Shepherd. Families of the Criminally Insane....
Transcript of Shepherd. Families of the Criminally Insane....
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LIFEFORTHEFAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANCRIMINALLYINSANE*
JADESHEPHERD
UniversityofLincoln
Runninghead:FAMILIESOFTHEVICTORIANINSANE
Abstract.Thisarticleuseshundredsofletterswrittenbythefamiliesofpatients
committedintoVictorianBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumtoprovidethefirst
sustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylumcommittalonpatients’individual
familymembers.Itshowsthatdespitewhathistorianshavepreviouslysuggested
theeffectonfamilieswasnotsolely,orevennecessarilyprimarily,economic;ithad
significantemotionaleffects,andaffectedfamilymembers’senseofselfand
relationshipsoutsidetheasylum.Italsoshowsthatfamilytiesandaffective
relationshipsmatteredagreatdealtoworking-classVictorians.Somefoundnew
waystogivemeaningtotheirrelationshipwith,andthelifeof,theirincarcerated
relative,despitethecoststhisentailed.Bytakinganewapproach–engagingwith
thehistoryofthefamily,shiftingfocusfrompatientstotheirindividualfamily
members,andconsideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertime
andlifestage–thisarticledemonstratesthebreadthanddepthoftheeffectsof
asylumcommittal,andindoingsoprovidesnewandsignificantinsightsintothe
historyoftheVictorianasylum.Italsoenrichesthehistoryofthefamilyby
providinganinsightintoworking-classquotidianlives,bonds,andemotions.
SchoolofHistoryandHeritage,UniversityofLincoln,Lincoln,[email protected]*IwouldliketothankJoelMorleyforreadingmultipledraftsofthisarticle,thethreeanonymousreviewersfortheirverykindandgenerousfeedback,andEmmaGriffinforherswiftandhelpfulcommunicationfollowingtheacceptanceofthisarticle.
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I.
Intheearly1890sMrsCooper,seeminglyfraughtandworn-down,repliedtoa
letterfromherhusbandwhohadbeenincarceratedinBroadmoor,Englandand
Wales’firstcriminallunaticasylum,fortwenty-fiveyears:
IwassurprisedthatyouwillcontinuewritingasIwishyouwouldnotas
itupsetsmeverymuchandIhopeyouwon’tdosoanymore…Itrustyou
willneverwritetomeagainnoranyoneelseasitmakesmeillfromall
thesorrowIhavegonethrough.
AndaskGodtoforgiveyouasIhavehadastrugglingtimeofittheselast
25yearsithasbroughtmedowntoapooroldwomanandyourchildren
havequiteforgotyouandneverthinkanythingofyouandnoonenever
mentionsyourname.
Andasforthechildrentheyareallscatteredaboutthecountrytryingto
getanhonestlivingandhavenothingtoshareandIhavenothing.
Shedeclaredshewasleavingherhomeand‘therewillbenoonetotakeany
morelettersinsoitsnousewriting.’1Onlyfragmentsofthisletterremain;how
sheaddressedherhusbandorendedtheletterisunknown.Nevertheless,whatis
thereisvisceral,reflectingyearsofdistressandhardship.Otherdocumentsin
1BerkshireRecordOffice(BRO),D/H14/D2/2/1/373/6.AllreferencesbeginningD/H14arefromtheBRO;allaretolettersunlessstatedotherwise,withsender/recipientomittedifevidentinthetext.
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Cooper’scasefilesuggesthisfamilyseveredtieswithhim.Yearslater,when
Cooperwasgravelyill,Broadmoor’sstaffwroteanotetoinformhislovedones.
Theyfailedtolocatethemand‘nofriends’wasscribbledonthenote.Suchcases
highlightthelong-termpainandhardshipsomefamiliesexperienceddueto
havingabreadwinner,fatherandhusbandcommittedintoBroadmoor.Such
lettersallowhistorianstoviewasylumsfromthebottom-up,providingaglimpse
at‘thehumanandemotionalsideofpatientandfamilylives,anaspectthatis
oftenmissingfromofficialbureaucraticsources.’2Theserare,valuablesources
enablenewandsignificantinsightsintotheVictorianasylum.
The1845AsylumsActrequiredeachcountyinEnglandandWalesto
haveanasylumforitspauperinsane.Scholarsandhistoriansofpsychiatryhave
debatedtheroleandsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.Muchattentionhas
beenpaidtowhyasylumsemerged,whypatientswereadmittedandhowthey
weretreated,whypatientsweredischarged,andtheexperiencesofthosewho
workedandlivedinsidethem.3Overthelastthirtyyearshistorianshave
respondedtoRoyPorter’scalltowritemedicalhistory‘frombelow’,withafocus
onpatients.Doingsohashelpedtodevelopourunderstandingoftheroleand
2LouiseWannell,‘Patients’relativesandpsychiatricdoctors:letterwritingintheYorkRetreat,1875–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,20(2007),pp.297–313atp.299.3JonathanAndrewsandAnneDigby,eds.,Sexandseclusion,classandcustody:perspectivesongenderandclassinthehistoryofBritishandIrishpsychiatry(NewYork,2004);JosephMelling,BillForsytheandRichardAdair,‘Families,communitiesandthelegalregulationoflunacyinVictorianEngland:assessmentsofcrime,violenceandwelfareinadmissionstotheDevonAsylum,1845–1914’,inPeterBartlettandDavidWright,eds.,Outsidethewallsoftheasylum:thehistoryofcareinthecommunity1750–2000(LondonandNewBrunswick,1999),pp.153–80;AnneDigby,Madness,moralityandmedicine:astudyoftheYorkRetreat1796–1914(CambridgeandNewYork,1985);MichelFoucault,Historyofmadness,trans.byJohnMurphyandJeanKhalfa(LondonandNewYork,2006);LouiseHide,GenderandclassinEnglishasylums,1890–1914(Basingstoke,2014);AndrewScull,Themostsolitaryofafflictions:madnessandsocietyinBritain,1700–1900(NewHavenandLondon,1993);JosephMellingandBillForsythe,Thepoliticsofmadness:thestate,insanityandsocietyinEngland,1846–1914(LondonandNewYork,2006).
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reachoftheasylum.4Giventhatmanyfamilieswereinvolvedinthecommittalof
insanerelativesintoasylums,itstandstoreasonthatmostpatientshadatleast
onefamilymemberaffectedbytheircommittal.Thereareswathesofthe
population–thespouses,children,parentsandsiblingsoftheinsane,aswellas
theirfriendsandneighbours–whoseliveswereaffectedbytheexistenceof
theseinstitutions.Yetweknowlittleabouthowpatients’familiesinEnglandand
Waleswereaffectedby,respondedto,andovercamearelative’sasylum
committal.Workthusremainstobedoneifwearetounderstandthefullimpact
andreachoftheasylum.
Whileexcellentstudiesdoexist,whatweknowaboutpatients’families
representsthetipoftheiceberg.Weknowthatfamilieswrotetoasylumsto
requestinformationorexpressconcernabouttheirrelative’swellbeing,toask
aboutanasylum’sprocedures,ortoobtaintheirrelative’sdischarge.5Yet
historians’considerationsofthesepointsrarelyincludethebroadersocialand
familialcontextofsuchrequestsandconcerns.Historianshaveacknowledged
thatasylumrecordsareusefulforexploringfamilylife,buttheirfocustends
towardsthe(domestic)reasonsindividualsdevelopedinsanity;howfamilies
copedwithcaringforaninsanerelativeathome;families’rolesinadmissionand
discharge;andfamilies’relationshipswithasylumdoctors,andtheirrolein
4RoyPorter,‘Thepatient’sview:doingmedicalhistoryfrombelow’,TheoryandSociety,14(1985),pp.175–98;AllanBeveridge,'Lifeintheasylum:patients'lettersfromMorningside,1873-1908',HistoryofPsychiatry,9(1998),pp.431-69;AlexandraBacopoulos-ViauandAudeFauvel,‘Thepatient’sturn.RoyPorterandpsychiatry’stales,thirtyyearson’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.1–18;LeonardD.Smith“‘Yourverythankfulinmate”:discoveringthepatientsofanearlycountylunaticasylum’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,21(2008),pp.237–52.5CharlotteMackenzie,Psychiatryfortherich:ahistoryofTicehurstPrivateAsylum,1792–1917(LondonandNewYork,1992);AnnaShepherd,Institutionalizingtheinsaneinnineteenth-centuryEngland(Oxon,2014),pp.72-87.
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shapingmedicalcare.6Whentheimpactonfamiliesisexplicitlyconsideredthe
focustendstowardsthematerialeffectuponthehousehold.7Butfocusingon
economicsdoesnotgofarenough.ItpaintsVictorianfamiliesasprimarily
pragmaticunitsofdomesticeconomicsratherthantheliving,feelingpeoplethat
historiansofthefamilyhaveuncovered.8Moreover,approacheswhichconsider
thehouseholdratherthanitsconstituentsoverlookthefactthateffectswerenot
containedwithinsinglehouseholdsand,moreimportantly,thatdifferentfamily
memberswereaffecteddifferentlyandfounddifferentwaystoovercomethe
lossofarelativetotheasylum.Overlookingthesethingsunderplaysthe
significanceandimpactoftheVictorianasylum,andmisrepresentstheVictorian
working-classfamiliestryingtonavigatelifewithoutaspouse,parent,childor
sibling.9RecentworkonIrishasylumsundertakenbyCatherineCoxandAlice
Maugerprovidessomeevidenceofaffectivefamilialbonds,10andscholars
6CaraDobbing,‘Thefamilyandinsanity:theexperienceoftheGarlandsAsylum,1862-1910’inCarolBeardmore,CaraDobbingandStevenKing,eds.,FamilylifeinBritain1650-1910(2019,Cham,Switzerland),pp.135-54;MarkFinnane,‘Asylums,familiesandthestate’,HistoryWorkshopJournal,20(1985),pp.134–48;MarjorieLevine-Clark,‘Dysfunctionaldomesticity:femaleinsanityandfamilyrelationshipsamongtheWestRidingpoorinthemid-nineteenthcentury’,JournalofFamilyHistory,25(2000),pp.341–61;Smith,‘Thankful’;Wannell,‘Patients’;JohnWalton,‘CastingoutandbringingbackinVictorianEngland:pauperlunatics,1840-1870’,inWilliamF.Bynum,RoyPorterandMichaelShepherd,eds.,Theanatomyofmadness:essaysinthehistoryofpsychiatry(3vols.,London,1985-88),VII(1985),pp.132-46;DavidWright,‘Thedischargeofpauperlunaticsfromcountyasylumsinmid-VictorianEngland:thecaseofBuckinghamshire,1853-1872’,inJosephMellingandBillForsythe,eds.,Insanity,institutionsandsociety,1800-1914:asocialhistoryofmadnessincomparativeperspective(LondonandNewYork,1999),pp.93-113atp.94;Idem.‘Gettingoutoftheasylum:understandingtheconfinementoftheinsaneinthenineteenth-century’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,10(1997),pp.137-55.7CathySmith,‘Livingwithinsanity:narrativesofpoverty,pauperismandsicknessinasylumrecords1840-76’,inA.Gestrich,E.HurrenandS.King,eds.PovertyandsicknessinmodernEurope:narrativesofthesickpoor,1780-1938,(London,2012),pp.117-41.8EllenRoss,Loveandtoil:motherhoodinoutcastLondon1870-1918(Oxford,1993);Julie-MarieStrange,FatherhoodandtheBritishWorkingClass1865-1914(Cambridge,2015).9DobbingestablishedwhatproportionofthefirsthundredentriesinGarlands’visitorsbookfrom1900-1904werespouses,siblings,orparents,andsuggestedthisrevealedthesignificanceofsiblingbonds.However,asitisunclearwhetheradistinctionwasmadebetweenuniqueandrepeatvisitors,thestatisticalbasisofthisobservationmaybeunreliable.‘Family’,pp.143-4.10CatherineCox,NegotiatinginsanityinthesoutheastofIreland,1820-1900(Manchester,2012);AliceMauger,Thecostofinsanityinnineteenth-centuryIreland:public,voluntaryandprivateasylumcare(Basingstoke,2017).
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workingoncolonialasylumshaveilluminatedhowfamilieswereaffected
emotionally.11CatharineColebornehasusedfamilies’correspondencewith
asylumsinAustralasiatoexaminetherelationshipbetweenthecolonialfamily
andtheasylum,observingthatletters‘affordusaglimpseofemotional
responsestomanagingmentalbreakdown’andinsights‘intothelivesof
families’.12LikeColeborne,Iusefamilies’correspondencetomovebeyondthe
wallsoftheasylumandunitethehistoriesoftheasylumandthefamily.Idothis
withinthecontextoflate-VictorianEngland,andwithafocusontheday-to-day
livesandexperiencesofthefamiliesofapproximately525patientscommitted
intoBroadmoorbetween1863and1900.
Broadmooropenedin1863inBerkshire.IthousedQueen’spleasure
patients,whohadcommittedacrimeandwerefoundinsanewhentried,and
insaneconvicts,whohadbeenconvictedofacrimeandimprisonedbefore
developinginsanityinprison.13ItspatientscamefromalloverEnglandand
Wales,14andunlikemanypatientsincountyasylumsmostwerealongwayfrom
theirfamilies.15LikeotherVictorianasylumsBroadmoorwasnotan
11CatharineColeborne,‘Families,patientsandemotions:asylumsfortheinsaneincolonialAustraliaandNewZealand,c.1880–1910’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,19(2006),pp.425–42;Idem.Madnessinthefamily:insanityandinstitutionsintheAustralasiancolonialworld,1860-1914(Basingstoke,2010);Mary-EllenKelm,‘Women,familiesandtheProvincialHospitalfortheInsane,BritishColumbia,1905-1915’,JournalofFamilyHistory,19(1994),pp.177-93;BronwynLabrum,‘Lookingbeyondtheasylum:genderandtheprocessofcommittalinAuckland,1870–1910’,NewZealandJournalofHistory,26(1992),pp.125–44.12Coleborne,‘Families’,pp.428,434.13ForBroadmoor’spatients,JadeShepherd,‘“Oneofthebestfathersuntilhewentoutofhismind”:paternalchild-murder,1864-1900’,JournalofVictorianCulture,18(2013),pp.17-35;Idem.‘“IamnotverywellIfeelnearlymadwhenIthinkofyou”:malejealousy,murderandBroadmoorinlate-VictorianBritain’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.277-98;Idem.‘“IamverygladandcheeredwhenIheartheflute”:thetreatmentofcriminallunaticsinlate-VictorianBroadmoor’,MedicalHistory,60(2016),pp.473-91.14SomecamefromScotland,Irelandandthecolonies.15Somecountyasylumpatientswerefarfromhome.CatherineCox,HilaryMarlandandSarahYork,‘Emaciated,ExhaustedandExcited:TheBodiesandMindsoftheIrishinNineteenth-CenturyLancashireAsylums’,JournalofSocialHistory,46,2(2012),500–24
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impenetrablewalledfortress.16Bywritingandvisitingfamilieswerealmost
ever-presentwithintheasylum.Usinghundredsofletters,whichsurvivein
patients’casefiles,Iexplorethematerialandemotionaleffectshavingarelative
committedintoBroadmoorhadonindividualfamilymembers.Historianshave
lamentedthescarcityofsuchsources,17andhaveextractedlaycommentary
frommedicalcasenotesandphysicians’casebooksbut,asJonathanAndrews
highlights,thesereportlayvoicesthroughthebiasedgazeofthephysician.18The
quantity,contentandcontextoftheBroadmoorlettersmakethemanunusually
richandunmediatedsourceforexaminingtheimpactsofasylumcommittalon
families.Wecanreadtheiremotionsandseeglimpsesoftheirday-to-daylives
andactions.Queen’sPleasurepatients’familiesseeminglywrotethemostletters
andarethusthemainfocus,butinsaneconvictpatients’familiesoccasionally
feature.19Whilefewerlettersfromthelatterappeartoexistthisdoesnotmean
theywereuncaring.SomeconvictsweretransferredtoBroadmoorwithouttheir
families’knowledge;somedidnothavethesamefamilialnetworksasQueen’s
pleasurepatients;andsuchnetworks–and/ortheinclinationtowriteletters–
mayhavebeendiminishedbyconstraintsonletterwritingwhileinprison,which
‘greatlyreduced[letters]usefulnesstoanyonegenuinelyseekingtokeepalive
emotionalattachmenttosomeoneoutside’.20Thesurvivinglettersrevealthe
practicalsignificanceoffamilymembers’relationshipswiththeirincarcerated
relativesandtheeffectsonfamilies,bothduringarelative’scommittalandafter
16EssaysinBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside;Coleborne,Madness;Idem.‘Families’.17Dobbing,‘Family’.18JonathanAndrews,‘Casenotes,casehistories,andthepatient’sexperienceofinsanityatGartnavelRoyalAsylum,Glasgow,inthenineteenthcentury’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,11(1998),pp.255–81.19MoreQueen’spleasurepatients’casefilescontainedlettersfromfamilymembersandingreaterquantitiesthaninsaneconvicts’files.20PhilipPriestley,Victorianprisonlives(London,1999),p.198.
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theirdischarge.Because84percentofthosecommittedintoBroadmoor
between1863and1900wereworkingclass,thelettersalsoprovideanunusual
windowintoworking-classfamilylife,emotions,andsubjectivities.21Innormal
circumstancesworking-classfamiliesdidnottypicallyexchange(orkeep)
regularletters,22buttheenforcedseparationofcommittalencouragedepistolary
correspondence,andtheoralqualityoftheletterssuggeststhepoorwere
typicallywritingforthemselves.23Bothmaleandfemalefamilymembers,
sometimesfromwithinthesamefamily,wrotetoBroadmoor.Lettersoften
appeartoactassubstitutesforconversationsthatwecanimaginewouldhave
takenplaceinthehomeorinthesuperintendent’sofficehaddistancenot
necessitatedwrittencommunication.Accesstotheoriginalcorrespondenceis,
nevertheless,partial;whyparticularletterswerekeptorduplicatedis
indeterminablebutoftenonlyonesideoftheconversationremains,only
portionsofsomeletterswereretained,andoccasionallylegibilityisanissue.24
Nevertheless,theyareahighlyvaluablequalitativesource.Thepresenceof
patients’repliestofamilymembers’lettersshowsthatsomereachedtheir
intendedrecipients.Whetherornotthesuperintendentcensoredletterseither
bynotpassingthemonorreadingthemtopatients,theydoshowwhatfamily
memberswantedtocommunicate.Theyareidealforexploringquestionsof
21JadeShepherd,‘Victorianmadmen:Broadmoor,masculinityandtheexperiencesofthecriminallyinsane,1863–1900’(unpublishedPhDthesis,QueenMaryUniversityofLondon,2013),pp.59–62.22StevenKing,WritingthelivestheEnglishpoor1750s-1830s(Canada,2019),p.20;PennySummerfield,Historiesoftheself.Personalnarrativesandhistoricalpractice(London,2019),p.23.23InthisrespecttheyresemblethepauperlettersthatKingandLindseyEarner-Byrneexamined.King,Writing,pp.35-37;Earner-Byrne,‘“Dearfathermyhealthhasbrokendown”:writinghealthinIrishcharityletters,1922-1940’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,28(2015),pp.849-68atp.852.24Astheasylumdidnotretainalllettersquantitativeanalysishaslimitedutility.
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familyties,agencyandemotion.25Lettersbetweenfamilymembersandto
Broadmoor’ssuperintendentprovideanintimateinsightintofamilies’emotional
worldsinnineteenth-centuryEngland.Theydisplaylife,emotionsand
relationshipsastheywerelivedinrealtime,ratherthanastheywere
reimaginedinthecomposedautobiographicalaccountshistorianstendtorely
upontoexaminefamilylifeandsubjectivities.26
Thisarticleoffersthefirstsustainedexaminationoftheeffectsofasylum
committalonpatients’individualfamilymembers.Byshiftingfocusfromthe
effectsonpatientstotheeffectsonfamilies,andbytakinganewapproach–
engagingwiththehistoryofthefamily,andfocusingonindividualfamily
members,consideringfactorsincludingage,class,gender,changeovertimeand
stageinlifecycle–thisarticleexaminesthereachandsignificanceoftheasylum
furtherbeyonditswalls.Ittellsanimportant,untoldnarrativefromthe
perspectiveoffamilymembersandopensnewinsightsintothehistoriesofthe
asylumandfamilylifeinthelatenineteenthcentury.Inthefirsthalfofthearticle
itisshownthateffectsofasylumcommittalonfamilieswerenotsolelyoreven
primarilyeconomic.Itaffectedtheirrelationshipsoutsideoftheasylum,and
theirsenseofself;one’sroleinthefamily‘playedanimportantpartinthe…
formulationofpersonalidentity’,27andthelossofarelativetoBroadmoorforced
somefamilymemberstoreconfiguretheirrole.Nevertheless,despitethe
25Summerfield,Histories,p.28.26JoanneBailey(Begiato),‘MasculinityandfatherhoodinEnglandc.1760-1830’,inJohnH.ArnoldandSeanBrady,eds.,Whatismasculinity?historicaldynamicsfromantiquitytothecontemporaryworld(NewYork,2011),pp.167-86;Idem.ParentinginEngland,1760-1830:emotion,identity,andgeneration(Oxford,2012);MeganDoolittle,‘Fatherhoodandfamilyshame:masculinity,welfareandtheworkhouseinlatenineteenth-centuryEngland’,inLucyDelap,BenGriffinandAbigailWills,eds.,ThepoliticsofdomesticauthorityinBritainsince1800(Basingstoke,2009),pp.84-108;EmmaGriffin,‘Theemotionsofmotherhood:love,cultureandpovertyinVictorianBritain’,AmericanHistoricalReview,123(2018),pp.60-85.27Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.143.
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materialandemotionalhardshipssomefamilymembersfacedandthe
challengesposedtotheirday-to-livesandidentities,thesecondhalfofthearticle
showsthatfamilytiesandaffectiverelationshipsmatteredagreatdealto
working-classVictorians.Somefoundnewwaystogivemeaningtotheir
relationshipwiththeirincarceratedrelativedespitethedistancebetweenthem,
andtheysoughttogivemeaning–viatheirwordsandactions–totheirrelative’s
lifedespitethehardshipstheircommittalintoBroadmoorhadcaused.Yetthis
continuedattachmenthadfurthercostsforfamilies.Wherefamilialsolidarity
persistedtheasylumhadlong-lastingandfar-reachingeffects,includingbeing
policedbytheasylumaslongastheirrelativelived,eveniftheywere
discharged.
II.
CommittalintoBroadmooroftenresultedinlongdistance,long-termseparation
betweenfamiliesandtheirincarceratedrelatives.Between1863and1900just9
percentofmalepatientsand25percentoffemalepatientswerereleasedfrom
theasylum.40percentofmaleand36percentoffemalepatientsdiedthere,
and38percentofmalepatientsand30percentoffemalepatientswere
transferredtotheirlocalcountyasylum28Howmanywerelaterreleasedfrom
theirlocalasylumisunknown.Theimmediateeffectsoflosingarelativeto
Broadmoorwereburdensome,butthelong-termimpactswereoften
devastating.Theeffectswerecontingentupon,andevolvedover,thecourseof
thelifecycle.Somefamilymembersovercamethedifficultiestheyfaced,but
othersdidnot,andhereweseetheinfluencegender,class,age,andrelationship
28Shepherd,‘VictorianMadmen’,p.123.
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withtheirincarceratedrelativeandothershadonindividuals’abilityto
withstandhavingarelativeinstitutionalisedfarfromhome.
MostpatientsenteredBroadmoorduringtheprimeoftheirlives,between
theirmid-twentiesandearly-fortieswhentheentirefamilywasdependenton
men’searnings,andwomen’sdomesticwork,includingchildcare[Tables1and
2].29Manyfamiliesthusfoundtheabsenceofaspouse,parent,orchildboth
financiallyandemotionallydifficult.
Table1.TheagesofmencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofthepopulation.
Table2.TheagesofwomencommittedintoBroadmoorasapercentageofBroadmoor’sfemalepopulation.
29VictorBaileyidentifiesthisageasprimeoflife,‘Thisrashact’:suicideacrossthelifecycleintheVictoriancity(Stanford,1998),p.186.
Ages1864-1867
1868-1872
1873-1877
1878-1882
1883-1887
1888-1892
1893-1897
1898-1900
Under18 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.0 0.5 0.8 1.6 1.318-27 16.8 27.5 21.5 18.8 20.7 15.5 17.5 17.528-37 29.0 33.5 39.9 39.3 32.4 29.2 35.0 33.838-47 22.0 22.7 25.2 19.4 18.6 29.9 26.8 21.348-57 15.4 10.9 6.7 14.1 17.0 17.4 10.9 10.058-67 6.8 3.9 3.7 7.3 8.0 5.3 6.6 12.568-77 1.9 0.3 1.8 1.0 2.7 1.1 1.6 3.878-87 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ages1863-1867
1868-1872
1873-1877
1878-1882
1883-1887
1888-1892
1893-1897
1898-1900
Under18 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.018-27 27.0 25.0 25.5 21.1 26.8 15.6 24.6 25.028-37 29.1 37.5 34.5 35.5 35.2 34.4 38.5 20.838-47 25.0 27.8 34.5 31.6 29.6 34.4 21.5 29.248-57 8.8 6.9 5.5 7.9 5.6 10.9 10.8 12.558-67 2.7 1.4 0.0 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.1 8.368-77 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.278-87 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0Unknown 7.4 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0
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Bothhusbandsandwiveswerethrustintothedualroleofhomemakerand
providerandeachstruggled.Familyhistorianshaveshownhowinstrumental
womenweretotheVictorianhome;theywerewageearners,homemakersand
carers.30Yetfemalepatients’familiesrarelysoughttoretrievemoney.One
familysoughtmoneyfortheirrelative’syoungdaughterbutperhapsonly
becausethechild’sfatherwasabsent.31Itisunsurprising,givenhowcentral
managingthehomeandcaringforchildrenwastoworking-classwives,thatthe
lossofahomemakerandmotherconcernedfamilies.Onepatient’smotherasked
thesuperintendent:‘doyouthinkshewilleverbeabletomanageherfamily
anymore?’32Many‘distressed’husbandstoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendentthey
were‘veryanxious’tohavetheirwives‘homeagain’.33Someworriedthattheir
wiveswerenotseeingtheirchildrenenough.BridgetHart’shusbandcouldnot
affordtotakehisfivechildrentoBroadmoorandaskedthesuperintendent
whethershecouldbetransferredtotheirlocalasylumso‘thatshecouldseeher
childrenoften’.34Buthusbandsalsomissedtheircompanion.Theirlettersmake
theirloveandattachmentclear;AnnieIngham’shusbandlongedtomaintain
correspondencewithhiswife.35Thatthelossoffemalerelativeswasfeltinsuch
waysdemonstratesthestrengthofaffectivebonds.Whiletheirincomewould
notalwaysstretchtocoverthereturntrainfaretoBroadmoor,patients’
husbandswerenotordinarilythrustintopovertyasaresultoftheirwife’s
committal.InhisstudyofVictoriansuicideVictorBaileyarguesthatthelossofa30EllenRoss,Love;ElizabethRoberts,Awoman’splace:anoralhistoryofworking-classwomen1890-1940(Oxford,1984),p.136;JaneLewis,‘Theworking-classmotherandstateintervention,1870-1918’,inJaneLewis,ed.,Labourandlove:women’sexperienceofhomeandfamily(NewYork:1986),pp.99-120atp.107.31D/H14/D2/2/2/175/53,tosuperintendent.32D/H14/D2/2/2/178/5.33D/H14/D2/2/2/183/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/14.34D/H14/D2/2/2/184/6.35D/H14/D2/2/2/183/4,tosuperintendent.
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spousedisruptedmen’sdomesticlivesmorethanwomen’s.36Anabsentwifewas
challengingforhusbands,andcertainlycausedemotionaldistress,butalthough
somemovedawaytowork,sometimesabroad,37andothersstartednew
families,38husbandswereseeminglymorewillingand(financially)ableto
preservetheirhomethanpatients’wives.Theirabilitytoremainabreadwinner,
particularlybyrelyingupontheirsistersorsisters-in-lawtohelpcarefortheir
children,meanttheyhadlessneedtoreformulatetheirownroleinthefamily,or
thefamilystructure,thanpatientswives,whocorrespondencesuggestssuffered
more.
Inthelatenineteenthcenturybeingahusbandandfathermeantleading
andexertingauthorityoverthehousehold,andprovidingfinancially.Their
husbands’absenceforcedsomepatients’wivestoreformulatetheiridentitiesby
assumingtheseresponsibilities.Insomeordinaryworking-classhouseholds
‘mothersmadeapointoftheirhusbands’authority’;fatherswere‘judgeand
arbitersofrewardsandpunishments.’39Patients’wivescouldhardlythreaten
‘youwaittillyourfathergetshome’,butsomedidrequesttheirincarcerated
husbandsperformanaspectoftheirpaternaldutybyexertingauthorityand
influenceovertheir(olderandgenerallymale)children.JosephRedding’swife
wrotetohimregardingtheirson:
Icanassureyouhehasbeenaverygreatdealoftroubleeversincehewas
15yearsold…ifonlyhewouldkeepfromhatefuldrink…Ithinkyouhad
36Bailey,Rash,pp.234-235.37D/H14/D2/2/2/183.38D/H14/D2/2/2/101.39HelenRogers,‘“Firstinthehouse”:daughtersonworking-classfathersandfatherhood’inTrevBroughtonandHelenRogers,eds.,Genderandfatherhoodinthenineteenthcentury(Basingstoke,2007),pp.126–37atp.128.
14
betterwritetohimperhapsitwilldohimgoodforweareallvery
frightenedofhim.40
Inconjunctionwithrecentstudiesonfatherhood,suchcorrespondenceindicates
thatworking-classfatherswereunderstoodtobemorethanproviders,theirloss
feltinnon-materialways.41
Nevertheless,moneywasaconcern.Whatmanywivesneededfromtheir
husbandswasmoneytosupportthemselvesandtheirchildren.42Somesurvived
withouttheirhusband’swagesorphysicalpresence.Onecontinuedher
husband’srope-makingbusiness,andothersclaimedtheirpensionsorsavings.43
Butsuchcaseswererarebecausemostmalepatientsdidnothavethesethings.
Financialsurvivalwaseasierforwiveswithfewornodependentchildren,or
witholderchildrenwhocouldcontributetothehouseholdeconomy.44Butmost
wiveswerelefttocareandprovidefortheiryoungchildrenalone,with
devastatingconsequences.Lowwagesandseasonalworkdisproportionately
affectedwomen,soevenifwomenwereinorfoundworktheirearningswould
nothavematchedtheirhusbands,45andemploymentwouldnotnecessarilyhave
significantlyreducedtheiranxieties:theystillhadhomestomaintainand
childrentocarefor.Thelimitedagencyworking-classwivespossessed,andin
40D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/71.41EssaysinBroughtonandRogers,eds.,Gender;EleanorGordonandGwynethNair,‘DomesticfathersandtheVictorianparentalrole’,Women’sHistoryReview,15(2006),pp.551-9;VickyHolmes,InbedwiththeVictorians:thelife-cycleofworking-classmarriage(Basingstoke,2017),p.104;Julie-MarieStrange,‘Fatherhood,providingandattachmentinlate-VictorianandEdwardianworking-classfamilies’,HistoricalJournal,55(2012),pp.1007-27.42Ross,Love;Strange,Fatherhood,p.51.43D/H14/D2/2/1/905/18;D/H14/D2/2/1/887/5-17;D/H14/D2/2/1/811.44AnnaDavin,Growinguppoor:home,schoolandstreetinLondon,1870-1914(London,1996).45CarlChinn,Theyworkedalltheirlives:womenoftheurbanpoorinEngland,1880-1939(Manchester,1988),pp.86-8.
15
particulartheirinabilitytoliveindependentlyoftheirhusbands,46meanttheloss
ofahusbandwasinmanywaysmoretraumaticthanthelossofawife.
Numerous‘anxious’and‘desolate’wivesbeggedthesuperintendentfortheir
husband’sreleasebecausetheyfearedstarvationandpoverty,asalsohappened
followingthedeathorprolongedun-orunderemploymentofabreadwinner.47
Tosurvive,somesoughtpoorreliefortookinlodgers.48Othershadlittlechoice
buttodismantletheirhomes.Someconsideredsellingtheirbelongings,but
othersremarriedorco-habited.49PatientArthurLudlow’swifehadan
illegitimatechild,andhissisterinformedhim‘[yourwife]considerssheis
utterlyfreefromyouandtendsdoingthebestforherselfandchildren.’50Some
wivesmadeharddecisions.Unabletosupportalloftheirchildren,RobertJones’
wifesenttheirten-year-olddaughtertoahomeforWaifsandStraysbecauseit
wasdeemed‘bestfor[the]childasshewillhavetrainingaswellas[the]
comfortsofagoodhome’whichhermothercouldnotprovide.51PatientJoseph
Mallon’swifewas‘veryanxious’aboutherhusbandwho‘wasalwaysgoodand
dutifultomebeingaproviderto3helplesschildren’.52Afterthesuperintendent
explainedthatherhusband’sreleasewasnotimminent,Mallon’swifetoldhim
thatthe‘oneshillingandsixpenceandoneloafofbread’herlocalparishgave
herwasinadequate.SheaskedwhetherBroadmoorhadaschoolforpatients’
46Nineteenth-centurysociety‘assumedfemaledependency’tobethenorm.Lewis,‘working-classwife’,p.106.47D/H14/D2/2/1/799/4and11;D/H14/D2/2/1/1689;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/26;D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4.JoannaBourke,Working-classculturesinBritain1890-1960(London,1994),pp.71-81;Julie-MarieStrange,Death,griefandpovertyinBritain,1870-1914(Cambridge,2005),p.194;Strange,Fatherhood,p.56.48D/H14/D2/2/1/830/8,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/33.Womenoftenusedlodgerstosupplementtheirincome,Roberts,Woman’s,p.141.49Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/829;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/9.50D/H14/D2/2/1310.51D/H14/D2/2/1/1680,tosuperintendent.52D/H14/D2/2/1/599/4,tosuperintendent.
16
childrenbecause‘Iamnotabletosupportthem…Ithinktheywouldbebetterin
aschoolIwastoldtherewasaschoolnowopenforthem.’Herepliedthatthere
was‘nosuchschool’;whathappenedtothechildrenisunknown.53Mallon’swife
waslikelythinkingofschoolsforconvicts’children.54Otherpatients’wivessent
theirchildrentosuchschoolsandbecausetheyweregenderedthissometimes
meantseparatingsiblings.55Thesecasessuggestthatunlikesomepatients’
husbands,andunlikewasthecaseinsomeareas,notallwomenhadaccessto
familialorcommunitysupportnetworkswithinwhich‘auxiliaryparents’–
relativesandneighbours–operated.56Toavoidtheworkhousetheyhadto
choose;theycouldnotbebothbreadwinnerandhomemaker.Somefamilies
relocatedwhichexplainsthelackofkinship.Thestigmaofhavingacriminal
lunaticforarelative–andtheshameattachedtobothcriminalityandinsanity–
mighthaveledtosomefamiliesbeingshunnedbytheircommunitiesor
discouragedthemfromaskingforhelp.Unlikeordinaryasylumpatientswho
weresometimessecretlyadmittedbytheirfamilies,57Queen’spleasurepatients
wererarelysenttoBroadmoorwithouttheirneighbours’knowledge;press
coverageoftheircrimeandtrial,orbeingcalledtothewitnessstand,madesure
ofthat.
53D/H14/D2/2/1/599/6.ThePoorLawGuardiansrecognisedthatthisalone,themaximummostreceived,wasbarelyenoughtokeepfamiliesfromtheworkhouse.GingerFrost,Victorianchildhoods(London,2009),p.124.54From1866onwards‘destitutechildrenofaservingprisoner’couldbeadmittedintoindustrialschools.BarryGodfrey,PamelaCox,HeatherShoreandZoeAlker,Youngcriminallives:lifecoursesandlifechancesfrom1850(Oxford,2017),p.30.55D/H14/D2/2/1936a.56Ross,Love,p.156.Peoplewhostruggledexpectedfamilymemberstohelp,King,Writing,pp.75-81.57Somefamiliesrequestedprivacywhencommittingrelativesintoasylums.AkihitoSuzuki,Madnessathome:thepsychiatrist,thepatientandthefamilyinEngland,1820-1860(California,2006),p.121.
17
Patients’parentswerebothgrief-strickenandthreatenedbythelossofa
malewageearner.Whilsttheymighthaveinitiallymanagedfinancially,long-
termdetentionwasmorelikelytohavenoticeablematerialeffectsontheirlives.
Financingoldagewasapressingconcernfortheagingworkingclass,forwhom
reducedemploymentopportunitiesensuredthespectreoftheworkhouse
loomedlarge.58Withoutstatepensions,manydependedupontheirwage-
earningchildren.59Onepatient’sfathertoldBroadmoor’ssuperintendent:‘Iam
…gettingoldandifIcouldonlyobtainhislibertyhewouldbeofgreatassistance
tome.’60However,anddespitethematerialhardshipssomefeared,whilesome
patients’spouseshadlittlechoicebuttoreframetheirroleinthefamily,patients’
parentsmighthaveachievedarenewedsenseofpurpose.Inordinarylife,some
agingmenandwomenstruggledwiththeirlossofparentalidentityastheir
childrenbecameindependent.61Effortstoassisttheirnow-dependentadultchild
mayhaveprovidedpatients’parentstheopportunitytocontinue(orresume)
theirparentalrole.Sometriedtoinfluencetheirchild’sexperienceat
Broadmoor,toprovidereassurance,andpromisedtocareforthemifreleased.62
PatientMaryDyson’sfathertoldherthatherhusbandhadstartedanewfamily,
andinapowerfulstatementofattachmentheremindedherthatshewasnot
alone:‘Youhaveagoodmotherandagoodfather…youhavefourbrothersand
58AkihitoSuzuki,‘Lunacyandlabouringmen:narrativesofmalevulnerabilityinmid-VictorianLondon’,inRobertaBivinsandJohnV.Pickstone,eds.,Medicine,madnessandsocialhistory,essaysinhonourofRoyPorter(Basingstoke,2007),pp.118-28.59PatThane,OldageinEnglishhistory:pastexperience,presentissues(Oxford,2000),p.297.60D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5.Theexpectationthatchildrenmighthelpagingparentsisalsoevidentincaseswherepatients’adultchildrenofferedtheirhomestothem.D/H14/D2/2/1/1085/21and23-28,tosuperintendent.Elderlymenfoundthemselvesunemployedandintheworkhousesoonerthanwomen.Davin,Growing,p.25.61Bailey,Rash,p.211.62D/H14/D2/2/1/900/4,topatientBall;D/H14/D2/2/1/900/5,tosuperintendent.Manyparentswereinalmostconstantcontactwiththesuperintendent.D/H14/D2/2/1/1068/22-56;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/5-25.
18
twosisters’.Hereassuredhis‘DearDaughter’,‘ifyougetyourlibertymyselfand
yourbrotherhasahomeandagoodoneforyouaslongaswelive’.63Fathersof
sonsdemonstratedtheirattachmentintraditionalways,promisingtoprovide
workorvocationalinstructionuponrelease,muchastheymighthavedone
whentheywereonthecuspofadulthood.64Ofcourse,meetingtheneedsof
grownchildreninfantilizedbyinsanitymayhavebeenanadditionalstressfor
parentsfacingthe‘myriadlosses’ofoldage–earnings,physicalability,andtheir
spouse.65
Establishinghowpatients’youngchildrenfeltaboutlosingaparenttothe
asylumisdifficult.66Youngchildren’sguardiansoftencommunicatedmessages
fromthemtotheirincarceratedrelative:‘goodnightkisses’andwishes,anda
HappyChristmasandNewYear.67Thedifficultyofcajolingyoungchildreninto
verbalisingmessagesmighthaveencouragedtheauthortoembellishwiththe
aimofimprovingarelative’smorale.Certainly,someyoungchildrendidnot
appeartounderstandwhathadhappened,ortheimportanceoftheirwellwishes
ornewsoftheirwellbeingtotheirdetainedparent.MaryAnnDaniels’young
daughterwasbeingcaredforbyhermotherwhosentDanielsaphotograph(a
‘likeness’)ofher.Whetherinadditiontovisiting,ortocompensateforan
inabilitytodoso,theprovisionofthiskeepsakecanbereadasanactofcare,
intendedtocomfortandreassure,yetthechild’senergycausedaneedfor
63D/H14/D2/2/2/101/12.64D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3,tosuperintendent;ClaudiaNelson,FamilytiesinVictorianEngland(London,2007),p.91.65Bailey,Rash,p.212.66ToaccessVictorianchildren’sexperienceshistorianshaveusedtrialtranscripts,officialdocuments,autobiographies,fictionand,whenpossible,letters.EssaysinJaneEvaBaxterandMeredithA.B.Ellis,eds.,Nineteenthcenturychildhoodsininterdisciplinaryperspective(Oxford,2018).67D/H14/D2/2/2/184/9,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/11,toGeorgeVarschagen;D/H14/D2/2/1/925/7,Christmascard.
19
writtenreassurance:‘youmustnotthinkanythingaboutthatblackthatisupon
oneofhereyesbecauseshewoodnotsitstill…wecouldnotgethertositstill.’68
Olderchildrenweremoreconsciousofaparent’sabsence,especiallyat
particularpointsintheyearincludingChristmasandbirthdays.69
WecanassumethatforsomehavingaparentdetainedatBroadmoorwas
devastatingandconfusing,shakinganysemblanceofstabilityornormality.For
somethisbeganthemomenttheirparentcommittedacrime;somelostasibling
orparent;sometestifiedattheirparent’strial.70Aparent’scommittalinto
Broadmoordisruptedachild’shomelife;notonlywas(atleast)oneparent
absent,butstepparents,stepsiblings,orhalf-siblingssometimesappeared.Some
childrenweresentawayfromhome,oraffectedbythepovertyandstarvation
fearedorfeltwithintheirhome.Thisalsohademotionalconsequences.Inher
studyofVictorianworking-classautobiographies,Julie-MarieStrangeobserved
that‘somechildrenwereundoubtedlycontemptuousinadulthoodoffathers
whohadnotdoneenoughtosupportfamilies.’71ThisappearsintheBroadmoor
correspondence,too.Astheyaged,andperhapshavinghadtimetoreflectupon
theirchildhood,someolderchildrencriticizedtheirfatherforleavingtheir
motherdestitute.Manyyearsafterhewasconfined,Dodwellsentnumerous
lettershomeaccusinghiswifeofinfidelity.72LikeotherVictorianchildrenwho
retrospectivelyviewedtheirpoorandhard-workingmothersas‘self-sacrificing’
68D/H14/D2/2/2/175/22.Grandparentshadalonghistoryofproviding‘substituteparenting’.Bailey(Begiato),Parenting,p.204.69D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/204;D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.70Shepherd,‘Best’.71Strange,Fatherhood,p.80.72D/H14/D2/2/1/936c.
20
and‘heroic’,hiseldestson,Henry,defendedhismotherandwhilstdoingso
highlightedDodwell’sfailureasafathertoprovide:73
motherhasbehavedinawaythatwouldbeamodeltoanotherwoman
leftwithafamilyoffouryoungchildren,owingthelast16yearsofherlife
hasbeenoneofanxietyandmisery,andtimesscarcelynotknowing
wherethenextmealwastocome.74
Somechild-parentrelationshipsweremaintainedthrough
correspondence,evolvingaschildrenaged.Asalsooccurredinordinary
circumstances,whenchildrenbecamelessreliantuponparentsforprovision
theyinsteadsoughtadvice.75Sonsinparticulardetailedtheirdailystrugglesto
theirfathers,perhapshopingtoreceivesomeguidance.76Othersonsrejected
theirfather’sattemptstoguidethem.DodwellwrotetoHenryatwork,relating
hisgrievancesandadvisinghimtochangeemployment.Henryresponded:‘I
thinkItoldyouoncebeforethattherewerenolettersallowedinthestores,but
withinthislastweekIhavereceivedtwonotes,whichIthankyoufornearly
gettingmedischarged’.Hecontinued,‘Idon’twishtoreceiveanymoreworrying
letters…neitheramIgoingtobetalkedoverbyanyonetodowhatIdonotwish
todo’.77Suchattemptstodenyfatherstheopportunitytofulfilltheirpaternal
rolewerenotnecessarilytheresultofhardfeelingscausedbytheir
incarceration,butmirrortensionsbetweenordinaryVictorianfathersandtheir
sons.78
73Davin,Growing,p.26;Griffin,‘Emotions’.74D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/104,toDodwell.75Strange,Fatherhood,p.41.76D/H14/D2/2/1/765/23.77D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/166.78Nelson,Family,p.93.
21
Somefamiliesweredeterminedtoprotectchildrenfromthetraumaof
visitingorhearingfromtheirrelative,butthiscouldresultinfamilytension.
PatientAnnieIngham’sseven-year-oldsonwastoldshehaddied,discovering
thetruthten-yearslater.79Wecanonlyimaginethesubsequenttensionbetween
himandhisfatherwhohadkeptthesecret.Inothercases,thetensioncausedby
effortstoprotectchildrenisexplicit.Bytheirownaccounts,Dodwell’schildren
missedhimterriblywhentheywereyoung,butDodwell’sdaughterlater
confessedtoherfatherthattheirmotherhadencouragedthemnottowrite,80
andtheirmotheraskedthesuperintendenttosendlettersintendedforthe
childrentoherbecause‘theyprovetobeofdisadvantagetotheyoungpeople.’81
Dodwell’scaseisunusualbecauseitwasassumedthathischildrenwerebetter
offwithouthim.ThechaplainandmasteratEmmanuelHospitalexplainedhis
concernstoBroadmoor’ssuperintendent,echoingthemessageofReligiousTract
Societystoriesinwhichabsentorinadequatefathersneededreplacingwithan
appropriatemalerolemodel:82
Ihavedonemybesttobenefithischildren...Ifearthatifheweresetfree,
itcouldbeoflittlegoodtohischildren.Hewouldremovehiseldestboy
fromherewhereheisgettingausefuleducation,goodfoodandevery
possiblecare,andhisotherchildrenfromtheirplaceofshelter.
Heexpressedhisfearsclearly:‘Ithinkthefirstthingistoprotectthispoorfamily
fromthe…utter[devastation]thatwouldensueifthefatherweresetfree.’83The
79D/H14/D2/2/2/183/33,tosuperintendent.80D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/28.81D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/195.82StephanieOlsen,‘Theauthorityofmotherhoodinquestion:fatherhoodandthemoraleducationofchildreninEngland,c.1870–1900’,Women’sHistoryReview,18(2009),pp.765-80atp.772.83D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/209-10.
22
confusionanddistressthatresultedfromhavinganincarceratedparent,andthe
subsequenteffortsoffamilyandfriendstoprotectchildren,appearedtoinspire
withinsomechildren(whowerecomingofageandperhapslongingtoexercise
someindependence)adesiretodemonstratetheirfilialduty,anotiongrounded
inscripture:thehonouringofone’smotherandfather.Unlikesomepatients’
spouseswhoreconfiguredtheiridentitiesorassumednewrolesinorderto
survive,patients’youngchildrenretainedtheiridentitiesasdutifulchildren.
Dodwell’syoungestson,Edward,ranawayfromschooltovisithisfather,
perhapsinfluencedbyhisfather’snumerouslettersdemandingheandhis
siblingsremain‘faithful’tohim.84Assomechildrenagedanevolutioninthe
child-parentrelationshipisevidentintheircorrespondence(orlackof).Edward
stoppedwritingtoandvisitinghisfather,buthisbrother,Henry,despitethe
angrylettershehadpreviouslysenttohisfather,continuedtocorrespondwith
himandBroadmoor’ssuperintendents.Asheaged,Henryindulgedhisfather’s
quirksanddemands,expressingcompassionandpityforafatherhecameto
perceiveas‘fragile’ratherthanfailing.85Itisclearthathavingaparentat
Broadmoor,asituationakintohavinganeglectfulorabsentfather,didnot
alwaysstrainparent-childrelationshipsbeyondrepair.AnthonyOwston’ssons
wereveryyoungwhenhemurderedtheirmotherandwassenttoBroadmoor,
buttheyremainedaconstantandsupportivepresenceinhislifeuntilhis
death.86ThisresearchsupportswhatStrangefoundinherexaminationof
autobiographies:‘whenprovidingfaltered,father-childdynamicsmightcome
understrainbut,inlongview,couldsurviveandbecomemanifestinalternative84Hevisitedhimthirty-fivetimesinFebruary1885.D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/67,memorandum;forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/47,letterto‘undutiful’daughter.85Strangedevelopstheideaofa‘fragile’fatherinFatherhood,pp.49-81.86D/H14/D2/2/1/963.
23
ways.’87Moreover,thatcorrespondenceallowsustoseethisinrealtime
confirmsthatthisisnotaneffectofrose-tintedautobiographicalwriting,but
evidenceofresilientparent-childbonds.
HavingarelativecommittedintoBroadmoorhadeffectsthatspreadfar
beyondtheasylumwallsandintothewiderfamilyandcommunity.Duringthe
nineteenthcenturysomepoorfamilieslivedincloseproximitytooneanother
andprovidedmutualsupport.88Thishelpedtorelievetheburdenonsome
familieswho,withoutaccesstoformalorcharitablesupportnetworksforthe
familiesoftheinsane,unitedtosupportandprotecteachotherfinanciallyand
emotionally.Effortstoprotectthosedirectlyaffecteddrewothersinto
correspondencewiththeasylum.Onepatient’sbrotherbeggedthe
superintendenttoreleasehissisterbecausehewasconcernedabouttheir
‘disparing’mother,89andafriendofapatient’swife–awarethatshewas
‘sometimessubjecttoviolenthystericalfits’–askedthesuperintendentto
prevent‘thepoorwomanmuchmisery’bydissuadingherfromvisiting
Broadmoor.90Somefamilymemberstriedtosurviveandmoveforwardintheir
ownway:thefatherwhotoldhissonhismotherwasdead;themotherwhotried
tostopherchildrenfromcommunicatingwiththeirfather;thespouseswho
remarried;theworrieddaughter-in-lawwhosecretlybeggedthesuperintendent
torejectherhusband’spetitionforthereleaseofhisfather.91Buteachofthese
methodsofsurvivalpotentiallycarriedfurtherdamagingconsequences:tension,
87Strange,Fatherhood,p.81.88Thane,Oldage,p.299;D.CooperandM.Donald,‘Householdsand“hidden”kininearly-nineteenthcenturyEngland’:fourcasestudiesinsuburbanExeter,1821-1861’,ContinuityandChange,10(1995),pp.257-78.89D/H14/D2/2/2/175/48.90D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16.91D/H14/D2/2/1/1076/18.
24
conflictandsecrecywithinthehome.Correspondencerevealsstrugglesbetween
familymembersthatmightnothaveordinarilyexisted.PatientCharlesCornish’s
wifewasadmonishedbyher‘pig-headedoldmother-in-law’who‘reproaches
herwithneglect’becauseshewasreluctanttovisitherhusband.92Suchcases
werenotunusual,93andpatientsbecamethesubjectoftensionbetweenmarital
andbloodrelationswhich,innormalcircumstances,theymighthavemediated.
Theprecedingdiscussionshowslosingawageearnerorhomemakerhad
significanteffectsonthefamily,notonlypotentiallycausingpovertybutalsothe
temporaryorpermanentreconfigurationofthefamily,relianceuponkinship
networkstomaintainthefamily’shealthandintegrity,andshapingfamilial
relationships.Importantly,itdemonstratesthatwhoenteredtheasylum
mattered:theeffectsonandconcernsoffamilymembersdependedontheir
relationshipwiththepatient.Forspouses,genderandclassaffectedthe
significanceoftheimpacts,butanindividual’slifestageandabilitytoaccess
supportnetworkswerealsoimportant.Unsurprisingly,thosewithlimited
agencyfelttheimpactsoflosingarelativetoBroadmoorthemost.Somewives
andparentsnotonlyfelteffectsimmediately,butalsoforfeitedtheirimagined
financiallysecurefuturebecausethatexpectationwaspremiseduponprovision
bytheirspouseorchild.Wivesalsofacedthegreatestchallengetotheirsenseof
self,particularlyiftheyhadtodismantletheirhome,allowotherstocarefor
theirchildren,orassumeanunexpectedrole.Thismayexplainwhymarriage
appearstohavebeenthemostfragilebond,whilebloodkinshipprovedmore
resilient.Examiningtangible,structuraleffectsonpatients’familiesalsoreveals
92D/H14/D2/2/1/918/16-17,tosuperintendent.93D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56,medicalreport.
25
theemotionalimpacts.Whilefamilymembersresponseswerecomplexand
oftencontradictory,changingovertimeandinrelationtotheirownlifestage,
theysuggesttheimportanceandresilienceoffamilialties.Cuttingacrossthe
differencesinexperienceisthewaythatfamilymembersexpressedtheirloss:
theywere‘bereaved’,‘heartbroken’and‘anxious’.94Butirrespectiveofthe
heartacheandhardshipstheirrelative’sincarcerationhadcaused,somefamilies
wereunwillingtoabandonthemtoBroadmoor.
III.
Families’anger,fearandsadnessathowtheirliveshadturnedoutandloveand
affectiontowardstherelativewhohadcausedthosefeelingswerenotmutually
exclusive.Thissectionexaminesfamilies’wordsandactions,includingvisiting,
toshowhowsomeunitedtosupportoneanotherandtodemonstratetheir
continuedattachmenttotheirrelative.
Letterwritingwasanimportantmeansbywhichfamiliescommunicated
withrelativesinasylums.Inanefforttokeepthempartofthehome,theyshared
excitingandmundanefamilynews,soughtadvice,consoledrelativeswhenthey
wereillorscared,admonishedthemiftheymisbehaved,andcommunicated
theiraffectionexplicitlyintheirsalutations.95Familymembersplacedemotional
valueontheirletters,whichcouldlessentheemotionalifnotphysicaldistance
betweenthem.Uponhearingthathisfatherwas‘verydepressedandrestlessin
94D/H14/D2/2/1/901/4-5;D/H14/D2/2/2/174/20;D/H14/D2/2/2/173/5;D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58;D/H14/D2/2/1/791/6,alltosuperintendent.95D/H14/D2/2/1/936a/241,toDodwell;D/H14/D2/2/2/101/7,toDyson;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/2,toJones.Numerousfamilymembersreferredtotheir‘Dear’relative.Itwasnotmerelyaformalitybut,asDavidFitzpatricknotedinhisstudyofIrishandAustralianmigrantletters,wasusedtoassure‘thereaderthatfamilialsolidaritywasintact’.Oceansofconsolation:personalaccountsofIrishmigrationtoAustralia(Cork,1994).p.22.
26
mind’AnthonyOwston’ssontoldthesuperintendent:‘Iamwritingtomyfather
andtrustthatthelettermaybehandedtohimasIthinkthataletterfromhome
maybeofgreatvaluetohimatthepresentcrisis.’96Hedescribedanotherletter
tohisfatheras‘cheering’.97Letterswerenotsimplycheeringplatitudes,
however,butsincere,intimatecommunicationbetweenandaboutrelatives.
Somefamilymemberssenttheirrelativeupbeat,comfortingletterswhilst
simultaneouslywritinganxiety-riddenletterstothesuperintendent,suggesting
aclearawarenessofaudienceandtheperformativityinvolvedinwriting.One
patient’smotherbeggedthesuperintendentto‘takepityonherpooraged
mother…Icannotexpressmyhartfeltgrief…relievemeofthisdistressand
restoremydaughtertomeagainorIwillbringmygrayhareandsorrowtothe
grave’.98Althoughclearlyfeelingwretched,thismotherstillencouragedher
daughterto‘keepyourspiritsup’.99ForsomefamilymembersBroadmoor’s
superintendentbecameaconfidant;100theysharedtheirtroublesandsome
confessedtheywerekeepingconcernsorcircumstancesfromtheirrelatives,a
situationakintowhatDavidGerbercalledan‘epistolarymasquerade.’101Given
thattheyomittedbadnewsorworriesorembellishedthefamily’swellbeingto
protecttheirrelative,however,thisshouldbereadasanactofcareandlove.102
Letterstothesuperintendenthighlighttheexistenceofanxietiesshared
byfamilymembersaroundtheworld;theysoughtreassurancethatrelatives
96D/H12/D2/2/1/963/18.97D/H14/D2/2/1/963/31.98D/H14/D2/2/1/175/51.99D/H14/D2/2/2/175/11.100Thishappenedelsewhere.Wannell,‘Patients’,pp.307-8;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.239-42.101DavidGerber,‘Epistolarymasquerades:actsofdeceivingandwithholdinginimmigrantletters’,inBruceElliot,DavidGerberandSuzanneSinke,eds.,Lettersacrossborders:theepistolarypracticeofinternationalmigrants(London,2006),pp.144-57.102AsMichaelRopersuggestedofsoldiersomittingdangerintheirletterstotheirmothers,Thesecretbattle.EmotionalsurvivalintheGreatWar(Manchester,2009),pp.63-8.
27
wereeating,healthyandwelltreated,particularlyiftheyhadnotheardfrom
them.103Familieswhoreceived‘rational’and‘sane’lettersfromrelatives
struggledtounderstandoraccepttheirmedicaldiagnosis.104Othersaskedabout
theirrelative’sillnessorchancesofrelease.105Requestsforinformationsuggest
concernandattachment,asdorequestsforthesuperintendent’sassistance.
Someaskedhimtodosomethingontheirbehalf,forinstancecompassionately
deliveringsadnewstoarelative.106Othersaskediftheycouldsenditems–
photographs,musicalinstrumentsandclothing–tohelptheirrelativemakea
homeforthemselves.107Regardlessofhowmuchtheycared,familymembers’
letterstothesuperintendentwere‘supplications’;theysoughtactionbut
‘recognisedthediscretionarypoweroftherecipient.’108Supplicationstomedical
mencontainedanemotionalperformance,anditisfruitfultoseethem,like
Coleborne,asa‘theatreofemotions’.109Thesuperintendent’spowerincentivized
familymember’sexpressionsoftheiremotionalandpracticalneedforhis
assistance.Attentivenesstothisdynamicrevealsfamilymember’sattemptsto
exerciseagencyandthattheyunderstoodtheiragencyascircumscribedbythe
powerofthesuperintendent.Suchemotionalperformancesalsoillustratethe
strengthoftheirfamilialattachment,explicitlyinwhatwasrevealedtothe
superintendent,andimplicitly,inthedecisiontocommunicatethattheymissed
103D/H14/D2/2/1/1116;D/H14/D2/2/1/905/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/836/6.Wannell,‘Patients’;Coleborne,‘Families’.104D/H14/D2/2/1/175/45,tosuperintendent.Also,D/H14/D2/2/1/1092/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/901/10.Thishappenedelsewhere.Coleborne,Madness,p.82;Walsh,‘Lunatic’.105AsOonaghWalshfound,‘Lunaticandcriminalalliancesinnineteenth-centuryIreland’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.132-52atp.145.106D/H14/D2/2/2/178/7;D/H14/D2/2/2/212/16;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13;D/H14/D1/2/1/936b/208;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/13.107D/H14/D2/2/1/918/3.108AndreasWurgler,‘Voicesfromamongstthe“SilentMasses”:humblepetitionsandsocialconflictsinearlymoderncentralEurope’inL.-H.vanVoss,ed.,Petitionsinsocialhistory(Cambridge,2001),pp.11-34,inKing,Writingp.49.109Coleborne,‘Families’,p.437.
28
andcaredfortheirrelativewithoutburdeningthemwiththeirownheartache
anddifficulties.
Somefamiliesperformedtheirattachmentbyvisitingasylums,yetfew
historianshaveexplicitlyconsideredwhatthisrevealsaboutfamilylifeand
emotions.Visitinginstitutions,asJonathanReinarzandGrahamMooneywrite,
offeredsupporttopatientsand‘providedanintimatelinktoafamiliarworld
thatistemporarily,orevenpermanently,outofreach.’110Ofcoursefamilies
visitedBroadmoortoreassurerelativestheyhadnotbeenforgotten.Patient
WilliamLloyd’sfatherwasdesperatetoknowifhissonrememberedthathis
motherandbrothershadvisitedhim,andaskedthesuperintendentto‘pleaselet
himknow…thatsomeoneelsewillcomesoon’.111Inanotesuggestingfamilies’
actionsweremonitored,thesuperintendenttoldtheHomeOfficethatone
patient’swife‘hasallalongbeenmostkindandattentivetoherhusbandinevery
wayandsherentedahouseinthisneighbourhoodsothatsheshouldbeableto
comeandseehimfrequently.’112Butvisitingalsobenefittedfamilies.Unlikeat
ordinaryasylumswherefamiliesmighthaveencounteredtheasylumupontheir
relative’sadmission,thefamiliesofBroadmoor’spatientsmightonlyhaveread
abouttheasyluminthepress,whichsometimesprintedsensationalimagesofits
‘Frankenstein’-likepatients.113Visitingmayhaverelievedfearsaboutwho
relatives’werelivingalongside,andenabledfamiliestowitnessthekindnessand
respect(theyhoped)relativesreceived.114Italsohelpedtoeaseemotional
110GrahamMooneyandJonathanReinarz,‘Hospitalandasylumvisitinginhistoricalperspective:themesandissues’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeablewalls:historicalperspectivesonhospitalanasylumvisiting(Amsterdam,2009),pp.7-30atp.9.111D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5.112D/H14/D2/2/1/1254/56.113‘AvisittotheCriminalLunaticAsylum’,TheTimes,13Jan.1865,p.10.114Somerelativesexpressedreliefthattheyhadencounteredtheirrelativeinagoodcondition.
29
distressbytemporarilyreunitingfamilies.
Aselsewherethough,manyfoundtheprospectandtheactofvisiting
emotionallytesting.Theymighthave(orhavefeared)adistressingencounter
witharelativewhomtheyfoundinaworseconditionthanexpected,orreceive
abusefromapreviouslylovingrelative.115Theasylum’svisitor’sroom
sometimesbecameasiteofdomestictension.Dodwell’sdaughterleftthe
visitor’sroom‘intears’afterhescoldedherforquestioninghim.116Onepatient
enteredthevisitor’sroomand‘embracedthechildren,buthemotionedwithhis
handforhiswifetokeepback’andtoldher,‘youbeastkeepback,orIwillfloor
you’.Shetoldthesupervisingattendant,‘Iwillgoitonlyirritateshimmybeing
here’.117Thatsomefamilymembersvisiteddespitethepracticalandemotional
challengesitposedindicatesthestrengthoftheirattachmentandthe
significancetheyplacedupontheact.Thedevotionofonepatient’shusbandis
evidencedbyhisvisits.Thesuperintendentrecorded,‘whenherhusbandvisited
her,andspenttheportionsofthreedayswithher,sherefusedtospeakto
him.’118Despitehiswife’ssilence,hereturnedtositwithhereverydayforthree
days.Wecannotknowwhyhereturned,butunlikeotherrelativeswhoaskedthe
superintendentwhethervisitingwasworthwhile(wouldthepatientrecognize
them?wouldtheyspeaktothem?),thishusbandappearsunconcernedwithsuch
matters.Ofcourse,hemighthavehopedhiswifewouldtalktohim,butwhen
115FrederickCrawley’ssister‘wasgrievedtofindhimsolowandill’,D/H14/D2/2/1/698/7,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/761/5;CatharineColeborne,‘Challenginginstitutionalhegemony:familyvisitorstohospitalsfortheinsaneinAustraliaandNewZealand,1880s-1890s’,inMooneyandReinarz,eds.,Permeable,pp.289–308atp.301;GeoffreyReaume,Remembranceofpatientspast:patientlifeatTorontohospitalfortheinsane,1870-1940(Oxford,2000,p.189.116D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/51,attendant’snote.117D/H14/D2/2/1/1256/14,attendant’snote.118WilliamOrange,ReportsofthesuperintendentandchaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheyear1875(London,1876),p.44.
30
facedwiththepossibilitythateachdaywouldbethesame,hewouldseemingly
rathersitwithherinsilencethannotatall.Wedonothaveaccesstohis
conversationswiththesuperintendentormedicalofficers,wedonotknowwhat
words,ifany,hespoketohiswife.Thereisnoexplicitrecordofemotioninthis
case;therearenoreferencestosadness,angerorfear,asinsomeotheraccounts.
Thisdoesnotmeanthehusbanddidnotfeelthemofcourse,andifotherfamily
members’accountsofvisitingareconsidereditispossiblethatratherthan
takingsolacefrombeinginhiswife’spresencehefoundhisvisitsheartbreaking.
Somepatients’casefilescontainvisitor’sslipsdetailingwhovisitedand
when.Theydonotallhavethem,anditmightbeassumedthatpatients’received
novisitorsandwere,assomepatients’complainedandfeared,andassome
historianshavededuced,‘abandoned’bytheirfamilies.119Certainlynotall
familieswerewillingtovisitarelativewhosecrimeandasylumcommittalhad
causedthemmisery,120buttheexistenceoffew,nooradwindlingnumberof
visitors’slipsisnotnecessarilyevidenceofdesertion.Notonlymightsomehave
beenlostintherecord-keepingprocess,butexaminingcorrespondencetothe
superintendentrevealsvariousreasonswhyfamiliescouldnotorwouldnot
visit,significantlyaddingtoourunderstandingsofthereachandimpactofthe
asylumwhilstsimultaneouslyhighlightingaffectivefamilialrelationships.There
aretheexpectedpracticalreasons;itrequiredmoneyandtime,bothofwhich
manyfamilieslacked,tomakethe(oftenlong)journeytoBroadmoor.121Joseph
Redding’swifecouldnotvisitfor‘tworeasons.IhavenothadthemeansasIwas
119D/H14/D2/2/1/936b/57,toattendant;D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/10,fromDodwelltoson.Reaume,Remembrance,p.196.120D/H14/D2/2/1/1310,medicalreport.121LetterstosuperintendentinD/H14/D2/2/1/969/8;D/H14/D2/2/1/1230/2;D/H14/D2/2/1/918/9.
31
leftwithsixchildrenandmyselftoprovidefor.Ihavealsobeensufferingwith
changeoflife.ThereasbeenmanyobsticlesinmywaywhichIhavenotwanted
totroublehimwith.’122TheneedtohidetroublesformedpartofRedding’s
justification;similartoomissionsinletters,notvisitingwasframedasanactof
care.Practicalbarrierscouldbeinsurmountable,butemotionalbarrierscouldbe
too.Somefamilymemberstriedtopre-empt(andavoid)emotionallydifficult
visits.Manyworriedthattheirrelativehadlosttheirsenseofself,andthe
potentialheartbreakofencounteringsomeonetheydidnotrecognizedeterred
somefromvisiting.123Othersresistedvisitingbecausetheydreadedsaying
goodbye.Followinghisfather’sdeathonemantoldthesuperintendent:
Thankingyouverymuchforlettingmeknow.Ifeelitverymuchindeedas
wehavebeenthinkingofcomingtoseehimallthewinter…butitseems
wearetoolateandIfeelnowIcan’tseehimaliveitisnousetoseehim
buried...IonlywishIhadcomebeforebutIdreadedthepartingso
much.124
Itwasnotalwaysthevisititselfthatfamiliesdisliked,butthenearinevitabilityof
travellinghome,alone,attheendoftheday.125
IV.
Somefamilymemberspetitionedfortheirrelative’srelease,seekingtoreduce
thematerialandemotionalburdenswritingtoorvisitingBroadmoor(orthe
inabilitytodoso)hadcaused.Butdoingsoandtherealitiesoffamilylifepost-
122D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/70.123D/H14/D2/2/2/183/9,tosuperintendent.124D/H14/D2/2/1/659/9.125D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.
32
dischargesometimescausedfurtherheartache,andfurthercurtailedfamilies’
agency.
Applyingforreleasewasabureaucratic,time-consumingprocess.
Patients’familiespetitionedtheHomeOffice,whichrequestedamedicalreport
andthesuperintendent’sopinion.Thisexposedthefamilytoscrutinyand
judgment,anditwasusuallyunsuccessful.Thatmanyfamiliesdiditanyway,
sometimesoftenandovermanyyears,suggeststhestrengthoftheir
attachment.126Correspondencerevealsvariousreasonswhyfamilieswanteda
relativehome.Lookingatotherasylums,historianshavearguedthateconomic
concernsdrovefamilies’petitions,butthismisrepresentsthecomplexityof
families’livesandfeelings.127Whilepovertymotivatedsomepetitionsto
Broadmoor,economicconcernswerenotalwaysthedrivingoronlyfactor.
Familieswantedrelativeshomebecausetheylovedandmissedthemand‘did
notlike’thethoughtofthemdyingatBroadmoor;moreovertheyofferedto
financiallysupporttheirrelativeuponrelease.128Additionally,thesemotivations
arenotmutuallyexclusiveandstrongemotionalattachmentspersisteddespite
financialhardship.
Successfulpetitionsusuallyresultedinaconditionaldischarge,which
legallyobligatedthepetitioningfamilymembertocarefortheirrelativeandto
reportchangesintheirmentalandphysicalconditiontotheHomeOfficeandto
Broadmoorindefinitely.Evenifpatientsexhibited‘sane’traits,includingthe
126Notallfamilieshadroomforawageearner,carer,orparentwhoseroleinthehomewasrenderedvoidbytheircommittalintoBroadmoor,andsomerefusedtocareforthemshouldtheybereleased.Spaceconstraintspreventthisbeingunpackedhere.127Smith,‘Living’;Smith,‘Thankful’,pp.246-8.FamiliesoftheIrishinsanehighlightedtheirfinancialburdens.Mauger,Cost,pp.74and100.128Forexamplecases:D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.
33
abilitytoworkandself-control,theirdischargecouldberefused,129becausethe
superintendentwasunconvincedaboutthepetitioningfamilymember’s
characterorabilitytocareforandsupervisetheirrelative.Applicationswere
thusastageuponwhichfamilymembersperformedtheiremotionsandtheir
lives.Clearlyawareoftheexpectationsplaceduponthem,somedescribedtheir
homes,supportivefamilynetworks,theiremploymentandrelativefinancial
stability.130Justaspatients’mighthaveperformedtheirrecoveriesinaneffortto
securerelease,andasColebornenotes,familymembersmightalsohave
performedtohelpsecurethereleaseofarelativetheyneededathome.131
Petitionsemphasizedfamilialbonds,particularlythe(alleged)willingness
offemalefamilymembers,especiallysistersandsisters-in-law,tocarefor
dischargedrelatives.132Women,seenasthemoralcornerstoneoffamiliallife,133
typicallyboretheresponsibilityforfamilialcareinVictoriansociety,134with
sistersexpectedtoassumeaparentalroleifrequired.135Whentryingtosecure
thereleaseofhisbrother-in-law,JohnMelloremphasizedthestrengthofsibling
bondstothesuperintendent:
mygoodwifehissisterbeinglikeamothertohim…hasapowerof
controloverhimthatmakesmehavenodoubt…ifheisreleasedandsent
129Shepherd,‘Veryglad’,p.476.130D/H14/D2/2/1/1102/58,tosuperintendent;D/H14/D2/2/1/714/7,tosuperintendent.131Coleborne,‘Families’,p.438.132D/H14/D2/2/1/186/26,tosuperintendent.133LéonoreDavidoff,Thickerthanwater:siblingsandtheirrelations,1780-1920(Oxford,2012),p.131.134DavidWright,‘Familialcareof“idiot”childreninVictorianEngland’,inHordonandSmith,eds.,Thelocusofcare:families,communities,institutions,andtheprovisionofwelfaresinceantiquity(London,1998),pp.176-97atpp.182-3.135Nelson,Family,pp.110-11;Frost,Victorian,p.18.
34
herehewillbesafeandcaredforinamannerthatwillenablehimto
becomeausefulmemberofsociety.136
Otherfamiliesofferedtomakespaceforandcarefortheirrelativeintheiroften
alreadyover-crowdedhomes.137Itistellingthatsomefamilieswerewillingand
abletoopentheirhomestoarelativewhosecrimeandcommittalhadcaused
themsuffering,butsomewereevenpreparedtowelcomeunrelatedcriminal
lunatics.Oneformerpatient’shusband,perhapsrecognisingthatitwould
increasethehappinessofhisdischargedwife,offeredahomeandfinancial
supporttoapatientshehadbefriendedinBroadmoorandheld‘asisterlyregard’
towards.138Suchevidencefurtherchallengestheassumptionthatfamiliesonly
soughtthereleaseofrelativeswhocouldcontributetotherunningofthe
household,andhighlightsthestrengthofemotionalbonds.
Strongfamilialbondsalonewouldnotpersuadethesuperintendentto
recommenddischarge.Unlikeatotherasylums,Broadmoor’spatients’families
couldnotsimplydemandtheirreleaseandexpectapositiveoutcome.139
Petitionsweredeniedbecausefamilies’homesorincomesweredeemedunable
toaccommodateorsupportanothermember,140becausefamilymembersdrank
orwereunemployed,orbecausethesuperintendentdoubtedtheycould
superviseandcontrolthepatientiftheyrelapsed.141Thosewithlowlevelsof
agency–women,theelderlyandthepoor–notonlyfelttheeffectofarelative’s
incarcerationmostkeenlybutwerealsolesslikelytobedeemedableguardians.
136D/H14/D2/2/1/1284/28.Also,D/H14/D2//2/1/714/7.137Forexample,D/H14/D2/2/1/976/39;D/H14/D2/2/1/1085;D/H14/D2/2/1/974/3;D/H14/D2/2/1/366;D/H14/D2/2/1/1076;D/H14/D2/2/1/186;D/H14/D2/2/1/999/15.138D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5-6139Wright,‘Discharge’,p.98.140D/H14/D2/2/1/1738,frompoliceconstabletosuperintendent.141D/H14/D2/2/1/388/11;WilliamOrange,ReportsoftheSuperintendentandChaplainofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylumfortheYear1885(London,1886),p.6.
35
Forsome,arelative’sreturnhomewasandremained(asfarasthe
recordssuggest)ajoyousoccasion.Asatotherasylums,formerpatientsand
theirfamilieswrotetoBroadmoor’ssuperintendentdescribingtheirdelight,
reliefandgratitude,anddetailingtheirsuccessfultransitionbackintosociety.142
Somereunionsdidnotquelltheanguish,fear,sadnessandgriefsomefamily
membersfeltduringtheirrelative’sinstitutionalization,evenifitwassomething
theyhadlongedfor.Somefounditdifficulttocareforandsupervisetheir
relative,particularlyalongsideworking,maintainingahousehold,orparenting.
Ifrelativeswereamenablepost-release,andiffamilieshadsomefinancial
independence,minordifficulties,includinglossofspacewithinthehome,could
bemanaged.Fivemonthsafterhissister’sreleaseonemaninformedthe
superintendentthatshewasnolonger‘residingwithus’.Heandotherrelatives
had‘furnishedheranicelittlehomeatherownchoice…asitismoreconvenient
forus.’143Butsomefamilieswereunabletocope,particularlyiftheirrelative
becameviolentorintemperate.144Insuchcasesfamilymembershadlittlechoice
buttoinformthesuperintendent,knowingtheirrelativewouldberecommitted.
Suchcases,canthough,indicatestrongemotionalbonds.Despitethehavoctheir
relative’srelapseintointemperancewroughtupontheirhomes,MaryAnn
Mellor’shusband–whosewifehadpawnedtheirbelongings–andMatthew
Cook’ssister–whohadlentCookmoneyhecouldnotrepay–bothwaitedfour
monthsbeforeinformingthesuperintendent,hopingtheywouldrecoverat
142Forexamplethefollowingletterstosuperintendent,D/H14/D2/2/1/905/33;D/H14/D2/2/366/177;D/H14/D2/2/1/975/2;D/H14/D2/2/2/107/5;D/H14/D2/2/2/100/25;D/H14/D2/2/2/398/41;D/H14/D2/2/2/164/19-20.Smith,‘Thankful’,p.248.143D/H14/D2/2/2174/35.144LucyThompson’sbrotherrequestedhercommittalaftersheattackedhimandhiswife,D/H14/D2/2/2/105.Similarly,D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.
36
home.145EventhenCook’ssisterwrotetothesuperintendentwith‘heartfelt
sorrow’.146Unlikeatordinaryasylumsfamiliesplayednoroleintheirrelative’s
initialadmissionintoBroadmoor,butlikeatordinaryasylumssomefamilies
decidedto(re)commitonlyafteraprolongedperiodofdistress,whentheycould
nolongermanagetheirrelativeathome.147Thissuggests,asStevenTaylornotes
inhisstudyofchildinsanity,thatfamilieshad‘strongemotionalbonds’with
theirillrelatives‘andwereeagertopreservethese.’148
Examiningpetitioning,dischargeandpost-asylumlife,demonstratesthe
extenttowhichpersistentobservationrenderedfamiliesbothvictimsandquasi-
patientsofasystemdesignedtoconfine,controlandrehabilitatecriminal
lunatics.Foucauldianapproachestothehistoryofpsychiatrypositionasylumsas
instrumentsofsocialcontrol,focusingonthesurveillanceandre-modellingof
patientsintoideal(bourgeois)membersofsociety.149Scholarshavehighlighted
the‘longhistoryofsurveillance’outsideoftheinstitution,andthatfamilies
policed,watchedandcontrolledinsanerelativeswithinthehome,sometimes
beforetheirasylumcommittal.150Thispolicingwassupplementedand
encouragedbydoctorsenteringthedomesticsphere,andbyneighbourswhose
curiosityandgossipingledsomefamiliestohidetheirillrelative.151Theroleof
Englishcountyasylums(andthustheState)inpolicingpatients’familiesduring
145D/H14/D2/2/2/146/6-7;D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.146D/H14/D2/2/1/1013.147Historiansagreethatfamilies’viewedasylumsasalastresort.Forexample,HilaryMarland,‘Athomewithpuerperalmania:thedomestictreatmentoftheinsanityofchildbirthinthenineteenthcentury’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.45-65;Suzuki,Madness;Wright,‘Discharge’.148StevenTaylor,‘“Shewasfrightenedwhilepregnantbyamonkeyatthezoo”:constructingthementally-imperfectchildinnineteenth-centuryEngland’,SocialHistoryofMedicine,30(2017),pp.748-766atp.765.149Foucault,History,p.485.150PeterBartlettandDavidWright,‘Communitycareanditsantecedents’,inBartlettandWright,eds.,Outside,pp.1-8,13.151Marland,‘Athome’;Suzuki,Madness.
37
andaftertheirrelative’sasylumstayisrarelyexamined.Broadmoorextended
thesurveillancetypicallyassociatedwithinsideinstitutionstothefamilyandthe
familyhomebothbeforeandafterpatients’discharge.Families’actionsand
healthwereobservedtodeterminewhethertheirrelativeshouldbedischarged.
Iftheywere,thepriceofreleasewasacceptingtherolesofactorandsubjectin
continuedsurveillance.Familieshadtopoliceandreporttheirrelative’s
behaviour,orthepolicewouldenquire.152TheDischargedPrisoner’sAidSociety
watchedsomeformerpatientsandtheirfamiliesandreportedtheirbehaviourto
Broadmoor.153Formerpatientswatchedtheirfamilymembers,too;some
reportedtheirmisdeedstothesuperintendent,particularlyiftheywantedto
moveoutoftheirhome.154Families’agencywasthuslimitedbytheirrelative’s
committalandfurthercurtailedbytheirrelease.Families’remainedsupervised
andinlimboaslongastheirrelativelived,andforaslongastheyremained
committedtothemeveniftheywereeventuallydischarged;thiswasnotloston
someoftheirfriends:‘Ican’thelpbutwishingthatthepoorfellowmaydie,forit
seemssuchawretchedlifeforthepoorlittlewomantogoonhopingagainst
hope.’155Forfamilymemberswhowishedtoremainincontactwiththeir
relative,anysemblanceofagencywouldonlyreturnupontheirrelative’sdeath.
V.
TheextensionofthefamilyandfamilialsupportintoBroadmoorlastedoverthe
courseofsomepatients’lives.Whentheirrelativesweredying,somefamilies
152D/H14/D2/2/1/1705.153D/H14/D2/2/2/105.154D/H14/D2/2/2/105/16.D/H14/D2/2/1/1565155D/H14/D2/2/1/918/7,tosuperintendent.
38
wereshockedandsaddened,especiallyiftheywereunabletovisittheasylum.156
Someappearedfearful,particularlyiftheyhadstrongreligiousfaith.Perhapsin
anefforttosupportthemontheirfinaljourney,suchfamilymembersbeseeched
theirrelativestoatonebeforeitwastoolate.157Aswellasrelyingontangible
supportnetworks,somefoundsolaceintheprospectofanafterlife.Onedying
patient’sbrotheraskedthesuperintendent:
toconveytomybrothermyeverbestandmostaffectionatelovetohim
forhistruehappinessinthisworldtocometobehappyforever&ever
throughourLordandSaviourJesusChristthisismyeverearnestprayer
totheLordJesusonhisbehalfthatifIdonotseehimanymoreinthis
world,thatIdohopetomeethiminheaven,wherepartingwillbeno
more.158
Families’letterstoBroadmoorduringandaftertheirrelative’sfinal
illnesssuggeststrongfamilialbonds.Thebereavedsometimesexpressedsorrow
andregret,particularlyiftheyhadbeenunabletovisittheirrelativewhilstthey
werealive,andespeciallyiftheyhadbeenabsentattheirdeath.159InVictorian
societywitnessingarelative’sdeathprovidedasenseofcontroland(itwas
hoped)thecomfortofknowingtheirfinalhourswerepainless.160Family
membersunabletobeattheirdyingrelative’sside,orthoseinformedofa
suddendeath,soughtcomfort;theyaskedthesuperintendentabouttheirfinal
156Familymemberswereinvitedtovisitandstaywiththeirdyingrelative.RulesfortheguidanceoftheofficersofBroadmoorCriminalLunaticAsylum(London,1863).157D/H14/D2/2/1/973/5,toThornley.158D/H14/D2/2/1/605/5.159D/H14/D2/2/1/739/11,tosuperintendent.160Strange,Death,p.50.
39
days,presumablyseekingreassurancetheywerenotaloneorinpain.161Some
familymembersmighthavebeenindifferenttoarelative’sdeath,particularlyif
theirrelationshiphadbeenfraught,yetevenwhenrelationshipshadbeen
fractioussorrowstillmaterialized.WhenDodwelldiedin1900hehadnotseen
hisdaughtersorseenorheardfromhispreviouslydutifulsonEdwardformany
years.UntilhisdeathDodwell’srelationshipwithhisfamilyseemedirreparable,
yethissonHenry’sfinallettertothesuperintendentdescribedhisloveand
sorrow,anddeclared,‘Ishalleverdeeplyregretmyabsencefromhissideatthe
last.’162PerhapstryingtoconsoleHenry,thesuperintendentrepliedthathewas
theonlypersonDodwellhadwishedtoseebeforehisdeathbuthehadnot
knownwhereatelegrammightreachhimintime.163Manybereavedfamily
members,includingHenry,alsoexpressedrelief;theendofrelatives’‘painand
sorrow’wasa‘greatblessing’.164Giventheemotionalandfinancialburdens
patients’familiescarried,arelative’sdeathreleasedallinvolved.Familiesno
longerhadtoworryaboutvisitingorwriting,orabouttheirrelative’shealthor
treatment,andtheywerenolongerpoliced.Itmightalsohaveeasedanyfamilial
tensionoutsideofBroadmoor.
MostpatientswhodiedatBroadmoorwereburiedtherebecauseitcost
familiesnothing.Someregrettedthis.IsobelTaylortoldthesuperintendent:‘I
should[have]liked[myaunt]tohavebeenburiedatArmitageBridgeChurch,
butIfinditwillbeexpensiveandIhavemyagedfathertolive[with]mehaving
161D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67;D/H14/D2/2/1/743/6;D/H14/D2/2/1/743;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15.162D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216.163D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/217.164D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/1/973/9;D/H14/D2/2/1/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/1/569/12;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/36;D/H14/D2/2/2/1075/14;D/H14/D2/2/2/183/67,alltosuperintendent.
40
onlylatelylostmymother.165LikeotherVictorianwomen,Taylorhadassumed
thedutyofcaringforherelderlyfather;thecostoffulfillingherfilialduty
preventedherdoingasshewishedforheraunt.Manyfamilymembers,including
Taylor,alsoregrettedtheirinabilitytoattendtheirrelative’sfuneral;thecost
anddistanceremainedtoogreat.166WhileusualVictorianburialsites
‘representedalocusforexpressionsofgriefandcommemorationthroughthe
installationofheadstones,giftsofflowers,andvisitstothegrave’,167
Broadmoor’swascomparativelyaustere.Butempty,unadornedgravesides
representednotalifeunlovedorforgotten,butthehardshipsand
insurmountableresponsibilitiesfacedbytheworkingfamiliesoftheVictorian
criminallyinsane.AlthoughBroadmoor’sburialspaceundoubtedlyreceived
fewermournersthanatypicalVictoriancemetery,somefamilymemberswere
abletovisittogrieveandremember.168Followingarelative’sfuneralsome
familiescontinuedtodemonstratetheirlove.AnthonyOwston’ssonssent
wreathstobeplaceduponhisgraveeachChristmas,Easterandonthe
anniversaryofhisdeath,prolongingtheiremotionalconnectionwiththeasylum
wheretheirfatherhadspentthemajorityoftheirlives.169
Somefamiliesrejectedaprivateburialbecausetheybelievedthatafter
yearsofincarcerationBroadmoorwastheirrelative’srightfulrestingplace.170
OthersseizedtheopportunitytoarrangeafuneralawayfromBroadmoor.
GeorgeThomasPettwas,hiswifetoldthesuperintendent,‘laidtorestwhereI165D/H14/D2/2/2/2/183/67.166D/H14/D2/2/1/400;D/H14/D2/2/2/166/10;D/H14/D2/2/1/740/28;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/659/12;D/H14/D2/2/1/964/15;D/H14/D2/2/1/996/29-30;D/H14/D2/2/1/760/38,23;D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30.167Strange,Death,p.192.168Somefamilymembersthankedthesuperintendentfortheservice.D/H14/D2/2/1/918/22-23.169D/H14/D2/2/1/963/48-52,tosuperintendent.170D/H14/D2/2/2/178/30,tosuperintendent.
41
knowhelongedtobewithourlittlegirlLillian.’171Dodwellwasburiedin
WokingCemetery,‘farfromthatplacethathassocruellyheldhimforover22
longyearsfromthosethatlovedhimsodearly.’172Afteryearsoftryingand
failingtoliberatetheirlovedone,exercisingthepowertoremovetheirbody
fromBroadmoorwasonewayfamiliesdemonstratedtheirloveandattachment.
Italsomeantthattheycouldfinallyfulfilltheir(oftenyears’old)promise,
withouttheagreementoftheHomeOfficeandtheasylum’ssuperintendent,to
bringtheirrelativehome.
VI.
TheBroadmoorarchiveisarepositoryoflove,sorrow,andhope,alivewith
storiesofloss,poverty,desperationandkinship.Analysisoffamilies’
correspondencetotheasylumhasenabledthefirstin-depthexaminationofthe
effectsofasylumcommittalonindividualfamilymembers.Thefindings
demonstratethevalueofconsideringthelives,experiencesandsubjective
identitiesofindividualfamilymembers,focusingontheirwordsandactions–
andsometimestheirsilence–andpayingcloseattentiontofactorsincluding
class,lifestage(andage)and,incasesoflong-termcommittal,changeovertime.
Thisarticledemonstratesthatasylumsaffectedpatients’familiesinmorevaried
andcomplexwaysthanhaspreviouslybeenacknowledged.Weseethefinancial
andemotionaldistresscaused,especiallytowives,howindividualidentities
werechallengedandreconfigured,andthecurtailmentofindividuals’(often
alreadylimited)agency,notleastbecausetheasylumobservedthem,too.But
171D/H14/D2/2/1/1689.172D/H14/D2/2/1/936c/216,tosuperintendent.
42
kinshipalsoprovedresilient;despitethesedifficultiesfamilymembersstroveto
maintainrelationshipswith,andtocarefor,theirrelativeduringandaftertheir
incarceration.Crucially,weseetheirmotivationswerenotlimitedto,oreven
primarily,financial,butwereshapedbyadesiretopreservefamilialbonds,even
ifincircumscribedform.Evidently,somefamiliestriedandmanagedtogive
meaningtorelationshipsalteredbytheasylum.TheBroadmoorcorrespondence
demonstratesfamilies’presencewithintheasylumbutalsohighlightstheneed
formorenuancedreadingsoftheirabsence:itdidnotnecessarilymean
abandonment,butpoverty,love,fearandsadness.
Thesignificanceandresilienceofaffectivefamilybondsforpatients’
familymembersfoundhereshowsthattofullyunderstandhowtheimpactsof
committalreverberatedbeyondtheasylum’swallswemustre-evaluateother
collectionsofcorrespondencewithacloserengagementwiththehistoryofthe
family.Doingsowillallowexistingassumptionsaboutthe(mostsignificant)
effectsonfamiliestobereviewed,andwillfurtherilluminatetheeffectsof
asylumcommittalonconceptionsoftheselfandthefamily.Althoughoutsidethe
scopeofthisarticle,comparinghowfamiliesindifferentregionsappearedto
copewithlosingarelativetotheasylummayrevealtheroleregionalsocialand
culturaldifferences,andlocalizedunderstandingsofkinship,playedinfamilies’
abilitytowithstandthecommittalofarelative,andshedfurtherlightonthe
historyofthefamily.Historiansmustcontinuetolookbeyondtheasylum’swalls.
Onlywhenweunderstandthebroadersocialimpactsof(long-term,long-
distance)asylumcommittalwillwestarttounderstandthefullextentoftherole
andsignificanceoftheVictorianasylum.