Shelton Reading 215-221

8/14/2019 Shelton Reading 215-221

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Political Campaigns 215,da

with stones. The tribunes decided that the aedile had been rightfully refused admittance to a placewhich it was unseemly for him to enter with a garland on his head.s+ And so the tribunes forbade=the aedile to bring this accusation before the "people."

a POLIT ICAL CAMPAIGNSu

.

During the republican period, the most important activity in life for the small group offamilies who constituted the senatorial class was the pursuit of polit ical power-forone's self, one's family, and one's friends. A man of senatorial rank would spend hiswhole adult life planning, scheming, manipulating, negotiating, creating a publicimage, ingratiating himself, attracting supporters, dispensing favors. A boy's rhetori-cal education and a young man's activities in the law courts were preparations for apolitical career. Friendships and marriages were often a matter of political conve-nience.v= and more than one divorce was prompted by a desire to form new politicalalliances .P? The percentage of the population that was so deeply involved in politicswas small-in the republican period there were only about 300 Senate members-but the stakes were high: control over Rome, Italy, and a far-flung empire. And it isthe men of the senatorial class-men like Sui la, Caesar, Cato, and Cicero-and theiractivities that are for us the best-known elements of Roman history.Since each senatorial family felt that its members and friends had a god-givenright to rule Rome, rivalry was intense and political campaigns were bitter. Andbecause elections were held every year,88 the process of campaigning was virtuallyunending.t '? Campaigns were not only bitter, but also expensive since candidates, asa matter of course, spent huge sums of money "buying" votes; bribery was morecommon that it is even today.P?

s

s

84Partygoers frequently wore garlands. The garland on Mancinus's head proved that his visit was not official andthat he had no right to demand entry.85forbade: exercised their power of veto; see note 42 of this chapter.86For example, Julius Caesar married off his daughter, Julia, to his sometime political ally, Pompey, a man olderthan himself. The marriage, which took place in 59 B.C., was intended to strengthen the ties between the twomen. Julia died in childbirth in 54 B.C., and soon afterward the uneasy political alliance between the two men wasviolently ruptured; see note 8 1 1 of Chapter V.87 Julia was Pompey's fourth wife (he married a fifth wife after her death). He had divorced his first wife to marryAemilia, the stepdaughter of Sulla, presumably because he wanted to strengthen his ties to Sulla (see note 114 ofChapter Vll). At the time that Pompey and Sulla arranged this marriage, Aemilia was pregnant and living withher husband. She was forced to divorce him and marry Pompey. She died in childbirth soon afterward. Theyounger Cato (great-grandson of the elder Cato; see selection 134) had actually divorced his own wife, Marcia,and married her off to Hortensius to strengthen their friendship. When Hortensius died, he remarried Marcia.88The term of office for quaestor, aedile, tribune, praetor, and consul was only one year.89Even if you were not yourself running for office, you were expected to campaign for family members andfamily friends; see note 17 of Chapter III. You were also expected to lobby for the legislation of your politicalallies and against that of your opponents, and to maintain a high profile by speaking out in the courts , Senate, andassemblies.90See note 59 of Chapter XII.


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216 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSPlanning a Campaign

The following passagesare selections from a letter of advice on running for publicoffice. Many scholars believe that the letter was written by Quintus Tullius Cicero tohis more famous brother, Marcus Tullius Cicero in 64 B.C., when Marcus was runningfor the consulship of 63 B.C. Other scholars argue that the letter was written at least100 years later, as a literary exercise. If, however, it is a literary exercise rather than agenuine letter, it is very cleverly composed, because the author has described so wellthe political realities of the final years of the republican period. (One would notexpect a writer of the imperial period, when the emperor controlled all public officesand when popular elections had been suspended, to be so well informed aboutrepubl ican pol i tics.)

Whoever the author may be, his letter provides very valuable information aboutrunning for office in the late republican period. The advice-make connections,establish a broad base of support, keep a high profile, and promise everyoneeverything-was applicable to all political aspirants (and still is), but was particularlyappropriate for a novus homo. A "new man" was someone whose family had neverbefore had a consul in its rank. Cicero was a "new man." He was born in Arpinum, atown southeast of Rome, in 106 B.C.; his family was wealthy ("new men" were neverpoor) and equestrian; he received an excellent rhetorical education. Cicero wasapparently driven by his ambition to achieve political success in Rome and, whilestill a young man, acquired a reputation as a brilliant lawyer and public speaker.v'His political career followed a "normal" course; that is, he was elected quaestor, thelowest rung of the political ladder, in 76 B.C., when he was thirty years old, andserved as quaestor in 75 B.C., at age thirty-one, the youngest age by law at which hecould hold the quaestorship. He was elected aedile in 70 B.C. (served in 69) andpraetor in 67 B.C. (served in 66), also atthe youngest agesallowed by law. Thus, by 64B.C., when he ran for the consulship, Cicero had already served in the Senate fortwelve yearsv- and held three magistracies. One might well think that he had provedhimself a capable and conscientious politician. He had certainly tried very hard tobecome part of the establishment. But the old senatorial families, however bitter therivalries among themselves, would always jealously close ranks against a "newman," an upstart, as they thought, invading the political arena, their arena. Cicerowas forced to work very diligently to acquire a solid and broad base of support. Nodoubt he used the tactics described in this letter; in 63 B.C. he became the first "newman" in over thirty years to hold the consulship.v'

262

Although '. : - '-.,experience ~ ~ ithe sogges: ~.'the consc.s. __~ :strategies .unifying ::~ .,;only a k.' --:--:..is, what ~c:'.:,you must :0 :::_ - :

You ""_. :C :as a spe~:;,,: -'ranks are ~'~.'': ~publicans. '--.::.many mer ; :: ':young IT:~:.::attendance .: ..your ca rr .:::': ':;-who 0\\'" '. - ,favor. ar.; '.:-.:..':.tunity fo!' :~.:- :

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94Cicero .:-.,:'the Latin .:~_.wealthy R~::.~-95Selectic..s ~ -96 The Lat.r. '.'.. - :alliance. F,:: = .:

91Another native of Arpinum and another' 'new man" who became consul was Gaius Marius, who was electedconsul in 107 B.C. (see the introduction to Chapter XI). Both Marius and Cicero were individuals of exceptionaltalent, Marius in military matters and Cicero in oratory. The latter used public speaking to gain the reputationnecessary to political success in Rome; the former gained fame as a military man. Neither "new man" wouldhave achieved the rank of consul had each not been an individual of exceptional talent. "New men" had to workmuch harder for each political success than the sons of old, established senatorial families who could count onfamily support. Do not, however, think that "new men" were poor or politically naive. Cicero and Marius bothcame from wealthy families, prominent in their hometowns. They simply did not have the network of supportavailable to families long active in Roman politics.92He was admitted to the Senate upon being elected quaestor; see the introduction to selection 264.93Even after holding the consulship Cicero still met with hostility, petty jealousy, and suspicion from somesenatorial families who continued to view him as a "new man."

97Cicero's :':_98Legal se r.: :important '.:: ~..: ::successful :~'.~. ':'99In ancien: ? C . : - :had helped :".':::favor of ass:,:::, :.favor) and c\::.=100 populare: .. :: :selection 265. ..resort to "F'c:- ...:before mnni::; ~

IOlcell!((l'!f.' .:,;,; -


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262Political Campaigns 21 7

Quintus Tullius Cicero, Some Thoughts about Political Campaigns1.1-5; 8.29-31, 33; 9.34-38; 11.41-45; 12.48; 13.53; 14.54, 559 for public

s Cicero toas runningtten at leastther than abed sowellwould notblic officesmed about

Although you are well equipped with every advantage which men can acquire through intelligence,experience, and hard work, yet I don't think it is inappropriate for me, who loves you, to write to youthe suggestions which have come into my mind whenever I have thought about your campaign forthe consulship. I don't think that you will learn anything new from these, but at least the variousstrategies which now seem random and unconnected will be set into one framework and will have aunifying plan and arrangement. Although natural ability is a strong advantage, yet in a campaign ofonly a few months, duplicity can defeat natural ability. Therefore, consider carefully what city thisis, what office you are running for and who you are. Every day, as you walk down to the Forum.P"you must remind yourself: I am a "new man," I am running for consul, and this is Rome.

You will be able to compensate for the" newness" of your name to a large extent by your fameas a speaker. 95 . . . Then make sure that both the large number of your friends and also their highranks are quite apparent. For you have friendships'" which few "new men" have had: with all thepublicans, almost all the equestrian order.?? many municipalities with special attachments to you,many men of every class who have been defended by YOU,98 some private clubs, a large number ofyoung men devoted to you because of their enthusiasm for eloquence, and the daily assistance andattendance of your personal friends. Take care that you retain these supporters by reminding them ofyour campaign, by asking for their votes, and by using every method to make sure that the peoplewho owe you favors understand that there will never be another opportunity for them to return thefavor, and that the people who desire your help understand that there will never be another oppor-tunity for them to put you under obligation to them.??

This also, it seems to me, can assist greatly a "new man": the good will of men of noble, andespecially of consular rank. It is advantageous to be thought worthy of a particular rank by those verymen into whose ranks you wish to enter. All these men must be diligently courted by you; you mustentreat them and persuade them that we have always supported the optimates in affairs of state, andhave not been populares.tv" ...

Make sure that you have firm support in all the centuries 101 by means of your many and variedfriendships. First of all, win over to your side the Roman senators and equestrians and the active and

ation aboutnnections.everyonearticularlyhad neverrpinum, aere nevericero wasd, while

speaker.91aestor, theold, andwhich he69) and

hus, by 64enate ford provedy hard tobitter thet a "new. Ciceroport. No"new

was electedexceptionale reputation" would

had to workld count onarius bothof support

94Cicero owned a home on the Palatine, one of Rome's Seven Hills. He would thus walk down the hill to theForum. Houses on the Palatine were among the most expensive in Rome; the English word palace is derived fromthe Latin palatium (Palatine). In the imperial period, the emperors' residence was on the Palatine. Like otherwealthy Romans, Cicero had several country homes as well as his city home; see selections 18 and 109.95Selections 8,76, 184,229,265, and 321 are taken from Cicero's speeches.96The Latin word amicitia (English "amicable," French "ami") means both personal friendship and politicalalliance. For many people in the upper class, no distinction was made between personal and political friendships.97Cicero's family was equestrian.98Legal services were paid for not with money but with political help (see selections 7, 8 and 9). It was thereforeimportant for aspiring politicians to provide legal assistance to as many people as possible. Cicero was a verysuccessful lawyer.99In ancient Rome, favors were always reciprocaL People who had in the past received favors from Cicero (hehad helped them with a lawsuit, loaned them money, written a letter of recommendation, etc.) now owed him thefavor of assisting in his campaign. People who wanted his help in the future promised him their votes now (i.e., afavor) and expected him to return the favor later..00populares: see note 73 of this chapter. The optimates were the larger and conservative part of the Senate; seeselection 265. It was important that Cicero convince these men that, although he was a "new man," he would notresort to "popular" tactics to win support. (Since Cicero had already been a Senate member for twelve yearsbefore running for consul, the optimates should have known well his political inclinations.)10. centuries: see notes 9 and 10 of this chapter.

.from some


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21 8 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSinfluential men of all the other social classes. There are many hard-working men in the city and manyinfluential and active freedmen in the Forum. Both in person and through mutual friends exert everypossible effort to make them your supporters: pursue them, entreat them, show them that they arebestowing upon you the very greatest favor. Then develop a plan for the whole city, for all privateclubs, for the country districts and the neighboring regions. 102 If you can win over to your side theleading men in these groups, you will with their help easily gain the votes of the other members ofthe groups. Next, make sure that you have in your mind and memory a plan of all ofItaly divided andarranged by tribes-?" so that you do not allow to go unnoticed any municipality, colony, or prefec-ture, indeed any place at all in Italy in which you do not have sufficient support. Search for and trackdown men from every region. Become acquainted with them, entreat them, encourage them. See toit that they campaign for you in their own neighborhoods and that they are candidates, so to speak,for your cause. . . .

I think that the centuries of equestrians 104 can very easily be kept on your side with a little hardwork. First, become acquainted with the equestrians (there are not many of them in the top centu-ries); then, court them (for youth 105 is much more easily attracted to friendship). In the end, you willhave on your side all the finest young men and those most devoted to honorable behavior. . . . Andthe eagerness of these young men in voting for you, in working for you, in giving you publicity, andin attending upon you is both wonderfully important and wonderfully respectable.

And, since I have brought up the topic of attendants, make sure that you are attended every dayby men from each class, order, and age group .... Your attendants can also be divided into threegroups: (1) those who corne to your horne for the morning salutation, (2) those who escort you fromyour home,l06 and (3) those who follow you through the city'?" The morning greeters are morecommon than the other two groups and more numerous, because this is now the fashion. You mustbe sure to make the slightest l ittle service they do seem especially gratifying to you. Indicate to thosewho come to your house that you are aware of their attention. Make it known to their friends (whowill, of course, report your words to them). And teJl them often, in person. When several candidatesare campaigning and men see that there is one who really appreciates the services of his attendants,they frequently desert the other candidates and pledge themselves to him .... As for the groupwho escort you from your home, whose service is greater than that of the morning greeters, clearlyindicate to them that it is also more gratifying to you. Corne down to the Forum at the same timeevery day; for a large crowd of escorts every day brings you great renown and great respect. Now thethird group in this classification are those who attend you assiduously. Some do so voluntarily; makesure that they know that you will be under obligation to them for this enormous favor. Some,however, owe you this service; simply demand that they repay you; those whose age and occupationwill allow it should attend you constantly, but those who cannot personally attend you should assigntheir relatives to this duty. 108 I strongly urge, and I think it important, that you always appear with a

group c: ~~o-~men whcr.; 7 = 'them tj-.~:::.7th em se.ve- " "and neve ; ~~c.-

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102By64 B.C., when Cicero was running for consul, all citizens of Italy were Roman citizens, and the men ofItaly were therefore eligible to vote in elections for Roman magistrates.1030'ibes: see notes 12 and 13 of this chapter.!04centuries of equestrians: in Cicero's time, there were 373 centuries. Of these, only eighteen centuries wereequestrian. The equestrian centuries were composed of menunder forty-seven years of age iiuniores: see note 10of this chapter) with the highest property qualification in the state. Not everyone in the equestrian order wasplaced in an equestrian century; assignment to a century was the job of the censors; see selection 255.105 youth: because men in the equestrian centuries were under forty-seven.106Thatis, down the Palatine to the Forum.!07Thesemen stay with Cicero all day long. The men who attend upon Cicero are his clients; compare hiscomments about the obligations of clients in selection 8. Note that Cicero is here advised to show gratitude to hisclients. In the imperial period, when popular elections had been abolished and when former slaves becamefreedmen-clients, the relationship between patrons and clients changed; see selection 9-14 and 241 to 246.108Thefavor must be repaid.


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Political Campaigns 219city and manys exert everythat they arefor all privateyour side themembers of

y divided andy, or prefec-for and trackthem, See toso to speak,

group of attendants, And you will particularly gain great respect and renown if your attendants aremen who have been defeated by you in court and who have been acquitted, Simply demand fromthem that they repay you with this service since they, through your efforts and at no cost tothemselves.I''? won a court case, or preserved their reputations, or kept their lives and their property,and never again in the future will there be a time when they can show their gratitude to you, 110 , , ,

Enough has been said about establishing friendships, We must now discuss the other aspect of apolitical campaign: what is done to win over the common people, Here you need flattery, constantattention, courtesy, good reputation, prominence in public life, and the knowledge of each man'sname, In fact, make it very clear that you do know men's names, and add to the list so that every dayyou become even better at this, 111 Nothing, as far as I am concerned, is so popular or so pleasing,And then, although you are not by nature a flatterer, persuade yourself that you must give theappearance of complimenting people in a very natural fashion. Certainly you possess that affabilitywhich befits a good and pleasant man, but you really need the gift of flattery which, although it iswicked and reprehensible in all other aspects of life, yet is essential in a political campaign.Actually, when flattery makes a man worse it is bad, but when it makes him more supportive of youit shouldn't be censured, It is certainly essential for a candidate, whose expression and appearanceand speech must be changed and adapted to the opinions and wishes of everyone he meets.

Constant attention implies . . . that you campaign continually, that you appeal to the samepeople again and again, , , , Courtesy belongs in the services which you should offer to thecommon people. Take care that they have easy access to you day and night, not only through thedoors of your horne!'? but even through your open and sincere appearance, which is the door to yourmind.. . Men want to hear promises when they make requests of a candidate, and they want tohear lavish and creditable promises, And so make it clear that you will do whatever you do withenthusiasm and generosity, It is rather difficult, and more appropriate to the demands of yourcampaign than to your own nature, to promise what you cannot accomplish, . . , But it is thestrategy of a good campaigner. ' . . If you make a promise, its fulfillment is never a definitematter; it is a question of the right opportunity, and it concerns only a few people. If, however, yourefuse to make a promise, you alienate definitely and immediately many people. In any case, farmore people ask for the promise of a favor than ever demand its fulfillment. . , .

In this campaign you must especially see to it that the public thinks that you are honest and truststhat you will serve well in office. Politics is not simply a matter of success in the campaign, or in theSenate, or in the popular assembly, but rather these things must be kept in mind: the Senate shouldthink that you will be a defender of its authority from the fact that you have in the past been itsdefender; the Roman equestrians and other honorable and wealthy men113 should think from yourpast life that you will be eager for peace and tranquility; 114 and the masses should think, from the factthat in your speeches in the assemblies and in court you supported the rights of the people, that youwill not be opposed t9 its interests. ' . ,

Rome is a city-state formed by the coming together of many nations; in Rome you must enduremuch treachery, deceit, vices of every kind, arrogance of many men, scorn, malevolence, pride,

a litt le harde top centu-nd, you will. . , Andblicity, andd every dayd into threert you froms are more. You mustate to thoseiends (whocandidatesattendants,the grouprs, clearlysame time. Now the; maker. Some,ccupationuld assignear with a

the men of

es wereee note 10order was5.

109Lawyers did not receive fees; see note 98 of this chapter.lIratitude: from the Latin gratia = "favor"; compare ingratiating,IIIA politician was (and still is) expected to greet everyone warmly and by name, Ancient politicians wereassisted by a slave called a nomenclator whose duty it was to memorize names and identify people (Latin nomen= "name," clamo = "call out"; compare English nomenclature),112A man with political aspirations needed a large reception area in his home; see selection 79,113Notice the differentiation in rank, Members of the equestrian order needed a property qualification of 400,000sesterces. Other businessmen, well-off but with less than 400,000 sesterces, would share the same interests as theequestrian order.114Businessmen were interested in peace and tranquility because the volume of trade increased when conditionswere stable; see the introduction to selection 171.

pare hise to hisbecame

o 246.


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22 0 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICShatred, and harassment. I see that anyone who lives in the midst of so many vices of every sort and ofsuch scale and of so many men must have great prudence and skill to avoid giving offense, to avoidgossip and treachery. Only one man can adapt to such a variety of characters and forms ofexpression-you! Therefore, continue always to maintain the course which you set for yourself:excel in public speaking! By this are men in Rome controlled, and attracted, and discouraged fromhindering or harming you. lIS

Campaign LiteraturePolitical messages were painted on the walls of buildings in Pompeii (and presumablyof cities like Rome as well). We have already read some of these messagest tv: hereare some others. .

26 3 cu . 4.7463,579,275,6628,7213,635,787,7866,7221,3409,6625,920,3775,429, 1147,235,581,576,575,2887

Intnf-"=.~the 2:'5,,-- ~ -.pos;~;:' .: '''-office . ':senato.s ~.: "for furr e --:~senato., -:'-:-trates C ' : " ' - ; 0 - , ,:sirnilar : : ~. : ; . - ;0them. 1-::::chiefe\f=_= ?chosen::. '.'" .rernainec ::_..tives, ~ : . . - = ~ . ' : :consulsr :c-: -prop0525 = - :one of ~--;o t:;dernocrecSenate ha; ~ ~- =Senate COL. ::: :tum,125 ca.--,,::foreign ana "

Elect Pansa aedile. He deserves the position.Magonius supports Cuspius Pansa for aedile.Saturninus and his pupils urge you to elect Gaius Cuspius Pansa aedile. He is a worthycandidate for our government.Make Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus and Marcus Samellius Modestus aediles; they are worthy candi-dates for our government.Amandio and his friends urge you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile. He is a worthycandidate for our government.Proculus, make Sabinus aedile and he will make you aedile.All the worshippers of Isis117 urge you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile.Maria"!" urges you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile.Ismurna urges you to elect Lucius Popidius aedile.Rufinus, support Popidius Secundus for aedile, and he will do the same for you.His neighbors urge you to elect Marcus Lucretius Fronto aedile.Proculus, give up your office to Franta.His neighbors urge you to elect Lucius Statius Receptus duovir with judicial power. 119 Hedeserves the position. Aemilius Celer, his neighbor, wrote his.P? If you spitefullv deface thissign, may you become very ill.Elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He supplies good bread.Ballplayers, I urge you, make Aulus Vettius Firmus aedile: he is a worthy candidate for ourgovernment.

121It is not c:~;: z : : ;: :or associations ',". :.:political endorser ::.'-drink late into :::: - ~122The Latin "',:::were sometime; :~.. ~123Tiberius Gr z ; :: ..of the Senate. t,,:" -.-:the Senate had ~:' :,~1241aws: that is, .c: .125 enatus COIlS:,> . "examples, see se.e :;.:126See selection:"

I IS Cicero won fame as a public speaker in the law courts, the assemblies, and the Senate, His skill as a speakermade him a man to be admired, but also to be feared, He had demolished more than one political opponent withhis brilliant oratory, Consider his attacks on Clodia in selection 76 and on Verres in selection 321.116See selection 165 ,II 7 Isi s: an Egyptian goddess; see selections 439 and 440.lIS Maria , Ismurna: barmaids,119du ovi r: see note 65 of Chapter II.120Aemilius Celer: for more on this sign painter, see selections 131 and 392.


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The Senate 221Faventinus and his friends urge you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia aedile.All the late drinkers'>' urge you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia aedile. Florus and Fructuswrote this.The petty thieves urge you to elect Vatia aedile.All the late sleepers urge you to elect Vatia aedile.Let anyone who opposes the election of Quintius go sit by an ass!

T HE S ENAT E

~- The Senate in the Republican PeriodIn the republican period, the Senate was composed of men who had been elected bythe assemblies to one of the magistracies. A man did not, therefore, "run" for theposition of senator, but once elected quaestor, for example, for a one-year term ofoffice, he was admitted into the Senate for life. All the magistrates were thus alsosenators, and all senators were men who had once been magistrates and who hopedfor further magistracies for themselves or their family members. All magistrates andsenators, moreover, were wealthy. Therefore, although the functions of the magis-trates differed from those of the senators, every magistrate would have interestssimilar to those of his fellow senators, and he would work in close consultation withthem. Indeed, historically the function of the Senate was to provide advice to thechief executives of Rome. In the monarchy, senators were the elders of the state,l22chosen by the king to be his advisors. After the expulsion of the monarchy, the Senateremained during the republican period as an advisory body for the new chief execu-tives, the two consuls elected each year (who were, of course, also senators). Theconsuls introduced to the Senateproposals for legislation. The senators discussed theproposals and, if they approved them, advised the consuls to present the legislation toone of the popular assemblies for a vote. Thus, although Rome was in name ademocracy since the "people" elected magistrates and voted on legislation, theSenatehad tight control over what legislation actually reached the assemblies.123TheSenate could not technically pass laws,124but its "advice," called a s en atu s c on su l-tum ,125 came to have the force of a law.126The Senatecontrolled both domestic andforeign affairs. It decided how much money to collect in taxes, tributes, public rents,

-

121ftis not clear whether the "late drinkers," the "petty thieves," and the "late sleepers" were respectable clubsor associations which had given themselves humorous names (compare the Oddfellows); in this case, theirpolitical endorsements were probably useful. Or "late drinkers" may, in fact, mean exactly that: people whodrink late into the night. In this case, the "endorsements" may have been written by Vatia's political enemies.122The Latin word sen ator is related to the words se nex ("old man") and senere ("to be old"). The senatorswere sometimes called patres, "fathers."123Tiberius Gracchus, when tribune, had angered his fellow-senators, and was assassinated by certain elementsof the Senate, because he took his agrarian law proposal directly to the Concilium Plebis for a vote even thoughthe Senate had advised against it; see selection 187.1241aws : that is, le ges; see note 24 of this chapter.12 5sen atu s consultum (often written as one word: se na tu sconsultum i: "advice tconsultumi of the Senate." Forexamples, see selections 87 and 436.126See selection 278.


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AS THE ROMANS DIDA Sourcebook in Roman Social HistorySecond Edition

Jo-Ann Shelton

New York OxfordOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1998

Shelton Reading 215-221

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Transcript of Shelton Reading 215-221