
with each stage were summarised in a data analysis map (see Figures 6.2, 6.3 and
6.6). Stages 1 to 3 involved open coding of the raw interview data to categorise
events and experiences into 14 categories and four broad categories.
Stage 4 involved the development of descriptive stories. The descriptive
stories (Creswell, 2008, Strauss & Corbin, 1998) served to provide a personalised
view of the data and privilege the perceptions of the interview participants in their
own words. The descriptive stories were also used as a point of reference and source
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of validation during the grounded theory analysis. Novice Teachers Andromeda,
Boőtes, and Centaurus were three career-change entrants who participated in both
the survey and interviews. As pre-service teachers or teachers with up to six months
experience in schools, they held perspectives that were clearly linked to their former
career. Andromeda was very uncertain about what laid ahead, Boőtes was
enthusiastic about the expertise developed in his former career that he could use in
the classroom and Centaurus was rueful of the needless difficulty of transition.
The descriptive stories introduced the Experienced Novices: Circinus,
Delphinus, and Draco. These career-change entrants had teaching experience of
between six months and one year and clearly focussed on surviving the demands of
becoming established as a teacher. For Circinus, the experience was about ―filling in
the gaps in his knowledge about teaching,‖ whereas Delphinus was more concerned
about developing her own style of teaching. Draco was extremely optimistic about
her developing teaching expertise despite being challenged by becoming established
as a teacher.
Lastly, the Early Career Professionals, namely Orion, Lacerta, and Tucana
were introduced. As teachers in schools with between one and four years teaching
experience, they were more focused on developing their career as teachers in a range
of ways. Lacerta was focussed on sourcing leadership opportunities within his area
of expertise while Orion reconsidered his approach to working with colleagues and
was seeking promotional opportunities. Likewise, Tucana was using her expertise to
develop informal leadership opportunities within the school in which she works.
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Stage 5 resulted in the development of a coding paradigm for the Novice,
Experienced Novice and Early Career Professional career stages as part of the axial
coding process. The coding paradigms explored the relationships between categories
that were generated from the interview data and prompted the consideration of: (a)
strategies developed in response to the core theme; (b) contextual and intervening
conditions that influence the strategies; and, (c) consequences, of using the
strategies.
The core themes and causal conditions were then explored in relation to the
literature and prompted further analysis of the data as Stages 6 and 7, with the
naming of general orientations and key priorities for each career stage. Twelve s-
propositions were developed and provided in context with the analysis of each causal
factor. In summarising the s-propositions and graphically representing the career
stages and associated focus during the transition into the teaching profession, Figure
6.7 depicts the changing mindset of career-change entrants through the spacing of
diagram elements. This changing mindset was further elaborated in Chapter 7 as the
Professional Identity Transition Theory, a key outcome of this thesis.
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Figure 6.7 The s - Propositions
314
315
CHAPTER 7
THE PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY TRANSITON THEORY
This chapter brings together the elements of the study described in this thesis as the
Professional Identity Transition Theory, and additionally provides limitations of the
study, and recommendations for further study. The purpose of the theory was to
draw attention to the perceptions of the career-change entrants who participated in
the study as they shifted the technology context of their ICT expertise and
established themselves as teachers in schools.
The review of the literature and conceptual framework (see Figure 3.1)
established that in making a career change into teaching, career-change entrants
experience varying degrees of success and frustration (see, for example, Anthony &
Ord, 2009; Mayotte, 2003; Tigchelaar et al., 2008). This was explained through an
initial proposition (the i-proposition) which suggested that potential levels of impact
of shifting the technology context and transitioning into teaching in technology-rich
classrooms on career-change entrants with generic and specialist ICT expertise were:
a. ICT knowledge and expertise (see, for example, Anthony & Ord, 2009;
Powell, 1997);
b. Beliefs about the use of ICT for teaching and learning (see, for example,
Ertmer, 2005; Ertmer, Gopalakrishnan & Ross, 2001);
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c. Confidence to use ICT for teaching and learning (see, for example, Moyle,
2009; Haggard et al; 2006; Reimann & Goodyear, 2004);
d. Expectations about teaching in technology-rich classrooms (see, for example,
Haggard et al, 2006; Skilbeck & Connell, 2004); and
e. Motivation to become and be a teacher (Watt & Richardson, 2008; Williams
& Forgasz, 2009).
The i-proposition also suggested that in reconfiguring these elements, career-
change entrants reflected on concrete experiences and actively experimented with
their ICT expertise (see, for example, Tigchelaar et al., 2008), the essence of
Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984). In learning from the past and present
experiences adaptive forms of learning prevailed (Senge, 2006). As the transition
process progressed and career-change entrants learned through creating a future as a
teacher, it was contended in this thesis, that career-change entrants experienced the
transition processes explained in the Theory of the U Movement (Senge et al., 2005)
shaped by the weight of the past, the push of the present and the pull of the future
(Inaytullah, 2005).
The career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise who
participated in the first data collection (an electronic survey), confirmed that in
transitioning into teaching in technology-rich classrooms, they learned from the past
and the present, with differing levels of impact on their professional identity. What
the survey did not illuminate was how the focus moved from the past and present to
the future. Interviews with career-change entrants with up to five years experience
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as a teacher were sought to explore how this happened. The Professional Identity
Transition Theory expands on the i-proposition initially developed as part of the
theory building process (see Figure 7.1 or Appendix 5).
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Figure 7.1 The Professional Identity Transition Theory
319
7.1 Outline of the Professional Identity Transition Theory
The Professional Identity Transition Theory proposes that career-change entrants
progress through a series of transition phases that are characterised by a
magnification of challenges commonly associated with beginning a career in
teaching (Haggard et al, 2006) (see Figure 7.1). The basis of The Professional
Identity Transition Theory is that reconfiguring a career to become a teacher requires
a willingness to learn from the past, present and planning for the future. The past
can be a weight and an asset that makes the transition process more challenging for
career change entrants who value continuity.
The transition process impacts differentially on career-change entrants‘
knowledge and expertise, confidence to teach, expectations, beliefs and motivations
and has planned or unplanned consequences. Some career-change entrants who
participated in this study (see, for example Orion, Lacerta, Delphinus, Circinus and
Centaurus) experienced a transition shock, when changing from one profession to
another. A transition shock is a sense of loss and varying degrees of doubt, stress
and concern at being a novice again (see, for example, Goddard & O‘Brien 2004,
Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003). The transition shock impacts, to varying
degrees, on career-change entrants‘ evolving professional identity (Korthagen,
2004). A transition shock challenges motivation to be a teacher to varying degrees
depending on the continuity with the past (Tigchelaar et al, 2008) and the reasons for
becoming and being a teacher (Williams & Forgasz, 2009). A sense of urgency is
associated with the transition shock as the career-change entrants‘ work to re-
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establish their professional identity in a new context (Priyadharshini & Robinson-
Pant, 2003).
The transition process initially involves concrete experiences, active
experimentation and reflective observation (Kolb, 1984) that shape perceptions about
relationships, capabilities, expectations, attitudes and beliefs associated with
becoming a capable teacher. During the first years of teaching, when survival is the
main concern of career-change entrants, adaptive forms of learning augment the
experiential learning, particularly where the outcome of an experience is not
immediate. As the career-change entrants incrementally develop their teaching style,
more generative forms of learning mark potential shifts in perceptions about
becoming and being a teacher.
Shifts in perceptions about becoming and being a teacher mark a key point in
the transition process (see Figure 7.2) and signify a change in focus from the past
and the present (Kolb, 1984) to the present and the future (Senge et al., 2005). The
shift from a focus on the past and the present to the present and the future takes place
on a range of levels (Korthagen, 2004). The generic and specialist ICT expertise that
some career-change entrants bring to the profession is an asset if there is a
willingness to shift the focus from skills, associated with their past career to
enhancing students‘ learning.
Career-change entrants‘ concerns were generally reflective of their stage of
transition into the profession; that is, Novice career-change entrants, Experienced
Novice career-change entrants or Early Career Professionals. The career phases
were not definitive in relation to time. They were related to how capabilities,
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expectations, attitudes and beliefs and motivation were perceived in relation to the
past, present and future career directions. Novice career-change entrants generally
focussed on past capabilities, career achievements and likely transferable attributes.
Experienced Novices focus was more on stressors of beginning teaching. Early
Career Professionals were more focussed on future prospects, career directions and
collegial leadership opportunities (see Table 7.1).
Figure 7.2 Perception shifts
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In the Professional Identity Transition Theory diagram (see Figure 7.1)
builds on the conceptual framework diagram first presented in Chapter 3. The
conceptual framework diagram has been annotated to illustrate the findings of the
study described in this thesis. The annotations are in the form of arrows which
depict what occurred as career change entrants with generic or specialist ICT
expertise shifted the technology context and transitioned into teaching in technology-
rich classrooms.
Table 7.1
Transition phases
Transition phase Key foci
Novices
Maintaining psychological
connections with the former career
Experienced Novices Surviving as a teacher
Early Career Professionals Emerging as a teacher leader
In Figure 7.1, the arrow marked Figure 6.7 (The s-propositions) illustrates the
perceptions of the career-change entrants who participated in the study about the
transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms, synthesised as s-propositions.
The arrow marked Figure 7.12 (Perception shifts) depicts the perception shifts that
occurred at the Novice, Experienced Novice and Early Career Professional stages of
the transition process.
The Professional Identity Transition Theory has two fundamental
components that highlight the key findings of this research. Firstly, how past
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experiences and expertise influence the transition process (see Section 7.2) and
secondly, how shifts in perspective reconfigure the past into valuable attributes for a
future in the teaching profession (see Section 7.2).
7.1.1 The weight and the value of the past
The generic expertise and skills that career-change entrants bring to the profession
are potentially both a weight of the past and the basis for career development as a
teacher. The impact of transition into teaching in technology-rich classrooms varied
with each individual career-change entrant and their context. The impact ranged
from brief challenges to confidence as new expertise is developed to challenging an
individual‘s fundamental motivation to become a teacher. The transition was made
more complex by potential disparity between expectations about the knowledge and
expertise career-change entrants brought to the profession and the challenge of
contextualising such attributes in support of student learning. These ideas are
synthesised in relation to the three phases of transition into the teaching profession
that are Novice, Experienced Novice and Early Career Professional (see Table 7.1).
Novices generally had a degree of optimism and enthusiasm about what they
could teach based on their past experience and how they could broaden and deepen
the curriculum. They accepted that schools would not be as well resourced as their
previous jobs and adapted their practice to the conditions and ways of working in the
school. They believed that most teachers had minimal ICT expertise and
understanding of how it was used for learning purposes. They tended to use what
worked in the past for them in the absence of more appropriate models. Working out
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what they did not know was one of the key challenges but they were sure that their
past career capabilities would be valuable in connecting student learning to real
world experiences and applications.
Career-change entrants maintained psychological connections with the
former career as a coping mechanism to overcome feelings of inadequacy and to
self-justify their transition into teaching. It was more likely to be manifested among
Novice career-change entrants through a focus on resources, or what students or
staff should know from the career-change entrants own knowledge base. The value
placed on knowledge and expertise was often demonstrated through the links the
career-change entrants perceive between teaching and learning and their former
career. The psychological connections to a former career also were evident through
altruistic motivations to teach students what they themselves knew rather than
addressing particular learning needs. Among Novice career-change entrants, concern
existed about being able to use their knowledge and expertise gained through a
former career without a comparable level of resources.
Beliefs about how generic expertise could be applied to a teaching in
technology-rich classrooms were firmly grounded in past experience at the Novice
stage of the new career. The generic expertise that career-change entrants offered
schools was more useful than specialist expertise given the general lack of currency
and continuity between qualifications and work experience. Additionally, the former
careers were a source of initial teaching strategies, particularly in times of stress.
Expertise gained in previous occupations was gradually contextualised through a
combination of experience and adaptation to the school environment. This stage
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morphed into a time of stress and certainty about the learning required to reconfigure
their identity as a capable professional.
Experienced Novices‟ survival experiences associated with first year teaching
tended to be instinctive and introspective. The instinct was to keep going, keep up
with lesson planning, and find out what they did not know. They felt driven to
expedite becoming a competent teacher as a coping mechanism to justify the career-
change during a time of high stress as a beginning teacher. Prolonged valuing of
prior experiences over the development of a new professional identity slowed the
transition process and general career development. Indeed, focusing on the value of
past career experiences was evidence of difficulties in letting go of former
professional identities.
The focus during this stage was clearly on their own work and fitting in at the
school while working out their own strengths. During this time they were involved
in a process of adaptation to the school environment and, as they did, they
constructed ways of working that suited them and their ideas about student learning.
Such adaptation to the new work environment contextualised experience and formed
the basis of initial decision making about effective practices. While there was a
perceived need self-recognition, they gained a clearer perception of their capability
as a teacher and what they offered a school community. The Experienced Novices
needed more resources to enable learning as they envisioned it connected to the
world beyond their classroom. This stage morphed into a time of more outward
looking practice.
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Having met the challenge of first year teaching by seeing what worked and
what was useful from their former career, the Early Career Professionals sought
opportunities to demonstrate their leadership capabilities in a range of modes and
contexts. They did this through sharing expertise used in their former career with
other teachers either in formal roles or through collegial professional learning.
Career development was sought through support for other teachers, positional
recognition or participation in professional networks. They realised that they did not
need to be a perfect teacher and realised that what they knew and did was valued by
students and teachers as they become more effective teachers.
7.1.2 Perception shifts
A significant turning point was reached during the transition into teaching in
technology-rich classrooms following varying degrees of stress that signified a
change of perspective about the challenges associated with becoming a teacher.
Following a shift in perspective, confidence and effectiveness developed, enabling
the career-change entrants to proactively reconfigure their future. The Professional
Identity Transition Theory proposes that shifts in perceptions, which are changes in
the way of thinking about being a teacher, take place when a past identity is
reconfigured with a new identity as a teacher. It is a time of emerging clarity and
connection to broader contexts than the immediate challenges. As illustrated in
Figure 7.2, it is also a time of realisation about future directions and possibilities
within the new career in teaching. Shifts in thinking about the application of
327
knowledge and expertise from a former career take time and occur through collegial
professional learning experiences.
Shifting the technology context from one career circumstance to teaching in
technology-rich classrooms involves more than reconfiguring ICT expertise. Career-
change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise require an understanding of
how and when to use a range of practices with students who have diverse needs. In
developing an understanding of the complexity of classrooms and creating a learner
centred way of working, perceptions about learners and learning evolve and shift. In
doing so, perceptions about themselves as teachers, working with colleagues, and
schools evolve and shift as well. Common to these aspects are personal attributes
and professional capabilities and about which the career-change entrants have
perceptions.
Shift in perception involves a range of issues that are of particular concern to
career-change entrants. Four distinct shifts in relation to teaching in technology-rich
classrooms were detected in the study described in this thesis, which were: (a)
pedagogical shifts; (b) relational shifts; (c) confidence shifts; and (d) motivation
shifts. The shifts discussed in the next section were based on the analysis of the
experiences and perceptions of the career-change entrants who participated in the
study described in this thesis.
7.1.2 .1 Pedagogical shifts
Perceptions about effectiveness as a teacher shifted when pedagogies were
developed that were consistent with beliefs about teaching and learning. The shift
328
involved developing clarity of thought about the application of knowledge and skills
from a former career. It took time and involved experience, adaptation and
generative forms of learning. The shift was generally facilitated by a range of
collegial professional learning experiences. Developing and advancing the practices
of career-change entrants is supported through collaborative planning with peers and
experienced teachers.
7.1.2.2 Relational shifts
An additional shift in perceptions related to the development of working
relationships with colleagues. Well-developed interpersonal skills were generally
associated with career-change entrants‘, however, shifts in ways of working with
colleagues were clearly evident in the data. For example, a shift from wanting to
work in isolation from other teachers to a more collegial approach was evident in the
case of Centaurus. Orion shifted from imposing his perspectives and expertise on
staff to a more collegial way of working. It cannot be assumed that career-change
entrants will develop productive relationships with staff and parents. Collaborative
planning with peers and participation in professional communities were strategies
that supported the development of productive working relationships.
7.1.2.3 Confidence shifts
Developing confidence and competence as a teacher was an imperative to the career-
change entrants. As an example, Delphinus initially adopted the prevailing teaching
practices in her school and internalised the challenges she was having. In shifting
329
her focus to staying ―true to herself‖ and her beliefs about teaching and learning, she
developed her own style of teaching from the advice she had been given.
Participation in leadership development signalled a growing sense of confidence and
comfort for career-change entrants.
7.1.2.4 Motivation shifts
A desire to shape the world of young people was a commonly cited motivation to
teach by career-change entrants. A shift in this social utility based motivation to
become a teacher was evident from being based on what the career-change entrants
thought the students should know to a more student-focussed way of thinking. In
wanting to influence young people, career-change entrants generally considered their
knowledge to be information that students needed to know and replicate. As more
relevant use was made of knowledge and expertise from former careers, a more
student focussed reason for becoming a teacher was articulated by career-change
entrants. The career-change entrants‘ motivation shaped their investment in and
commitment to the teaching profession.
7.2 Limitations of the study
The purpose of this research was to develop an understanding of career-change
entrants‘ perceptions about becoming a teacher and being a teacher as they shifted
the context of their ICT expertise. Additionally, the goal was to formulate a theory
that portrayed the process of transitioning as a career-change entrant into teaching.
While not intending to offer definitive steps and processes, the study raised
awareness of how career-change entrants‘ professional identity was reconfigured as
330
they transition into the teaching profession. As a middle-range theory (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998), it does not have wide applicability as the theory specifically relates to
the data collected in this study from career-change entrants (Creswell, 2008). The
strength of the theory is that it provides an insight into the perceptions and prevailing
issues associated with career change into teaching in technology-rich classrooms of
nine (n=9) career-change entrants with generic and specialist ICT knowledge and
expertise. As such the theory was designed to reflect the lived experiences of those
who participated in the research. Future research is needed to further explore the
generalisabilty of the theory.
7.3 Recommendations for further study
The increasing ubiquity of ICT in the workplace suggests that a growing number of
career-change entrants will transition into teaching with generic ICT expertise. As
such, further investigation of career-change entrant‘s perception shifts is
recommended to advance understandings about how best to support career-change
entrants‘ to reconfigure ICT knowledge and expertise. Further studies into how
career-change entrants with generic or specialist ICT expertise transition into
teaching in technology-rich classrooms could include:
a. using a longitudinal approach to researching transition to follow each career-
change entrant through the transition into teaching;
b. triangulating the data with data from colleagues, supervisors and students to
substantiate the perceptions of the career-change entrants;
331
c. examining the career-change entrants‘ perceptions according to teaching
areas and focus, for example early childhood, middle years and senior years;
d. broadening the number of cases to include a larger sample to further develop
the theory;
e. investigating the links between professional development opportunities,
professional learning, shifts in perceptions, and changes in professional
practice.
f. investigating how teachers in schools perceive career-change entrants pre-
service education and effectiveness in schools;
g. investigating the career paths of career-change entrants as they become
proficient and expert teachers; and
h. investigating the application of expertise from former careers and time
associated with perception shifts amongst participants in fast-track teacher
preparation courses such as Teach for Australia.
7.4 Postscript
The study has shown that career-change entrants used their experiences and
perceptions to develop a way of working in a school community. Their way of
working initially had an adaptive orientation focussed on immediate needs.
Following a shift of thinking more generative ways of working focussed on the
future enabled the career-change entrants to enhance and develop their practice.
These transition phases had a varying intensity that impact on professional identity,
retention and development as a teacher. These phases were linked to a shift in
332
perceptions rather than time as a teacher. The career-change entrants who
participated in this study have helped me to better understand the actions and
responses of the career-change entrants that sparked my interest in this area.
My interest in career-change entrants transitioning into the teaching
profession began through meeting a group of Maths-Science specialists undertaking
a fourteen month fast-track Bachelor of Education (Secondary) course that was being
piloted by QUT in 2005. The program was a partnership between the then
Department of Education and the Arts (DEA) and Queensland University of
Technology (QUT) with assistance from the former Board of Teacher Registration
(now the Queensland College of Teachers). Through facilitating the progress of a
group, I became aware of the complex mix of pragmatism and passion that drove
career-change entrants to face the challenge of undertaking a career-change to
teaching in schools. The commitment that these teachers showed in making a career-
change, despite numerous challenges, warranted a much deeper understanding of
their transition than was possible at the time. Their experiences highlighted the
inflexibility of recruitment and career systems that were based on the assumption
that the career-change entrants had come from school through university and into
schools as a teacher.
I return to the quote that began this thesis, ―The future is ... one we are
creating. The paths are ... made, and the activity of making them, changes both the
maker and the destination‖ (Schaar, 1989, p. 321). The words describe how creating
a future as a teacher changes both career-change entrants and schools communities.
Career-change entrants have shown that they enrich school communities and, in
333
doing so, maybe they can enrich themselves. Through overcoming obstacles,
barriers and reconfiguring their past, career-change entrants are challenging
traditional career structures and processes in schools. The Professional Identity
Transition Theory, as a defining outcome of this study, encapsulates the path to
creating a future and the journey that changed the makers and the destination.
334
335
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357
Appendix 1
ONLINE SURVEY
Title
Transitions into teaching for career-change professionals
Description
The purpose of this survey is to develop an understanding of the challenges that
career change professionals‘ face in relation to teaching and learning with
information and communication technology (ICT) when they begin a teaching
career.
ICT is defined as technology used to communicate, collaborate, create, inquire,
present and produce text, audio, video, images and diagrams in a digital format.
The data will be used anonymously and the confidentiality of your responses will be
protected.
The survey will need to be completed in one session and will take approximately 15
minutes. It is the first in a series of two surveys. I will be contacting you towards the
end of your course with a follow up survey.
If you need further information or clarification about the questions, please contact
Debbie Kember at [email protected]
If you would like to report a technical problem with this survey, please contact Bruce
Young at [email protected]
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this survey
358
Part A: Background information
1. What is your email address?
This will enable me to invite you to participate in further aspects of the study on
career-change into teaching. [Text box 40 characters]
2. What is your age this year? [Radio option buttons - 24 or younger, 25-34, 35-
44; 45-54; 55 or older ]
3. What is your gender? [Radio option buttons- Male, Female]
4. What is the title of your highest previous qualification e.g. B.Ed; B.Ed(hons);
B.App.Sci; MBA; etc.) [Text box - 35 characters 1 line]
5. In what year did you obtain this qualification? [Text box - 4 characters]
6. In what discipline is your highest degree situated? [Drop down box -Built
Environment or Engineering, Business, Creative Industries, Education, Health,
Information Technology, Law, Humanities and Human Services, Science, Other
–please specify (text box)]
7. List the occupations or jobs you have held for longer than 6 months in the last
five years (since 2001). [Scrolling text box (after 5 lines) 70 characters 7 lines]
Part B: This section relates to the ICT related professional knowledge and practices
that you bring to the teaching profession from your previous occupation.
8. I used ICT in my previous occupation to;
[Option buttons for each sub-question- Frequently – every day , Sometimes –once
per week on average, Occasionally – once per month on average, Never, Not
relevant]
a) communicate with colleagues and business associates;
b) create and present seminars, lectures, information sessions;
c) edit photos or create diagrams;
d) research issues and work related questions;
e) work with colleagues in creating reports, documents or letters;
f) bank, book, (for example travel and accommodation)search for
information, sell goods;
g) take digital photos;
h) draft letters and maintain records;
i) help colleagues use ICT.
9. What other ICT resources and devices did you use in your previous occupation?
Provide details here of how you used them. [Scrolling text box (after 5 lines) 70
characters 10 lines ]
Part C: This section relates to the ICT related professional knowledge and practices
that you bring to the teaching profession from your previous studies.
359
10. I used ICT in my previous studies to;[Option buttons for each subquestion-
Frequently – every day, Sometimes –once per week on average, Occasionally –
once per month on average, Never, Not relevant]
a) communicate with other students;
b) create and present seminars, lectures, information sessions;
c) edit photos or create diagrams;
d) research issues;
e) work with other students in creating reports, documents or letters;
f) bank, book, (for example travel and accommodation)search for
information, sell goods;
g) take photos;
h) draft letters and maintain records;
i) help other students use ICT.
11. What other ICT resources and devices did you use in your previous occupation?
Provide details here of how you used them. [Scrolling text box (after 5 lines) 70
characters10 lines]
Part D: This section relates to how you might use ICT for teaching and learning.
12. I believe that: [Option buttons for each sub question- Daily, Frequently –once
per week on average, Occasionally – once per month on average, Never, Not
good practice]
a. I will build teaching and learning practices around my ICT skills.
b. I will create opportunities for students to use ICT to develop and apply
new knowledge rather than teach them just what I know about ICT.
c. I will need to model how to operate safely, ethically and legally when
using ICT.
d. I will need to critically review, select and adapt ICT resources to create
engaging learning experiences.
e. I will need to plan assessment tasks that incorporate the use of ICT.
f. I will need to continue my ICT related learning throughout my teaching
career.
13. Add further comments to clarify your responses. [Scrolling text box (after 5
lines), 70 characters, 10 lines ]
14. How would you rate your current level of confidence to; [Option buttons for
each sub question, Highly confident, Confident, Somewhat confident, Anxious,
Not at all confident]
a) plan units of work incorporating the use of ICT?
b) provide opportunities for students to use ICT as part of their learning?
c) use a range of ICT resources and devices for professional purposes?
d) use ICT to locate, create, and record information?
e) to store, organise and retrieve digital resources?
360
f) use ICT to access and manage information on student learning?
g) select ICT resources appropriate to student learning in a range of contexts
and for a diversity of learners?
h) operate safely, legally and ethically when using ICT professionally and
with students.
Part E: This section relates to your expectations about teaching and learning in
general.
15. Why do you want to be a teacher? [Scrolling text box (after 5 lines), 70
characters, 10 lines]
16. What do you think will be the most challenging issue you will face in relation to
teaching and learning? [Text box, 70 characters, 5 lines ]
17. What do you expect to learn during your university course in relation to ICT use?
[Scrolling text box (after 5 lines), 70 characters, 10 lines ]
18. How will the availability of ICT facilities influence your practice? [Text box, 70
characters, 5 lines ]
19. What aspects of your ICT use do you think will change in becoming a teacher?
[Text box, 70 characters, 5 lines ]
20. Add further comments to clarify your responses. [Text box, 70 characters, 5
lines]
Thank you for participating in the survey
361
Appendix 2
CODING PARADIGM FOR NOVICE TEACHERS
362
Appendix 3
CODING PARADIGM FOR EXPERIENCED NOVICES
363
Appendix 4
CODING PARADIGM FOR EARLY CAREER PROFESSIONALS
364
Appendix 5
THE PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY TRANSITION THEORY
