shashi report

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF

HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF NAINITAL, INDIA

M.Sc. Dissertation

Report Submitted in Partial fulfillment for the degree of

M.Sc in Ecology and Environmental Sciences

By:

Mr. Shashi Ranjan Choudhary

Roll No- 11371046

Under the supervision

Prof. M. Vikram Reddy

DEPARTMENT OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY,

PUDUCHERRY – 605014

APRIL – 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to show my greatest appreciation to my guide Prof. M. Vikram Reddy.

I can’t say thank you enough for all his tremendous support and guidance. I

sincerely thank, Prof. K. V. Devi Prasad, Head of Dept of Ecology and

Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University

I owe my deepest appreciation to Dr. Sunil Kumar who has the attitude and the

substance of genius he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure

in regard to research and an excitement in regard to teaching. Without his

guidance and persistent help, this dissertation would not have been possible.

I am heartily thankful to Dr. S. Pramanik, Scientist and Head, NEERI Kolkata

Zonal laboratory whose encouragement supported me helped me throughout my

dissertation work.

I am greatly thankful and indebted to Ms. Hiya Dhar, Ms. Snehal Patki, Mr.

Anand and Mr. Vivek Kumar Ojha, Mr. Jaseel O.C Project Assistants and all the

technical staff in NEERI, Kolkata Zonal laboratory for their constant support and

encouragement throughout my dissertation period.

Last but not least, I want to express my love and special regards to my parents

because without their support, I would not have been able to perform this tedious

work.

Dr. M. VIKRAM REDDY

Senior Professor

Ecology & Environmental Science

Pondicherry University

Puducherry-605014

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation report entitled “MUNICIPAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF

NAINITAL (INDIA) .” which is submitted by SHASHI RANJAN CHOUDHARY

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master degree in Ecology

& Environmental Science Department, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,

during the academic year 2011-2013, is a bonafide record of the candidate own

work carried out by his under my supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is

original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Date Dr. M. VIKRAM REDDY

Research Supervisor

Dr. K. V. Devi Prasad

Head of Department

Department Of Ecology & Environmental Sciences

Mr. Shashi Ranjan Choudhary

M. Sc.

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences

Pondicherry University

Pondicherry – 605014

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF HILLY REGION: A CASE STUDY OF

NAINITAL, INDIA” is a bonafied record of research work done by me under the

guidance of Prof. M. Vikram Reddy, Dept. of Ecology and Environmental

Sciences, Pondicherry University.

The work carried out at National Environmental Engineering Research Institute

Kolkata Zonal laboratory is be submitted for the partial fulfillment of the degree

of Master of Ecology and Environmental Sciences to be awarded by Pondicherry

University, Pondicherry and no part of it has been used for any degree or diploma

of any another university.

Shashi Ranjan Choudhary

Place: Pondicherry

Date:

LIST OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1-12

1.1 Solid waste: definition, management and types 1

1.2 MSW, Discussion on MSW Management 2

1.3 Functional Elements of MSW Management System 4

1.4 MSWM System in India 11

1.5 Need for Study on MSW Management in Hilly Regions 11

1.6 Objective and Scope of the Study 12

2. Literature Review 13-43

2.1 Waste Characteristics 15

2.2 Integrated Waste Management 18

2.3 Waste Diversion and Minimization 21

2.4 MSW Indian Scenario 27

2.5 MSW International Scenario 30

2.6 MSW Cradle to Grave 37

3. Study Area 44-54

3.1 Description of Study Area 44

3.2 Population 44

3.3 Life-style 45

3.4 Profile of the Town 45

3.5 Existing Climate 45

3.6 Existing Status of MSW Management in Nainital 51

4 Materials and Methods 55-60

4.1Methodology Adopted for Collecting MSW Samples 55

4.2 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis 55

4.3 Important Parameters 55

pH 55

Moisture Content 56

Measurement of C and N 57

Loss on Ignition and Ash Content 57

Heavy Metal Analysis 58

5 Result and Discussion 61-65

5.1 Quantification of MSW 61

5.2 Discussion on Results (Silent Findings in MSW in Nainital) 63

6 Conclusion and Future Scope 66-69

6.1 Recommendation 68

6.2 Future Scope of Project work 69

7 Reference 70-77

Annexure

List of Tables

Solid waste categories based on source 2

Source of Municipal solid waste 3

Waste streams classified by source 17

MSW generation rates in different states in India 25

Physical characteristics of a typical city MSW 28

Chemical characteristics of MSW in Indian cities 29

Density of MSW in some cities 29

MSW composition data by percentage 31

Default values of different MSW components 32

MSW generation and management data 34

Relative composition of household waste 36

Profile of Nainital town 45

Physical composition of MSW sample 61

Chemical analysis parameters of MSW 62

List of Figure

MSW stream 4

Waste management hierarchy 23

Map of Nainital 44

Area wise solid waste management at Nainital 47

Solid waste GPS locations at Nainital 48

Collection of MSW 52

Transportation of MSW 53

Segregation of MSW 54

Disposal of MSW 54

Photograph of pH meter 56

A pictorial view of CHNS analyzer 58

Photographic view of ICP-OES 59

Photograph of Hot air oven 60

Photograph of Muffle furnace 60

Percentage of different components of MSW 62

Framework of MSW Management of city Nainital 68

MSWM System in Hilly Region: A Case Study of Nainital

Introduction

Waste is a continually growing problem at global and regional as well as at local levels. Solid

wastes arise from human and animal activities that are normally discarded as useless or

unwanted. In other words, solid wastes may be defined as the organic and inorganic waste

materials produced by various activities of the society and which have lost their value to the first

user. As the result of rapid increase in production and consumption, urban society rejects and

generates solid material regularly which leads to considerable increase in the volume of waste

generated from several sources such as, domestic wastes, commercial wastes, institutional wastes

and industrial wastes of most diverse categories. Management of solid waste may be defined as

that discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and

transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best

principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other

environmental considerations. In its scope, solid waste management includes all administrative,

financial, legal, planning, and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions

to problems of solid wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants. Solid wastes have the

potential to pollute all the vital components of living environment (i.e., air, land and water) at

local and at global levels. The problem is compounded by trends in consumption and production

patterns and by continuing urbanization of the world. The problem is more acute in developing

nations than in developed nations as the economic growth as well as urbanization is more rapid.

1.1 Solid waste management

Management of solid waste is associated with the control of generation, storage, collection,

transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with

the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other

environmental considerations. In its scope, it includes all administrative, financial, legal,

planning and engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to problems of

solid wastes thrust upon the community by its inhabitants.

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1.1.1 Categories of Solid Waste

Solid waste can be categorized based on source as shown in table 1.

Table 1: Solid Waste categories based on source

Source Typical facilities, activities, or

locations where wastes are

generated

Types of Solid waste

Agricultural Field and row crops, orchards,

vineyards, diaries, feedlots, farms,

etc

Spoiled food wastes,

agricultural wastes, rubbish,

and hazardous wastes

Industrial Construction, fabrication, light

and heavy manufacturing,

refineries, chemical plants, power

plants, demolition, etc.

Industrial process wastes,

scrap materials, etc.;

nonindustrial waste

including food waste,

rubbish, ashes, demolition

and construction wastes,

special wastes, and

hazardous waste.

Commercial

and

Institutional

Stores, restaurants, markets, office

buildings, hotels, auto repair

shops,

Paper, cardboard, plastics,

wood, food wastes, glass,

metal wastes, ashes, special

wastes, etc.

Municipal

solid waste

Includes residential, commercial

and institutions

Special waste, rubbish,

general waste, paper,

plastics, metals, food waste,

etc.

Source: (Hester, R. E and Harrison, R. M., 2002)

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1.2 Municipal Solid Waste

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is normally assumed to include all of the waste

generated in a community, with the exception of waste generated by municipal services,

treatment plants, and industrial and agricultural processes. In the urban context the term

municipal solid wastes is of special importance. The term refers to all wastes collected and

controlled by the municipality and comprises of most diverse categories of wastes. It comprises

of wastes from several different sources such as, domestic wastes, commercial wastes,

institutional wastes and building materials wastes.

1.2.1 Types of Municipal Solid Waste

Table 2: The sources of municipal solid waste

Sources Examples

Residential Single family homes, duplexes, town houses, apartments

Commercial Office buildings, shopping malls, warehouses, hotels, airports,

restaurants

Institutional Schools, medical facilities, prisons

Industrial Packaging of components, office wastes, lunchroom and restroom

wastes (but not industrial process wastes)

Source: (Tchobanoglous, G and Kreith, F., 2002)

1.2.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management

Municipal Solid waste management involves the application of principle of Integrated Solid

Waste Management (ISWM) to municipal waste. ISWM is the application of suitable techniques,

technologies and management programs covering all types of solid wastes from all sources to

achieve the twin objectives of (a) waste reduction and (b) effective management of waste still

produced after waste reduction

In the Municipal Solid Waste Management the major issues to be considered are:

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Increasing waste quantities

Wastes not reported in the national MSW totals

Lack of clear definition for solid waste management terms and functions

Lack of quality data

Need for clear roles in state and local government

Need for even and predictable enforcement regulations and standards

1.3 Functional Elements of Municipal Solid Waste Management

To implement proper waste management, various aspects have to be considered such as Waste

generation (source reduction), Waste handling and sorting, storage and processing at the source

(onsite storage), Collection, Sorting, processing and transformation, transfer and transport, and

Disposal (The Expert Committee, 2000). Figure 1, shows the interrelationship between the

functional elements in solid waste management.

Figure 1: The Municipal Solid Waste Stream

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1.3.1 Waste Generation

Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of

value (in their present form) and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal. Waste

generation at present is not very controllable. However, reduction of waste at source is included

in system evaluations as a method of limiting the quantity of waste generated.

The compositional terms that are used can vary a lot, from relatively simple descriptions in terms

of organic to more complicated schemes, using many or all of the constituents, such as paper,

plastic, glass, metal etc.

1.3.2 Waste Handling, Sorting, Storage, and Processing at the source

Waste handling and sorting involves activities associated with management of wastes until they

are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of

loaded containers to the point of collection.

Sorting is an important component of waste management and best-done onsite. However,

there are various stages of sorting. These can be identified as the following:

o At the source or house hold level

o At the community bin (municipal bin)

o At transfer station or centralized sorting facility

o At waste processing site (pre-sorting and post sorting)

o At the landfill site

Sorting Operations can be carried out in three ways:

o Manual sorting

o Semi-mechanized sorting

o Fully mechanized sorting

Onsite storage is of primary importance because of public health concerns. Open ground

storage, make shift containers should always be avoided and only closed containers

should be used. Processing at the source involves backyard composting. Storage of

wastes can be done at three levels:

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o At source

o At community level

o At transfer stations

1.3.3 Collection

This includes gathering the solid wastes and recyclable materials and transport of these materials

to either the processing facility, transfer facility or the disposal site.

Types of Collection

i. Community bins - they are placed in convenient locations, where the community

members carry the waste and throw it in. For this method the Bins are covered, they are

aesthetic, they are attended to regularly, kept clean, easy to handle and separate bins are

provided for recyclable, mixed, paper and biodegradable waste.

ii. Door-to-Door collection – The waste is placed at the doorstep at a set time when the

waste collector arrives. In this method, it is the collector of the waste has the

responsibility to collect the waste separately.

iii. Block collection - the collection vehicles arrive at a particular place or a set day and time

to collect waste from the households. Households bring their waste containers and empty

directly into the vehicle

iv. Curbside collection – the homeowner is responsible for placing the containers to be

emptied at the curb on the collection day and for returning the empty containers to their

storage location until the next collection.

Street cleansing is another type of collection method mainly for collection of street litter.

1.3.4 Sorting, processing and transformation of Solid Waste

This functional unit encompasses the recovery of the sorted materials, processing of solid waste

and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of

waste generation.

6


Sorting of the mixed waste usually occurs at a material recovery facility, transfer stations,

combustion facilities and disposal sites. Sorting includes separation of bulky items, separation of

waste components by size using screens, manual separation of waste components, and separation

of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Waste processing and transformation solid waste processing reduces the amount of material

requiring disposal and, in some cases produces a useful product. Examples of solid waste

processing technologies include material recovery facilities, where recyclable materials are

removed and/or sorted; composting facilities where organics in solid waste undergo controlled

decomposition; and waste-to-energy facilities where waste becomes energy for electricity.

1.3.5 Processing

Recycling and reuse – In this process, by which materials otherwise destined for disposal are

collected, reprocessed or remanufactured and are reused. The recycling and reuse (the use of a

product more than once in its same form for the same or other purpose) sector of waste

management in cities of Asian developing countries is potentially high

Composting – It is a biological process of decomposition carried out under controlled conditions

of ventilation, temperature, moisture and organisms in the waste themselves that convert waste

into humus-like material by acting on the organic portion of the solid waste. It produces a sludge,

which is high in nutrients and can be used as a fertilizer. There are various methods of

composting, which are:

Windrow composting: It is a common method of composting; it involves the stabilization of

organic solid waste through aerobic degradation. The waste is piled in heaps with approximately

a height of 3 m, width of 1.5 m and varying lengths. The waste is left for 60 days for

decomposition with weekly turnings to aerate the heaps. After which, it can be sieved and the

compost is obtained.

Vermi-composting: It is a comparatively new method in composting; it involves the stabilization

of organic solid waste through earthworm consumption that converts the material into earthworm

7


castings. Vermi-composting is the result of combined activity of microorganisms and

earthworms.

Energy recovery Processes

The main Parameters, which determine the potential of recovery of energy from wastes

(including MSW), are:

• Quantity of waste, and

• Physical and chemical characteristics (quality) of the waste

The important physical parameters requiring consideration include:

• Size of constituents

• Density

• Moisture content

Smaller size aids in faster decomposition of the waste. Waste of high density reflects a high

proportion of biodegradable organic matter and moisture. Low-density wastes, on the other

hand, indicate a high proportion of paper, plastic and other combustibles.

High moisture content causes biodegradable waste fraction to decompose more rapidly than in

dry conditions. It also makes the waste rather unsuitable for thermo-chemical conversion

(incineration, pyrolysis / gasification) for energy recovery, as heat must first be supplied to

remove moisture.

Bio-chemical conversion: This process is based on the enzymatic decomposition of organic

matter by microbial action to produce methane gas or alcohol. It is preferred for wastes having

high percentage of organic biodegradable (putriscible) matter and high level of moisture/water

content, which aids microbial activity.

Bio-gasification – It is also called bio-mechanization in this process of decomposing biomass

with anaerobic bacteria to produce biogas. This process produces Biogas containing

approximately 60:40 mixtures of methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2) and simultaneously

8


generating an enriched sludge fertilizer- with an energy content of 22.5 MJ/m3 (Edelmann, W et

al 2000).

Landfill gas recovery: The waste deposited in a landfill gets subjected, over a period of time to

anaerobic conditions and its organic fraction gets slowly volatilized and decomposed. This leads

to production of landfill gas containing about 45-55% methane, which can be recovered through

a network of gas collection pipes and utilized as a source of energy.

Thermo-chemical conversion:

Incineration: It is the controlled burning of waste in a purpose built facility. It involves the

process of direct burning of wastes in the presence of excess air at the temperatures of about

800°C and above (The Expert Committee, 2000). The process sterilizes and stabilizes the waste.

For most wastes, it will reduce its volume to less than a quarter of the original. Most of the

combustible material is converted into ash and carbon dioxide (Sathishkumar, et al 2002). In

practice, about 65-80 % of the energy content of the organic matter can be recovered as heat

energy, which can be utilized either for direct thermal applications, or for producing power.

Pyrolysis: It is also referred to as destructive distillation or carbonization. It is the thermal

decomposition of organic matter at high temperature (about 900°C) in an inert (oxygen deficient)

atmosphere or vacuum, producing a pyroligenous liquid having high heat value and is a feasible

substitute of industrial fuel oil.

Gasification: It involves thermal decomposition of organic matter at high temperatures in

presence of limited amounts of air/oxygen, producing mainly a mixture of combustible and non-

combustible gas (carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide). This process is similar to

Pyrolysis, involving some secondary /different high temperature (> 1000°C) chemistry which

improves the heating value of gaseous output and increases the gaseous yield (mainly

combustible gases CO+H2) and lesser quantity of other residues.

9


1.3.6 Disposal

Non-engineered disposal: This is the most common method of disposal in low-income

countries, which have no control, or with only slight or moderate controls. They tend to remain

for longer time and environmental degradation could be high, include mosquito, rodent and

water pollution, and degradation of the land.

Sanitary Landfill – It is a fully engineered disposal option; the four minimum requirements for

setting up a sanitary landfill are full or partial hydrological isolation, formal engineering

preparation, permanent control and planned waste placement and covering. Land filling relies on

containment rather than treatment (for control) of wastes. Appropriate liners for protection of

the groundwater, leachate collection and treatment, monitoring wells and appropriate final cover

design are integral components of an environmentally sound sanitary landfill

Bioreactor Landfill

Bioreactor landfills are designed, constructed and operated to optimize moisture content and

increase the rate of anaerobic biodegradation. The principal function that distinguishes bioreactor

landfills from conventional landfills is leachate recirculation. The goal is to increase the rate of

bio-degradation to achieve maximum gas generation rate and output so as to optimize recovery

for energy production. This approach also aims to minimize the landfill stabilization time and

reduce the period of monitoring and liability retention.

Refuse Derived Fuel (RFD) Plants

It produces an improved solid fuel or pellets from MSW. The RDF plant reduces the pressure on

landfills. Combustion of the RDF from MSW is technically sound and is capable of generating

power. RDF may be fired along with the conventional fuels like coal without any ill effects for

generating heat. Operation of the thermal treatment systems involves not only higher cost, but

also a relatively higher degree of expertise.

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1.4 MSWM System in India

Management of MSW continues to remain one of the most neglected areas of urban development

in India. The 23 metro cities in India generates about 30,000 tons of such wastes per day while

about 50,000 tons are generated daily from the Class I cities. Piles of Garbage and wastes of all

kinds littered everywhere have become common sight in our urban life. Magnitude and density

of urban population in India is increasing rapidly and consequently the civic bodies are facing

considerable difficulties in providing adequate services such as supply of water, electricity,

roads, education and public sanitation, including MSWM. The Local Governing Bodies (LGBs)

viz., Nagar Nigam and Nagar Palika Parisad are responsible for providing SWM services in the

urban areas. In most of the urban areas, insufficient funds, use of obsolete and/or inefficient

technologies, lack of public awareness, training, & improper infrastructure have resulted in a

poor state of SWM.

Average Composition of MSW: MSW primarily comprises of 30-35% of organic

fraction, 3-6% of recyclables (paper and plastic), 40-45% of inert material, and less than

one-percent glass and metal.

1.5 Why study on hilly region is needed.

One of the most pressing problems facing the municipalities is the efficient and long term

disposal of urban solid waste. There are deficiencies in the present system in primary collection,

secondary collection, waste treatment and disposal. The source segregation has not been very

effective and uncontrolled littering still continues along the main roads and streets creating

unhygienic conditions in many parts of the town.

With the concepts of material recovery, conversion of material to usable product and need for

engineered landfills is becoming more and more important, it is evident that

Municipalities/Nagar Parishads need to go for efficient management practices which will form a

pathway for resource conservation and environment protection.

Solid waste management is a part of public health and sanitation. Due to lack of awareness in the

community, garbage and its management has become serious problem. Most of solid waste

generated remains unattended, giving rise to unsanitary conditions. Despite having staff and

resources, there has been a progressive decline in the standard of services with respect to

11


collection and disposal of municipal solid waste as well as measures for ensuring adequacy of

environmental sanitation and public hygiene. The degree of community sensitization and public

awareness is low. The proper disposal of municipal solid waste is not only absolutely necessary

for the preservation and improvement of public health but it has an immense potential for

resource recovery. There is inadequate system of segregation of organic, inorganic and

recyclable wastes at household level. Scientific method for collection, transportation, segregation

and disposal is lacking in the existing system. Appropriate methods will reduce the flaws in the

system and increase the efficiency of the system.

1.6 Objective of study

Accessing the root cause behind frugal solid waste management system for this city.

To estimate the quantification of MSW.

.

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Literature Review

In Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) of developing countries typical

problem areas can be identified. These can be described as (Zurbrugg, 2003): 1) inadequate

service coverage and operational inefficiencies of services, 2) limited utilization of recycling

activities, 3) inadequate landfill disposal, and 4) inadequate management of hazardous and

healthcare waste. The need to understand community participation and community-based

environmental management initiatives have been addressed by researchers and concerned

institutions for the several years now (Richardson, 2003, Omran et al., 2006, Omran &

Gavrilescu, 2008).

A review of existing literature reveals that a great number of studies on SWM have been

undertaken, even prior to 1970 (van Beukering et al., 1999). Earlier studies show that the prime

consideration management of the public officials was the quick waste removal and destruction

(Melosi, 2005).

During the 1970s the debate shifted to issues of waste utilization, focusing on the technical and

economic issues surrounding the allocation and utilization of available resources. Also, the

existing state-of-the-art of resource recovery for managing municipal waste was examined

(Bever, 1976; von Heidenstam, 1977).

The early studies reveal that recycling in the past was mostly industrial and based on financial

considerations to reduce production cost, unlike the current emphasis on recycling as a way of

reducing waste in the environment and preserve dwindling resources (Cointreau et al., 1984;

Diwekar, 2005). During time, systems approaches have also been attempted at by authors dealing

with one or few aspects of MSWM (Imam et al., 2008; Omran and Read, 2008; Zurbrugg, 2003;

van Beukering et al., 1999).

Tsiliyannis (1999) discussed the main environmental problems related to MSWM and in

particular those concerning pollutant releases. The analysis was based on the solid waste

composition of Athens, Greece, and the facilities were assumed to meet EU Directives and to

include the proper disposal of residues. It was found that landfilling with energy recovery

produces slightly higher air pollution and greenhouse gas releases, mainly owing to the emission

of uncollected biogas.

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Chang and Wang (1997) proposed a fuzzy goal programming approach for optimal planning of

SWM systems, in which they consider four objectives: economic costs, noise control, air

pollution, and traffic congestion limitations. Another possible approach is based on life-cycle

assessment, which is a tool can provide the data needed for choosing the best combination from

an environmental standpoint (Finnveden, 1996).

However, life-cycle assessment does not predict actual impact; assess risk, safety or

whether a threshold may be exceeded by choosing an option (Bagchi, 2004). With regards to the

development of a solid waste management system, Zia and Devadas (2007) attempted to

introduce a SWM system in Kanpur City and by analyzing the major problems pertaining to

SWM faced in the City. Because some of Indian cities are often characterized by poorly rendered

services including waste management, the most ignored of all basic services on account of

various reasons. They have observed that the existing solid waste management system in the city

is found to be highly inefficient. Consequently, Jin et al. (2006) presented an overview on the

current solid waste management practices and situation in Macao during the last decade.

However, they drew conclusions that due to Macao’s geographic area and high cost of land,

landfilling has the lowest priority for waste disposal and solid waste incineration has been given

a top priority over the other waste disposal methods although it is much more expensive. One of

their suggestions was that for an effective and efficient solid waste management in Macao, waste

minimization needs to be implemented strictly in order to reduce the amount of solid waste. The

establishment of new regulations for more effective and efficient integrated solid waste

management system is also necessary. The regulations should indicate the appropriate authority

to define and implement waste management regulations (Jin et al., 2006). Elsewhere, Turan et

al., (2008) presented an overview on of solid waste management in Turkey.

However, they drew conclusions that MSW management is a major problem facing

municipalities. The annual generation increases in proportion to the rise in the population and

urbanization, and issues related to disposal have become challenging as more land is needed for

the ultimate disposal of solid waste. They commented that open dumps can be detrimental to the

urban environment. In spite of efforts to change open dumps into sanitary landfills and to build

new modern recycling and composting facilities, Turkey still has over 2000 dumps because of

insufficient financing.

14


Turan et al(2008), Concluded that composting is an excellent method of recycling

bridgeable waste. However, many composting plants have failed because not enough attention

was given to the quality of the product and to marketing activities. To conclude, determining

methods of final disposal requires an understanding of the make-up of the MSW stream. A MSW

decision support system based on integrated solid waste management should be developed for

cities in Turkey (Turan et al., 2008). A recent study conducted by Hazra & Goel (2008) has

presented an overview on of current solid waste management practices in Kolkata, India and

suggested solution to some of the problems. They argued that the collection process is deficient

in terms of manpower and vehicle availability. Bin capacity provided is adequate but locations

were found to be inappropriate, thus contributing to the inefficiency. Further, Hazra & Goel

(2008) proved that there is no treatment is provided to the waste and waste is dumped on land

after collecting it. However, in order to improve these problems, authors provided some solutions

for these problems. For instance, to improve collection and transportation at Kolkata city, public-

private partnerships can be successful solution, with private agencies providing waste collection

service at lower cost and greater efficiency (Hazra & Goel, 2008).

Vidanaarachchi et al. (2006) described the problems, issues and challenges of solid

waste faced in the country’s Southern Providence. However, they revealed that only 24% of the

households have regular access to waste collection and that in rural areas it was less than 2%.

Substantial number of household in areas without waste collection expects local authorities to

collect their waste. Vidanaarachchi et al. (2006) showed that most sites in the province are under

capacity to handle any increased demand on waste collecting. However, they suggested that

urgent and immediate improvements of the waste disposal sites are necessary to meet the current

demand for sustainable waste collection. This study was carried out using two approaches.

Firstly a review study based on published and unpublished information gathered by the authors

and other scientists. Secondly, informal interview was conducted with the representative director,

Department Leader City Cleaning, Stadt Karlsruhe from municipal council of Karlsrhe city.

2.1 Waste Characteristic

A common misconception is that environmental protection and sustainable initiatives must come

at the expense of economic development (El-Haggar, 2007). This is particularly true for

15


managing wastes, a process which depletes natural resources and pollutes the environment if not

done correctly. Proper waste management can be costly in terms of time and resources and so it

is important to understand what options exist for managing waste in an effective, safe and

sustainable manner (El-Haggar, 2007). This is particularly true for organizations which fall into

the institutional, commercial and industrial (ICI) sector.

Waste Streams

Municipal solid wastes (MSW) is often described as the waste that is produced from residential

and industrial (non-process wastes), commercial and institutional sources with the exception of

hazardous and universal wastes, construction and demolition wastes, and liquid wastes (water,

wastewater, industrial processes) (Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002).

MSW is defined through the Solid Waste-Resource Management Regulations (1996) which state

that MSW “..includes garbage, refuse, sludge, rubbish, tailings, debris, litter and other discarded

materials resulting from residential, commercial, institutional and industrial activities which are

commonly accepted at a municipal solid waste management facility, but excludes wastes from

industrial activities regulated by an approval issued under the Nova Scotia Environment Act”

(SWRMR, 1996).

Materials which are organic or recyclable are excluded from this definition, and so MSW in

Nova Scotia is significantly different from that in many other jurisdictions. This definition of

MSW works together with a legislated landfill ban which prohibits certain materials from landfill

to ensure that only certain materials are entering landfills. Banned materials cannot be disposed

of and are processed through alternative methods (SWRM, 1996); typically recycling, reuse, or

composting. The designation of materials into specific categories such as organics, recyclables,

and garbage can differ by region, therefore organizations must ensure that waste is separated

according to local area by-laws.

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste consists of materials which are normally produced as

a result of construction, demolition, or renovation projects and can be a significant source of

waste for all organizations in the ICI sector. According to the Nova Scotia Solid Waste-Resource

Management Regulations (1996), C&D waste/debris “includes, but is not limited to, soil, asphalt,

brick, mortar, drywall, plaster, cellulose, fiberglass fibers, gyproc, lumber, wood, asphalt

shingles, and metals” .

16


The ICI Sector

Organizations from all areas within the ICI sector are required to manage traditional solid waste,

residential waste, and that which is not typically produced in residential settings (Table). This

causes significant differences and presents unique challenges in waste management within the

ICI sector versus municipal level solid waste management (El-Haggar, 2007; Tchobanoglous &

Kreith, 2002). With municipal wastes, general characteristics can be common across various

regions. The ICI sector however, produces a broad range of potential waste streams, including

municipal and industrial solid wastes, clinical wastes, construction and demolition wastes,

hazardous wastes, and universal wastes which differ widely between organizations and can make

comparisons difficult (El-Haggar, 2007; Woodard & Curran Inc., 2006). Commercial and

institutional firms typically produce waste as a result of conducting trade and business (Smith &

Scott, 2005), whereas the waste streams of industrial firms (manufacturing, repair, production)

are typically characterized as liquid wastes, solid wastes, or air pollutants with each typically

being managed and regulated differently (Woodard & Curran Inc., 2006). Industrial settings also

produce MSW. Aside from dealing with highly varying waste streams, there is also the issue that

many firms place a high value on company privacy and may not share information willingly

(Ehrenfeld & Gertler, 1997).

Table 3: Waste streams classified by source (adopted from Tchobanoglous & Kreith, 2002)

Source

Facilities, activities, or

locations where wastes are

generated

Types of solid wastes

Residential

Single-family and multifamily

dwellings; low-,medium, and

high-density apartments. Can

be included in IC&I sector

Food wastes, paper,

cardboard, plastics, textiles,

yard

wastes, wood, ashes, street

leaves, special wastes

(including bulky items,

consumer electronics, white

goods, universal waste) and

17


household hazardous

waste.

Commercial Stores, restaurants, markets,

office buildings, services

stations, auto repair shops.

Paper, cardboard, plastics,

wood, food wastes, glass,

metal wastes, ashes, special

wastes, hazardous wastes

Institutional Schools, universities,

hospitals, prisons,

governmental centers

Same as commercial, plus

biomedical

Industrial (non-process

wastes)

Constructions, fabrication,

light & heavy manufacturing,

refineries, chemical plants,

power plants, demolition

Same as commercial

Municipal solid waste All of the preceding All of the preceding

Construction and Demolition New construction sites, road

repair, renovation sites, razing

of buildings, broken pavement

Wood, steel, concrete, asphalt

paving, asphalt roofing,

gypsum board, rocks and soils.

Industrial Construction, fabrication, light

and heavy manufacturing,

refineries, chemical plants,

power plants, demolition

Same as commercial, plus

industrial process wastes,

scrap materials.

2.2 Integrated Waste Management

Waste management methods cannot be uniform across regions and sectors because individual

waste management methods cannot deal with all potential waste materials in a sustainable

manner (Staniškis, 2005). Conditions vary; therefore, procedures must also vary accordingly to

ensure that these conditions can be successfully met. Waste management systems must remain

flexible in light of changing economic, environmental and social conditions (McDougall et al.,

18


2001; Scharfe, 2010). In most cases, waste management is carried out by a number of processes,

many of which are closely interrelated; therefore it is logical to design holistic waste

management systems, rather than alternative and competing options (Staniškis, 2005).

A variety of approaches have been developed to tackle waste issues. A well designed framework

can help managers address waste management issues in a cost-effective and timely manner. It

can spur the improvements of existing plans or aid in the design of new ones (USEPA, 1995).

A waste management framework provides:

Flexibility to frame and analyze quantitative and qualitative information across different

scales

Structure to clearly identify key goals and values

Logic to consider the potential probability and consequences related to a particular option

Communicability to clearly communicate key ideas to key stakeholders (Owen, 2003).

Integrated waste management (IWM) has emerged as a holistic approach to managing waste by

combining and applying a range of suitable techniques, technologies and management programs

to achieve specific objectives and goals (McDougall et al., 2001; Tchobanoglous & Kreith,

2002). The concept of IWM arose out of recognition that waste management systems are

comprised of several interconnected systems and functions, and has come to be known as “a

framework of reference for designing and implementing new waste management systems and for

analysing and optimising existing systems” (UNEP, 1996). Just as there is no individual waste

management method which is suitable for processing all waste in a sustainable manner, there is

no perfect IWM system (McDougall et al., 2001). Individual IWM systems will vary across

regions and organizations, but there are some key features which characterize IWM:

employing a holistic approach which assesses the overall environmental burdens and economic

costs of the system, allowing for strategic planning;

using a range of collection and treatment methods which focus on producing less waste

and in effectively managing waste which is still produced;

handling all materials in the solid waste stream rather than focusing solely on specific

materials or sources of materials (Hazardous materials should be dealt with within the

system, but in a separate stream)

19


being environmentally effective through reducing the environmental burdens such as

emissions to air, land and water;

being economically affordable by driving costs out and adopting a market-oriented

approach by creating customer-supplier relationships with waste products that have end

uses and can generate income;

social acceptability by incorporating public participation and ensuring individuals

understand their role in the waste management system.

(McDougall et al., 2001)

Due to the varying needs and challenges faced by organization in the ICI sector, a flexible yet

comprehensive approach is needed to manage waste properly. Using a wide range of waste

management options as part of a comprehensive integrated waste management system allows for

improved ability to adjust to changing environmental, social and economic conditions

(McDougall et al., 2001).

Forming an IWM plan can be a complex undertaking. Those responsible for designing IWM

systems must have a clear understanding of their goals and objectives and ensure that

terminology and activities are clearly defined in the plan. The next step requires identifying the

range of potential options that are suitable for managing waste with cost estimates, risk

assessments, available processing facilities and potential partners, and the product standards

which exist for the recycling of certain wastes. Public feedback in this step can help to assure the

accuracy of assumptions made, and help to build public acceptance. The final step involves

examining the tradeoffs which exist among the available options given what is known about the

risk, cost, waste volumes, and potential future behaviour changes (Tchobanoglous et al., 2006).

Once these details are known, a comprehensive IWM strategy can be formed.

Systems analysis can provide information and feedback that is useful in helping to define,

evaluate, optimize and adapt waste management systems (Pires et al, 2010). There are two main

types of systems analysis techniques relevant to waste management systems:

systems engineering models such as cost benefit analysis, forecasting models, simulation

models, optimization models, integrated modeling systems

system assessment tools such as management information systems, decision support

systems, expert systems, scenario development, material flow analysis, life cycle

20


assessment, risk assessment, environmental impact assessment, strategic environmental

assessment, socioeconomic assessment (Pires et al., 2010)

2.3 Waste Diversion & Waste Minimization

The three R’s are commonly used terms in waste management; they stand for “reduce, reuse, and

recycle”. As waste generation rates have risen, processing costs increased, and available landfill

space decreased, the three R`s have become a central tenet in sustainable waste management

efforts (El-Haggar, 2007; Seadon, 2006; Suttibak & Nitivattananon, 2008; Tudor et al., 2011).

The concept of waste reduction, or waste minimization, involves redesigning products or

changing societal patterns of consumption, use, and waste generation to prevent the creation of

waste and minimize the toxicity of waste that is produced (USEPA, 1995). Common examples of

waste reduction include using a reusable coffee mug instead of a disposable one, reducing

product packaging, and buying durable products which can be repaired rather than replaced.

Reduction can also be achieved in many cases through reducing consumption of products, goods,

and services. The most effective way to reduce waste is by not creating it in the first place, and

so reduction is placed at the top of waste hierarchies (USEPA, 2010). In many instances,

reduction can be achieved through the reuse of products. Efforts to take action to reduce waste

before waste is actually produced can also be termed pre-cycling (HRM, 2010).

It is sometimes possible to use a product more than once in its same form for the same purpose;

this is known as reuse (USEPA, 1995). Examples include using single-sided paper for notes,

reusing disposable shopping bags, or using boxes as storage containers (UC Davis, 2008).

Reusing products displaces the need to buy other products thus preventing the generation of

waste. Minimizing waste through reduction and reuse offers several advantages including: saving

the use of natural resources to form new products and the wastes produced in the manufacturing

processes; reducing waste generated from product disposal; and reducing costs associated with

waste disposal (USEPA, 2010).

Not all waste products can be displaced and even reusable products will eventually need to be

replaced. It is inevitable that waste will be created as a by-product of daily human living (Kim,

2002), but in many cases it is possible for this waste to be diverted and recycled into valuable

new materials. Glass, plastic and paper products are commonly collected and reformed into new

21


materials and products. Recycling products offer many of the benefits of waste reduction efforts

(displacing new material usage, reducing waste generated and the costs associated with disposal)

but recycling requires energy and the input of some new materials, thus placing it lower on the

waste hierarchy than reduction and reuse (UC Davis, 2008; USEPA, 2010).

Many waste management frameworks seek to incorporate the three R’s in some capacity. In the

UK, North America, throughout Europe and in parts of Asia, waste hierarchies are being

incorporated which promote the adoption and use of “reduce, reuse and recycle” initiatives

(Allwood et al., 2010). Waste management hierarchies (Figure 1) place the highest priority on

waste prevention, reuse, and then waste recovery. Disposing materials in a landfill is the least

desirable of the options (ECOTEC, 2000).

22


Figure 2: Waste management hierarchy (CIELP, 2008)

In some instances, additional R`s can be added to the basic three. Some organizations have

chosen to add a fourth R (Concordia University, n.d.; FNQLSDI, 2008; UC Davis, 2008; U of T,

2008). The fourth R can represent different words including rebuy (UC Davis, 2008), rethink

(Concordia University, n.d.; U of T, 2008), and recover (FNQLSDI, 2008). The concept of rebuy

23


refers to consumer purchasing decisions. Consumers have the ability to take steps to improve

waste management by helping to close the loop in waste management systems by purchasing

products which have been recycled or used (UC Davis, 2008). Rethink is added to the three R’s

by some because changing our behaviour and our actions can lead to improvements in waste

management. Changing consumption patterns and considering the impacts of our actions can

lead to decreased production of waste, and even a reduction in waste management and waste

minimization efforts (Concordia University, n.d.).

Recover can refer to methods which use and process waste so that it is used rather than disposed

of (which would include reuse and recycling); however, it can also include recovering energy

form waste before it is disposed. Waste can be processed into a fuel and used to produce a usable

form of energy (FNQLSDI, 2008). Examples include incinerating waste to generate electricity,

breaking waste down with (high temperature) plasmolysis to produce usable sources of fuel, or

breaking down organic matter with anaerobic digestion to produce biogas.

These additional concepts do not need to be limited to 4 R’s. El-Haggar (2007) proposes that to

achieve sustainable waste management, a 7R methodology should be adopted: Reduce, Reuse,

Recycle, Recover, Rethinking, Renovation, and Regulation. Renovation refers to taking action to

develop innovative ways to process waste, while regulation is added in recognition that it is a

driving force behind ensuring the implementation of responsible waste management practices

(El-Haggar, 2007).

Municipal Solid Waste Management in India

In India, according to the Ministry of Environment and Forests "municipal solid waste" includes

commercial and residential wastes generated in municipal or notified areas in either solid or

semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical wastes

(MoEF, 2000). In simple words the municipal solid waste can be defined as the waste that is

controlled and collected by local authority and municipality.

Municipal Solid Waste Management in India falls under the public health and sanitation and

hence as per the Indian Constitution is a State responsibility. This service has always been within

the public domain until very recently, that the waste management services started being

24


privatized. The activity being local in nature has been given to local municipal authorities that

provide this service with its own staff, equipment and funds.

The Government of India (GoI) has encouraged the proper management of MSW from as early

as 1960s when the Ministry of Food and Agriculture gave soft loans to the local municipal

authorities for MSWM. GoI also gave grants and loans to state government for setting up MSW

composting facilities under the fourth five-year plan (1969-74)(Beukering, 1999). In 1974 GoI

modified this scheme making it specific only for cities having a population above 30 lakhs. The

Water (prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 resulted in the creation of Central and

State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCB) with the aim of prevention, abatement and

control of water pollution. The Air (Control and Prevention of Pollution) Act of 1981 also

empowered the CPCB and SPCB (Harashima, 2000). These Boards now authorise process plants

and sanitary landfill sites.

Table 4: Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates in Different States in India

Name of State No. of Cities Municipal

Population

MSW Per Capita

Waste (kg/day)

Andhra Pradesh 32 10,845,907 3,943 0.364

Assam 4 878,310 196 0.223

Bihar 17 5,278,361 1,479 0.280

Gujarat 21 8,443,962 3,805 0.451

Haryana 12 2,254,353 623 0.276

Himachal

Pradesh

1 82,054 35 0.427

Karnataka 21 8,283,498 3,118 0.376

Kerala 146 3,107,358 1,220 0.393

Madhya Pradesh 23 7,225,833 2,286 0.316

Maharashtra 27 22,727,186 8,589 0.378

Manipur 1 198,535 40 0.201

25


Meghalaya 1 223,366 35 0.157

Mizoram 1 155,240 46 0.296

Orissa 7 1,766,021 646 0.366

Punjab 10 3,209,903 1,001 0.312

Rajasthan 14 4,979,301 1,768 0.355

Tamil Nadu 25 10,745,773 5,021 0.467

Tripura 1 157,358 33 0.21

Uttar Pradesh 41 14,480,479 5,515 0.381

West Bengal 23 13,943,445 4,475 0.397

Chandigarh 1 504,094 200 0.475

Delhi 1 8,419,084 4,000 0.295

Pondicherry 1 203,065 60 0.376

Source: Status of MSW generation, collection, treatment and disposal in Class-I cities, (CPCB,

2000b)

A high level committee was set in 1975 to review the problems of urban solid waste in India.

This committee covered all aspects of waste management and based on these recommendations,

between 1975 and 1980, ten mechanical compost plants were set up in the country. Out of all the

plants commissioned there is only one functional at Bangalore. A major step in the direction of

managing waste happened with GoI setting up of the National Waste Management Council

(NWMC) in 1990. This council provided financial assistance to 22 municipalities to undertake

surveys to assist them in improving the MSWM situation (Marandi, 1998).

After the outbreak of the plague epidemic in Surat, the magnitude of the problem was realised by

the government. A high powered committee was set up in 1995 which gave many

recommendations for the improvement of MSWM like door to door collection, setting up of

transfer stations, charging user fees, etc. The ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) and

CPCB held meeting with the municipalities to evolve a strategy for MSWM. About 50 waste

treatment facilities were set up after this. In 1996, the MNES initiated a pilot program to promote

26


waste-to-energy projects in India, which may be considered as the birth of the new era of waste-

to-energy programs in India.

As per the recent estimates, the country produces about 100000 MT urban solid waste daily (The

Expert Committee, 2000) with typical characteristics as per the Table 1 below. The municipal

waste generation in metro cities varies between 0.2- 0.6 kg/capita/day (Zurbrugg, 2002 and

Agarwal, et al 2005), and urban MSW generation is estimated to be approximately 0.49 kg per

capita per day. This is estimated to be two or three times more than the waste generated by rural

residents (Devi, et al 2001). The figures, however, vary from city to city. For example, while the

per capita waste generated in Delhi is 0.5 kg per day, MSW generated per capita per day is 0.35

kg in Hyderabad and 0.64 kg in Bangalore (Huysman, 1994). Accordingto studies carried out by

(NEERI) the per capita waste generated in a typical Indian metropolitan city increases by 1.3%

per year while the estimated urban population growth is around 3.5% per annum (Shekdar, et al

1993). These studies point out that there is a large difference between urban and rural level of

waste generation, which reflect the economic extremities existing with the Indian society.

Many studies have been conducted to estimate the composition of waste in Indian cities, as it is

an important parameter in choosing the process method to be adopted and the design of the

process plant. The studies reveal that the organic fraction of the waste makes up 40 – 75 % of the

waste (National Solid waste Association of India, 2003, CPCB, 1998 and NEERI, 2000). Studies

have stated that the composition of waste varies depending on the income and life style

(Zurbrugg, 2004).

2.4 MSW Indian Scenario

27


Table 5: Physical Characteristics of a typical city Municipal Solid Waste

Population

range

(million)

Number

of cities

surveyed

Paper

(%)

Rubber,

Leather

and

Synthetics

(%)

Glass

(%)

Metals

(%)

Total

compostable

matter (%)

Inert

(%)

0.1 - 0.5 12 2.91 0.78 0.56 0.33 44.57 43.59

0.5 -1.0 15 2.95 0.73 0.35 0.32 40.04 48.38

1.0 – 2.0 9 4.71 0.71 0.46 0.49 38.95 44.73

2.0 – 5.0 3 3.18 0.48 0.48 0.59 56.67 49.07

> 5 4 6.43 0.28 0.94 0.80 30.84 53.90

Source: The Expert Committee (2000) Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, The

Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India1.

From table, we can deduce that in India the overall percentage of inert material in all cities is

very high. This can cause hindrance to processes like incineration and anaerobic digestion if the

waste is not segregated prior to processing. The percentage of compostable matter is high in all

cities, but the cities with a population above five million have a lower percentage of organic

matter compared to the cities with a lower population. The cities with a population above 5

million also have a higher percentage of paper and glass material. The cities in India having a

population higher than 5 million are also having high income. The waste composition also

indicates the same.

28


Table 6: Chemical characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities

Population

range (in

millions)

No of

cities

surveyed

Moisture Organic

Matter

Nitrogen

as Total

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

as P2O2

Potassium

as K2O2

C/N

ratio

Calorific

value in

kcal/kg

0.1 – 0.5 12 25.81 37.09 0.71 0.63 0.83 30.94 1009.89

0.5 – 1.0 15 19.52 25.14 0.66 0.56 0.69 21.13 900.61

1.0 – 2.0 9 26.98 26.89 0.64 0.82 0.72 23.68 980.05

2.0 – 5.0 3 21.03 25.60 0.56 0.69 0.78 22.45 907.18

>5.0 4 38.72 39.07 0.56 0.52 0.52 30.11 800.70

Source: The Expert Committee, 2000. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management. The

Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India 1.

From table, we can deduce the Indian waste has a high content of organic matter, which makes

it suitable for processes like composting and anaerobic digestion. The C/N ratio is between 20-

30 and this ratio is very suitable for composting (Eiland, et al, 2001). The waste also has a high

moisture content which makes it unsuitable for incineration.

Table 7: Density of Municipal Solid Wastes in some Cities

Sl .No. City Density (Kg/m3)

1. Bangalore 390

2. Baroda 457

3. Delhi 422

4. Hyderabad 369

5. Jaipur 537

6. Jabalpur 395

7. Raipur 405

Source: The Expert Committee (2000) Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management, The

Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India, Volume 1 and 2

Density is another important factor that needs to be estimated as it is essential for the design

considering all functional elements of solid waste management system viz. Community storage,

transportation and disposal. In India, the waste collection vehicle is not weighed in order to

29


estimate the weight; only the number of trips made is counted. This is not appropriate as the

density, tends to change from time to time (Shekdar, 1997).

2.5 MSW International Scenario

Regional and country-specific defaults data on waste composition in MSW are given in table.

These data are based on weight wet waste. Table does not give default data for garden and park

waste and nappies. In the default method these waste fractions can be assumed to be zero, i.e.,

they can be assumed to be encompassed by the other waste types.

30


Table 8: MSW Composition data by percentage – Regional Defaults

Region Food

Waste

Paper/Cardboard Wood Textiles Rubber/Leather Plastic Metal Glass Other

Asia

Eastern

Asia

26.2 18.8 3.5 3.5 1.0 14.3 2.7 3.1 7.4

South-

Central

Asia

40.3 11.3 7.9 2.5 0.8 6.4 3.8 3.5 21.9

South-

Eastern

Asia

43.5 12.9 9.9 2.7 0.9 7.2 3.3 4.0 16.3

Western

Asia &

Middle

East

41.1 18.0 9.8 2.9 0.6 6.3 1.3 2.2 5.4

Default values for DOC and fossil carbon content in different waste types is given in table. In this table gives the default values also

for garden and park waste, and disposable nappies.

31


Table 9: Default dry matter content, DOC content, Total carbon content and fossil carbon fraction of different MSW

components

MSW Component

Dry matter

content in %

of wet weight1

DOC content in %

of wet waste

DOC content in % of

dry waste

Total carbon content

in % of dry weight

Fossil carbon

fraction in % of

total carbon

Default Default Range Default Range2

Default Range Default Range

Paper/Cardboard 90 40 36-45 44 40-50 46 42-50 1 0-5

Textiles3

80 24 20-40 30 25-50 50 25-50 20 0-50

Food waste 40 15 8-20 38 20-50 38 20-50 - -

Wood 854

43 39-46 50 46-54 50 46-54 - -

Garden and Park

waste

40 20 18-22 49 45-55 49 45-55 0 0

Nappies 40 24 18-32 60 44-80 70 54-90 10 10

Rubber and

Leather

84 (39)5

(39)5

(47)5

(47)5 67 67 20 20

Plastics 100 - - - - 75 67-85 100 95-100

Metals6

100 - - - - NA NA NA NA

Glass6

100 - - - - NA NA NA NA

Other, Inert waste 90 - - - - 3 0-5 100 50-100

32


1 The moisture content given here applies to the specific waste types before they enter the collection and treatment.

2 The range refers to the minimum and maximum data reported by Dehoust et al., 2002.

3 40 percentage of textile are assumed to be synthetic (default). Expert judgment by the author.

4 This value is for wood products at the end of life. Typical dry matter content of wood at the time of harvest (that is

for garden and park waste) is 40 percent. Export judgment by the authors.

5 Natural rubber would likely not degrade under anaerobic condition at SWDS.

6 Metal and glass contain some carbon of fossil origin. Combustion of significant amounts of glass or metal is not

common.

Waste Generation and Management Data – by country and regional averages

In this Table shows MSW generation and management data for Asian countries whose data are

available. Regional defaults for waste generation and treatment are derived based on the

information from this table. The data are applicable as default data for the year 2000.

For comparison, data on waste generation and disposal to SWDS from the Revised 1996 IPCC

Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996 IPCC Guidelines) are also given in

the table.

33


Table 10: MSW generation and management data – by country and regional averages

Region/Count

ry

MSW1,2

Generation

Rate

IPCC-1996

value4

(tones/cap/

yr)

MSW1,2,3

Generation

Rate

Year 2000

(tones/cap/

yr)

Fractio

n of

MSW

dispose

d to

SWDS

IPCC

– 1996

value4

Fractio

n of

MSW

dispose

d to

SWDS

Fraction

of MSW

incinerat

ed

Fraction

of MSW

Compost

ed

Fraction of

other

MSW

manageme

nt

unspecifie

d 5

Sourc

e

Asia

Eastern Asia 0.41 0.37 0.38 0.55 0.26 0.01 0.18

China 0.27 0.97 0.02 0.01 1

Japan 0.41 0.47 0.38 0.25 0.72 0.02 0.01 2,31

Rep. of Korea 0.38 0.42 0.04 0.54 3

Southern and

Central Asia

0.12 0.21 0.60 0.74 - 0.05 0.21

Bangladesh 0.18 0.95 0.05 4

India 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.70 0.20 0.10 4

Nepal 0.18 0.40 0.60 4

Sri Lanka 0.32 0.90 0.10 4

South-eastern

Asia

0.27 0.59 0.09 0.05 0.27

Indonesia 0.28 0.80 0.05 0.10 0.05 4

Lao PDR 0.25 0.40 0.60 4

Malaysia 0.30 0.70 0.05 0.10 0.15 4

Myanmar 0.16 0.60 0.40 4

Philippines 0.19 0.62 0.10 0.28 4,5

Singapore 0.40 0.20 0.58 0.22 6

Thailand 0.40 0.80 0.05 0.10 0.05 4

Vietnam 0.20 0.60 0.40 4

1 Data are based on weight of wet waste.

34


2 To obtain the total waste generation in the country, the per-capita values should be multiplied with the population

whose waste is collected. In many countries, especially developing countries, this encompasses only urban

population.

3 The data are default data for the year 2000, although for some countries the year for which the data are applicable

was not given in the reference, or data for the year 2000 were not available. The year for which the data are

collected is given below with source of the data, where available.

4 Values shows in this column are the ones included in the 1996 IPCC Guidelines.

5 Other, unspecified, includes data on recycling for some countries.

35


Table 11: Relative composition of household waste in low, medium and high-income countries

Content Parameter Low-income countries Medium-income High-income countries

Physical

properties

Organic (putrecible), % 40 to 85 20 to 65 20 to 30

Paper, % 1 to 10 15 to 30 15 to 40

Plastics, % 1 to 5 2 to 6 2 to 10

Metal, % 1 to 5 1 to 5 3 to 13

Glass, % 1 to 10 1 to 10 4 to 10

Rubber, leather, etc., % 1 to 5 1 to 5 2 to 10

Other, % 15 to 60 15 to 50 2 to 10

Chemical

properties

Moisture content, % 40 to 80 40 to 60 5 to 20

Specific weight, kg/m3 250 to 500 170 to 330 100 to 170

Calorific value, kcal/kg 800 to 1100 1000 to 1300 1500 to 2700

Source : (INTOSAI working group on environmental auditing, 2002)

1 1

36


2.6 Cradle to grave method

Storage

Municipal Solid Waste is commonly stored in circular concrete open bins in India. There have

hardly been any studies conducted on the most suitable type of storage bin for the Indian waste.

The waste should be preferably stored in closed bins and for not more than 24hrs, as the Indian

waste has high organic content and is highly putricible.

Collection

The waste collection methods that are mainly adopted in India are Door to door collection and

Community method. Community bin method has been the most commonly adopted method in

India. A study carried out in Indian Institute of Science (Sathishkumar, et al, 2002) describes

that in community bin method, the improper placement of bins, bins not designed as per quantity

of waste generated and bins not being covered causes problems like odour, stray dog nuisance

and unaesthetic appearance.

On the other hand, a study conducted on municipal solid waste management describes the

collection of waste by Door-to-Door method in Ahmadabad (Sachdeva, 2002). Here the worker

uses a pushcart with 6 drums for the separate collection of waste. The householder has to collect

the dry waste in plastic bags and biodegradable waste in bins. The worker collects the waste and

put it in separate bins. This is then transferred into large storage containers, which are designed

as per the population density. The same system has been adopted in Chennai (IPE, 2004). In

From these studies, it has been observed that the door to collection method has improved the

efficiency of collection of segregated waste.

The collection efficiency ranges between 70 to 90% in major cities whereas in several smaller

cities the collection efficiency is below 60%. Street sweeping is another type of collection

method for the collection of street litter; many cities spend 30-50 % of their solid waste budgets

on street cleansing (The Expert Committee, 2000).

Studies show that in most urban areas it is the slums and areas where the poorer communities

reside which are most badly served (Fritz, 1990 and Furedy, 1994). One possible reason could be

that municipal authorities give priority to localities where the elite and the better-off populations

reside because of their influence and political weight. Meanwhile, the areas which are not

37


serviced are faced with clogged sewers and littered waste, creating serious health problems for

the resident population.

Transfer and Transport

Many methods have been adopted for the transfer of waste from either the pushcarts to trucks or

Bins to truck. In Ahmadabad, door-to-door collection method is adopted. Here once the waste is

collected in pushcarts, it is transferred to large covered metal bins having separate compartments

for storage of segregated waste. From here it is transferred to the trucks with a mechanized

collection truck that lifts the container and empties the waste into the truck (Sachdeva, 2004).

This mechanism adopted in Ahmadabad is new and can be found only in select cities in India.

The most common method for transfer is manual transfer from community bin to trucks by 2 to 3

workers (The Expert Committee, 2000). The transfer of waste directly from pushcarts to trucks

by meeting at a specified time and place called synchronization points is suggested by

(Karadimas, 2004), which is a suitable option for the door to door collection method.

Transportation of waste is carried out by the municipalities employing vehicles like open trucks,

tractor-trailers, tipper trucks and dumper placers. According to calculations done on a basis of

waste density, waste generated etc. indicate that on an average 320m3 capacity is required for

daily transportation of waste generated by 1 million population. However, a study carried out in

1996 stated that out of the 44 cities that were studied, 70% of these cities did not have 320m3

transport capacity (Boyar, et al 1996). Many improvements have been made since then including

the introduction of container-carriers and dumper-placers that was done by 1997 (Gupta, et al

1998). Bangalore itself has about 13 dumper placers (Ramachandra, et al, 2003) that do two

trips a day.

Process

Recycling

The recycling sector in India has been in operation since the 1960’s and while only a fraction of

the total plastic waste is being recycled in most western countries (APME, 1995), around 75% of

the plastic wastes are recycled in India (Haque, 1998). Rag pickers mainly carry out the

recycling process in India and they play a vital role in the economy of solid waste recycling

process (Agarwal, et al 2005). They feed the need of the intermediary buyers, who, in turn, meet

38


the demand of factories using recyclable solid waste as raw materials. However, the rag pickers

do not have sufficient protection and are exposed to waste and sometimes even the hazardous

waste present in MSW. A study carried out in 2003 has shown that 75 percent rag pickers have

upper and lower respiratory symptoms (Bhattacharya, 2005). Even the quality of the

successively recycled products in the informal sector in terms of their (i) physical appearance (ii)

polymeric properties (iii) health hazards (for the recyclers and users of such products involved)

are in serious question (Haque, 2000).

Another aspect to be noted is that plastic carry bags and PET do not figure in the list of priorities

for rag pickers, because collecting them is not profitable. This is primarily because the rewards

do not match the efforts required for collection, and this leads to plastic bags and PET continuing

to pose a major threat to the environment (Narayan, 2001).

Composting

Composting urban waste in India has a long history. Sir Albert Howard developed the Indore

process nearly 75 years ago by systemizing the traditional process that was carried out in India

(Howard, 1940). Government intervention to promote this practice can be traced to the 1940s

and the early 1970s, when the national government initiated a scheme to revive urban

composting (Selvam, 1996). However, centralized large-scale composting plants in urban areas

promoted in the 1970s proved to be uneconomical (Dulac, 2001). Only a few installations are

currently still operational (UNDP, 1991). Due to high operating and transport costs and the

poorly developed market for compost, the expected profits could not be realized as planned.

Composting of mixed waste also had a negative effect on compost quality and, thus, on its

acceptance by farmers.

From 1990’s decentralized composting schemes have been implemented by NGO’s with the help

of international funding. The decentralized composting schemes became very popular and

widespread in a short span of time. Various types of composting have been adopted by these

schemes e.g. Bin-composting, Shallow windrow, Pit composting and vermicomposting.

However, the maintenance of such schemes proved to be difficult because the household

involvement was sporadic, as many people believe that it is the municipal corporation's

responsibility to collect waste and do not want to make additional payments. This study states

that though decentralized composting has more advantages than centralized composting, the

39


market for MSW compost is limited and is rarely financially competitive to heavily subsidized

chemical fertilizers and traditional cow dung or poultry manure (Zurbrügg, et al 2002).

However, in Class II, Class III and Class IV cities an urban agricultural set up exists and

functions, where there is optimal use of municipal solid waste. The farmers buy the organic

waste from the municipality at very low costs and use it as manure. There are also companies

that have taken over the responsibility segregating, decontaminating and composting MSW.

This high quality compost is then sold to the farmers at a very high cost compared to the raw

MSW. It has been observed that the farmers prefer the raw MSW to the processed high quality

compost, because the latter is too expensive (Nunan, 2000).

Currently, there are few large-scale composting plants around India that are running successfully.

For e.g. composting plant in Hyderabad run by AP technology development and promotion

center (intake of 200MT/day, composting plant in Vijaywada by Excel industries (intake of 125

MT/day), composting plant in Bangalore by Karnataka Compost Development Authority

(KCDC)(intake of 300MT/day) and composting plant in Bangalore by Terra Firma Bio-

technologies (100MT capacity). All these compost plants have a high demand for their products

and want to increase their processing capacity to meet the huge demand. The awareness for

organic manure is increasing rapidly in India that will in turn increase the demand for the manure

produced from MSW (Garibay, et al, 2003).

Anaerobic Digesters

Biogas is a successful renewable energy technology developed and disseminated in India, second

only to improved wood stoves in its spread. Biogas was first introduced to India as an alternative

to piped natural gas in 1897 for providing gas-based illumination (Sathianathan, 1990). The

superiority of biogas slurry both as manure as well as compost starter and the cleanliness of the

process has been emphasized in several publications of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute

(IARI) and other agricultural institutions in the country (Chanakya, et al 2002). However, biogas

production has been restricted mostly to rural areas (with cattle dung) and in urban areas (with

sewage). The anaerobic digesters used in the rural areas are simple in design and to maintain,

but they require constant monitoring and are less efficient. The complex digesters on the other

hand, are designed to automatically adjust when environmental conditions change, such as would

occur with the feedstock. These are used in developed nations to treat unpredictable waste flows

40


and such digesters would be suitable for processing of MSW (Ostrem, et al, 2004). Many studies

have been conducted on the use of MSW for production of Biogas. One of the studies suggests

that by having decentralized anaerobic digesters in the localities, the odour problem caused by

MSW from bins and during long transportation distances can be minimized (Chanakya, et al,

2002). Apart from this (Srinivasan, 2003, Ramasamy, 2000 and Ostrem, et al, 2004) bring out

the dual purpose of anaerobic digesters, not only will they provide a solution to the solid waste

crisis, but also to the energy crisis.

In India, not many large-scale bio-methanisation plants using MSW have been set up. One of the

few bio-methanation plants set up was in Lucknow that consumed 300 MT/day of MSW to

generate 75 MT/day of organic manure and 5.1 MW of electricity. This plant was recently shut

down, and the main cause for failure was the intake of unsegregated waste (Gopalakrishna,

2005).

Incinaration

Incineration is another alternative for waste processing that is being used in India. Waste

combustion is not a common practice in India. One 120 tonne per day incinerator was built

during the 1930s in Calcutta but was operated for only a short period. After this study a Danish

incinerator-cum-power plant was installed at Timarpur in North Delhi and was shut down in

1985 due to high maintenance cost. An extensive sample program conducted in India by (Bhide,

1984) reveals that most of the waste had a calorific value of just 3350 joules/g compared with

9200joules/g in high-income countries (Sathiskumar, 2002). Incinerators have been reintroduced

in India for energy recovery from municipal solid waste. Recently, the Chennai Municipality

had approved a plan to set up a 14.85 MW waste-to-electricity plant at Perungudi. But, due to the

opposition of environmentalists the project did not take off (Hindu, 2005). However, in

Hyderabad, a private company Selco has set up an incinerator that is running successfully by

converting waste to electricity. It takes in 400 tonnes for generating 6 MW of power that is

being fed into the grid of the Transmission Corporation of Andhra Pradesh (APTransco) (UNDP,

2000 and Hindu, 2004).

The main drawback identified for the use of incinerators and anaerobic digesters for processing

MSW is that the waste is not segregated prior to the process.

41


Disposal

Uncontrolled land filling has been mainly adopted for ultimate disposal of municipal solid waste

in India; thereby causing numerous health, environmental and aesthetic hazards (Ambulkar,

2004). However, now land filling is the most preferred method of disposal of solid wastes as it is

an effective and low cost method of disposal (Nissim, 2005). Onionskin method of lying i.e.,

alternate building rubbish of thickness 30cm and municipal waste with thickness of 1 to 3 m is

adopted in few cities like Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad (CPCB, 1998). However, the numbers

of sanitary landfills are extremely low compared to the dumpsites, where uncontrolled dumping

is observed, leveling and provision of earth cover is rarely provided. The rag pickers are further

observed to be active at disposal site. Methane gas that is emitted at the landfills is not collected,

hence adding to the GHG emissions (Kumar, S., et al 2004).

Solid Waste Degradation

The rate of biodegradation of MSW is a function of waste composition, waste nutrient level,

presence of buffering agent, Moisture content and operational practices (Hossain, 2002). The rate

and characteristics of leachate produced and biogas generated from a landfill vary from one

phase of degradation to another and reflect the processes Taking place inside the landfill. the

observed trend of leachate

Characteristics with MSW degradation.

Phase I: Aerobic Phase: Transformation from aerobic to anaerobic environment occurs In this

phase. This phenomenon can be observed by the decrease in oxygen trapped within the pores of

the waste. The gas generated constitutes of mainly CO2 and N2 leachate strength is relatively

very low in this phase.

Phase II: Anaerobic Acid Phase: In this phase, the PH value decreases which is Accompanied

by biomass growth associated with the acidogenic bacteria and rapid Consumption of substrate

and nutrients. The gas produced is still mainly CO2 and little Amount of methane. With the

transition to phase III, the PH value and methane production increases. The decomposition is

estimated to be in between 15 to 20%

Phase III: Accelerated Methane Production Phase: In this phase, intermediate acids are

consumed by methane forming bacteria and converted into methane and carbon dioxide. There is

42


an increase in methane production and increase in PH value. Most of the methane production is

due to the depletion of accumulated carboxylic acids in earlier phase.

Phase IV: Decelerated Methane Production Phase: This is the final state of landfill stabilization,

nutrients and available substrate reduces and the biological activity shifts to relative dormancy.

Gas production drops significantly and the leachate strength remains constant and at much lower

concentrations than earlier phases. Decomposition is about 50 to 70% in this phase depending on

the methane production and operating environment.

43


STUDY AREA

3.1 Description of study area

Nainital town is headquarters of Nainital district in the Kumaon foothills of the outer Himalayas.

It is situated at an altitude of 1,938 meters (6,358 feet) above sea level. Nainital is set in a valley

containing a pear‐shaped lake, approximately two miles in circumference, and surrounded by

mountains, of which the highest are Naina (2,615 m (8,579 ft)) on the north, Deopatha (2,438 m

(7,999 ft)) on the west, and Ayarpatha (2,278 m (7,474 ft)) on the south. Nainital is located at

29.38°N 79.45°E.

Fig: 3 Map of Nainital city

Nainital has temperate summers, maximum temperature 27 °C ; minimum temperature 10 °C,

during which its population increases more than fivefold with an annual influx of tourists

predominantly from the plains of Northern India. In the winter, Nainital receives snowfall

between December and February with the temperatures varying between a maximum of 15 °C

(59 °F) and a minimum of 2°C (27 °F).

3.2 Population

The total area of Nainital is 11.73 sq. km and the population of the town is 9,55,128 as per

census 2011. The city has been divided into 13 wards. The daily floating population of the town

is round about 20,000 to 50,000 during season. Males constitute 54% of the population and

females 46%. Nainital has an average literacy rate of 91%, higher than the national average of

59.5%: male literacy is 98%, and female literacy is 86%. In Nainital, 1% of the population is

under 6 years of age. Kumauni’s form the major part of the town's population along with people

44


from all over India.Nainital is also an important administrative town in the State having the High

Court and well known institutions such as Academy Of Administration, Aryabhatta Research

Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), Office of Kumaon Mandal Vikas Nigam and

Kumaon University.

3.3 Life style

The lifestyle of people in Nainital is a bit backward and very simple. This is mainly due to the

fact that they are secluded from the influences of city and modern lifestyles. Kumauni people

normally live in small brick or stone hut-shaped houses covered with slanted tin roofs. Some old

traditional houses are made only out of wood with wood carvings, a rare sight today. In villages,

animals are kept in the ground floor called 'Goth' and the owners live above. Rice is mostly their

staple diet; however, Wheat, Madwa and other grains also form a part of their daily diet. Urad

Daal, Gahat, Bhatt, Masoor Daal are some pulses they consume including Meat.

3.4 Profile of Town

Table 12: Profile of Nainital Town

Population 9,55,128 as per 2011 census

Total No. of Slums 10

No. of Wards 13

Area 11.73 sq. km.

No. of Household (as per 2011) 6665

No. of Current Dumping Yards 1 adjacent to Haldwani Motor Road

Proposed Landfill and Compost Site 1 (at Narayan Nagar)

No. of Wards

In Nainital there are 13 wards in the city and the waste generation (per capita/day) (in kg/day) of

all the wards. The per capita of the waste generation as per 2011 census is 0.0102 kg/day.

3.5 Existing climate

Nainital has temperate summers, maximum temperature 27 °C ; minimum temperature 10 °C,

during which its population increases more than fivefold with an annual influx of tourists

45


predominantly from the plains of Northern India. In the winter, Nainital receives snowfall

between December and February with the temperatures varying between a maximum of 15 °C

(59 °F) and a minimum of 2°C (27 °F). Very steep to steep hills and Glacio-fluvial valleys are

dominantly occupied by very shallow to moderately shallow excessively drained, sandy-skeletal

to loamy-skeletal, neutral to slightly acidic with low available water capacity soils. They have

been classified as Lithic/Typic Cryorthents. These soils are in general under sparse vegetation.

The Lesser Himalayan range is mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks like

granite, phyllites, quartzite etc. and a major part of it, is under forest. The hilly areas experience

snowfall during winters, while in the plains the temperature soars to 45 degree C during

summers. Nainital district has received good rainfall in recent years . As per 1999 records total

average rainfall of district was 1338.08 MM while total average rainfall up to Aug. 2000 was

1602.69 MM.

46


Fig: 4 Area wise solid waste management at Nainital

47


Fig: 5 Solid waste GPS locations at Nainital

Existing status of MSW Management

International Status

Europe

In Europe, MSW management has been reviewed considering their geological similarities with

the areas of concern of the project boundary. The salient features of the MSW Management of

the reviewed areas are bookmarked here forth:

1. Landfills for inert materials: Rock-like wastes are disposed off in these landfills, from

which virtually no pollutants are leached out by rainwater. These include materials, such

as construction waste (concrete, bricks, glass, and road rubble) and uncontaminated soil

that cannot be used elsewhere.

2. Landfills for stabilized residues: These landfills are designed for the disposal of materials

of known composition, with high concentrations of heavy metals and only a small

organic component which cannot release either gases or substances readily soluble in

water. Typical materials include solidified fly ash and flue gas cleaning residues from

48


municipal waste incinerators, and vitrified treatment residues. Impermeable linings are

required for the base and sides of the landfill, and leachate is collected and, if necessary,

treated.

3. Bioreactor landfills: Chemical and biological processes occur in these landfills. At these

sites, drainage controls are also required. In addition, gases emitted from the landfill are

captured and treated. Given the unpredictable composition of their contents, bioreactor

landfills require expensive remediation at a later stage. Certain types of waste (e.g.,

incinerator slag) are required to be disposed of in separate compartments, isolated from

other types of waste. If these wastes were intermixed, heavy metals would be leached out

in much greater quantities as a result of the relatively low pH of incinerator slag.

Compartments for residual wastes have also been established at numerous bioreactor

landfill sites. Bioreactor landfills require long-term efforts to monitor and treat gases and

contaminated leachate. The processes occurring within the landfill continue for decades

and cannot, in the event of an incident, be "switched off" within a matter of hours like the

furnace of a municipal waste incinerator. Over a period of decades, despite the use of gas

capture systems, substantial amounts of methane and other undesirable gases are released

into the atmosphere from bioreactor landfills.

4. The environmentally friendly disposal of municipal waste in Switzerland costs only 30

centimes per person and per day. The huge investment made to introduce the separate

collection for new incineration plants did not increase this amount because the plants

were able to rapidly market the heat, electricity and metal they produced. Today the costs

per person and per day are lower than at the end of the 1980’s.

5. Switzerland has a well-developed network of waste management facilities. Virtually

every region possesses the infrastructure required in order to dispose of its own wastes.

This helps to minimize transport costs and vehicle emissions.

America

In America, the case study of Eldorado hills has been considered and the salient findings are

summarized.

The disposal area is constructed without a liner or leachate collection system. However

groundwater monitoring and methane monitoring are conducted. Upon reaching capacity, a final

49


cover will be constructed, and the Permitted will be responsible for 30 years of post-closure care.

The Landfill accepts waste predominantly from the local community and adjacent counties.

Historically, no engineered Landfill base liner or leachate collection system has been

incorporated into Landfill development.

The Landfill has been operating under a Special Use Permit (SUP) as a MSWLF by the Storey

County Board of Commissioners since 1969. Refuse, Inc. assumed Landfill operations in 1979

under a lease arrangement with the landowner.

The design rationale used in the development of the final Landfill bench plan seeks to

incorporate design constraints offered by Refuse, Inc., the physical and economic constraints of

the Site, and the regulatory constraints adopted by the State of Nevada. In addition, the design

concept seeks to simplify constructability of the Landfill by developing final grades from a

single, baseline grade control system which is currently in operation for construction of

individual lifts and benches (cells). The Landfill bench design effort included a review of

existing foundation, bench construction, slope stability, access roadways, landfill cover,

settlement, final refuse storage capacities, and cover soil requirements.

Surface Water Management will be accomplished by implementing three measures to reduce the

amount of moisture available for leachate formation:

Storm water run-on will be diverted around the Landfill by the construction of diversion

channels.

The surface of the Landfill will be sloped for drainage. State of Nevada regulations stipulate that

the top slope of the Landfill "must have a grade of not less than three (3) percent".

Provide and maintain positive drainage of storm waters off of the Landfill and direct run-off

waters to evaporation ponds at the western margin of the Landfill.

South East Asia

Among South East Asia, Nepal’s MSW Management was reviewed and the salient points are

summarized.

Open dumping of MSW is mostly followed but they also have a sanitary landfill in Tribhuvan

nagar which is owned by the municipality, this landfill site is very efficiently managed as the

50


major fraction of the MSW i.e., biodegradable (70-75%) is processed for preparation of compost

and the rest is dumped in the landfill site, in order to maintain eco-friendly environment about

3000 trees have been planted and 150 beehives have been installed by the municipality;

Composting of the organic fraction of MSW is followed efficiently considering the high fraction

of biodegradable matter in MSW (70-75%);

Segregation of recyclables is also practiced efficiently.

3.6 Existing status of MSW Management in Nainital

In order to assess the existing system of municipal solid waste management and for modernizing

the solid waste management system in the city in terms of MSW Rules 2000, we undertook

consultation with stakeholders which included supervisory staff dealing with solid waste

management and officials of Nagar Palika Parishad. In existing system, Nainital Nagar Palika

Parishad has made efforts by dividing entire town in 13 wards. Details of division have been

made for systematic storage, collection, transportation & treatment of waste. NNPP has deployed

division wise sanitary workers, machineries and tools in order to ensure smooth operation.

Despite of efforts made by NNPP still the desired levels of solid waste management has not been

achieved as yet.

Mode of Collection

MSW is generally collected by sweeping the streets and collecting waste deposited along the

roadsides in front of houses (door to door collection). Sweepers are generally deployed by the

concerned managing bodies to load the waste collected onto the trucks. The shift timings in areas

for waste collection are normally from 6.00 A.M. to 12 noon.

51


Fig: 6 Collection of MSW

Primary Collection

The primary collection of waste refers to house to house collection of waste in the community

bins either by the resident themselves or by the sanitary workers. That there is mixed pattern of

primary waste collection from households.

Secondary Collection

For the purpose of secondary collection, NNP has placed 43 total containers at designated places.

However these bins are in bad condition and besides its MOC being iron, waste is often burnt in

it. Dogs and monkeys further add on the menace of secondary collection.

Transportation of MSW

Mainly four types of vehicles, namely TATA 407 (High deck) with volumetric capacity of 10

m3, TATA 407 (Mini truck), TATA (1613) and TATA 407 (tipper truck) with volumetric

capacity of 15 m3

are used in areas for transportation of MSW to the dumping grounds. The

loading and unloading of refuse vehicles is done manually by sweepers and sanitary workers.

Manual loading and unloading is time consuming and reduces waste carrying efficiency. This

52


practice also increases health risk to the workers. Transfer stations are available in some areas

but they are seldom used.

Fig: 7 Transportation of MSW

Segregation of MSW

MSW in the dumping grounds of areas have often been found to be mixed with biomedical and

industrial wastes owing to the non-availability of a separate disposal technique. Organized waste

segregation is generally not practiced in areas but the localities of the dumping ground segregate

the waste to some extent for their own earnings.

53


Fig: 8 Segregation of MSW

Disposal of MSW

Mostly in all the regions of India all the waste is dumped openly. Since there is no specified

disposal method, littering of waste and waste burning is often observed, which poses threat to

public health and environment. This disposal practice also can contaminate a nearby stream due

to the leachate generation.

Fig: 9 Disposal of MSW

54


MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 Methodology adopted for collecting MSW samples

MSW samples were collected from the 10 different areas of Nainital municipality. Sample

collection points are coming under the different categories like residential areas, commercial

areas, vegetable market, and low, higher and middle income areas. 2 kg of wet degradable

samples are collected from 10 different areas after removing the plastics and other non

degradable materials and after labeling brought to the laboratory for chemical analysis.

4.2 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis

The municipal organic waste collected from different areas was oven dried for 48 hrs at 80 °C in

a hot air oven. The oven dried samples were further grinded to fine powder and then desiccated

to cool down.

For the chemical analysis of samples, extracts were prepared by dissolving 10 gm of the sample

in 100 mL of distilled water and shaken for 8 hrs in a rotary shaker in order to ensure full

dissolution of sample into distilled water. The solution was then filtered in Whatman No. 42

filter paper and the filtrate was used for chemical analysis. Chemical analysis was done as

prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS No. 10158-1982).

4.3 Important parameters of MSW

pH

The pH is a marginal parameter for any type of MSW treatment like aerobic and anaerobic

digestion and composting process. A primary gauge of digester health is the pH level, which

changes in response to biological conversions during the different processes of AD. A stable pH

indicates system equilibrium and digester stability. A falling pH can point toward acid

accumulation and digester instability. Gas production is the only parameter that shows digester

instability faster than pH. The range of acceptable pH for the bacteria participating in digestion is

from 5.5 to 8.5, though the closer to neutral, the greater the chance that the methanogenic

bacteria will function (Golueke, 2002).

55


Procedure

10 gram of air-dried sample was taken in a 50 mL beaker and 25 mL of distilled water was added

to it. The solution was kept undisturbed for 1 hr for sedimentation. A digital pH meter (Figure

A.1.1) was inserted into the solution to measure pH of solution.

Fig: 10 Photograph of pH Meter 3.0

I. Moisture Content

Procedure

The sample was weighed immediately after collection and recorded as wet weight of sample

(A). The sample was dried to a constant weight at a temperature not exceeding 100 °C for 48 hr

in a hot air oven. The samples were taken out of oven and kept inside the desiccators for 4 to 5

hrs to allow it to cool. The samples were weighed again the weights recorded as dry weight of

the sample (B).

Calculation

The moisture content of the sample is calculated using the following equation:

%W=[(A-B)/A] * 100

Where, %W = Percentage of moisture in the sample,

56


A= Weight of wet sample (gm), and

B= Weight of dry sample (gm)

Measurement of C, N

Principle

The basic principle of quantitative CHNS analysis is high temperature combustion of organic

solid samples. The gaseous combustion products are purified, separated into their various

components and analyzed with a suitable detector (Thermo-conductivity detector (TCD) in this

case).

Methods

Carbon and nitrogen in MSW samples were analyzed using Vario EL III CHNOS analyzer 4-6

mg of MSW sample was packed into tin boats and was dropped into the combustion tube at

temperatures up to 1200°C. The use of tin vessels further elevates the sample's combustion

temperature up to 1800°C.

The helium carrier gas transfers the gaseous combustion products into the copper tube. The

nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen and the gaseous mixture enters the dynamic separation

system. The nitrogen travels directly to the TC detector while the CO2, H2O and SO2 are retarded

in specific adsorption traps. When the TCD's signal for nitrogen returns to baseline, the

adsorption traps are thermally desorbed and the corresponding gases detected sequentially.

Overlapping of separated gases is prevented by waiting for the TCD to return to baseline before

desorbing the next trap. This approach ensures the largest dynamic range in the shortest analysis

time possible. Variations in concentration ranges and measuring modes - CHNS, CNS, CHN, etc.

are possible by simply changing adsorption traps. The detector signals are integrated by using the

calibration curves stored in the PC. The concentrations of the various elements were calculated,

displayed and stored in memory.

57


Figure: 11 A Pictorial View of CHNS Analyzer

Heavy Metal Analysis

Heavy metal content in MSW samples was analyzed using inductively coupled plasma atomic

emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).

Sample Preparation

EPA Method 3051A (Microwave Digestion with HN03) 0.5 g of sample was weighed into a

fluorocarbon microwave vessel equipped with a controlled pressure relief mechanism. 10 mL

concentrated HNO3 was added to the vessel and was sealed. The vessel was properly placed in

the microwave system. Samples were digested at 175 °C for 10 min. After cooling, vessels

were uncapped and placed in fume cupboard in order to vent. The mixture was transferred

quantitatively to a 50 mL volumetric flask, and the mark was made up with Milli-Q water and

then the solution was filtered. The filtrate thus obtained was introduced into the capillary tube

of ICP-OES. The samples introduced were analyzed for heavy metals at the following wave

lengths:

Cd: 228.802 nm, Co: 228.616 nm, Cr: 267.716 nm, Cu: 327.393 nm, Fe: 238.204 nm Mn:

257.610 nm, Ni: 231.604 nm, Pb: 220.353 nm, Zn: 213.857 nm and then their concentrations

were displayed in the attached computer

58


Figure: 12 Photographic View of ICP-OES

Loss on ignition and ash content

Procedure

After drying the sample in hot air oven at 80 °C for 24 hr, it was powdered and then kept inside

the Muffle Furnace at 600 °C for 2 hrs. Initial weight of the sample kept inside the muffle

furnace was noted (A) and then the final weight after keeping the sample inside muffle furnace

for 2 hrs at 600 °C was noted (B). The hot air oven and muffle furnace are shown in Figure.

Calculation

% Loss on Ignition = (A-B)/A * 100

% Ash Content = 100 - % Loss on Ignition

59


Fig: 13 Photograph Hot Air Oven

Fig: 14 Photograph of Muffle Furnace

60


RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Quantification of MSW

In order to estimate per capita waste generation rate of MSW from Nainitaal city, simply volume

and density method is opted due to non availability of any weighing bridge within or nearby city.

During the survey period, density measurement of different MSW sample has been completed.

The per capita of the waste generation is 0.0102 kg/day.

Table 13: Physical Composition of MSW Sample

Sl. No. Constituents Maximum

%(w/w)

Minimum

%(w/w)

Mean

%(w/w)

1 Biodegradable/Compostable 78.4 36.5 51.17

2 Plastic 17.6 5.3 11.41

3 Paper 23 6.3 14.33

4 Glass and ceramics 7.2 0 1.84

5 Textiles 5 0 0.99

6 Metals 3.1 0 1.72

7 Inert, ash and debris 33.8 1.9 18.54

The observed value of each component of generated MSW in Nainitaal city has been figured

above. Based on economical and lifestyle strata, data of each component is revealing the existing

status of MSW characteristics in their respective domain. Among inert, ash and debris, the

amount of debris was found out be the maximum. Average percentage distribution of different

components of MSW is shown in Figure.

61


Fig: 15: Percentage of Different Components of MSW

Table 14: Chemical analysis parameters of MSW

Sample Code Max Min Mean Standard

deviation

Moisture Content

(%)

51.5 18.5 39.7 12.7

Ph 7.52 6.11 6.73 0.49

LOI (%) 82.25 27.82 65.97 20.32

Carbon (%) 47.71 16.14 38.27 11.79

Ash (%) 72.18 17.75 34.03 20.32

Cadmium 1.452 0.278

0.61 0.44

62


Cobalt 7.323 0.94 2.51 2.47

Copper 44.699 25.33 35.27 7.79

Iron 20618.601 3237.735 7815.15 6558.60

Lead 36.65 19.21 29.25 5.98

Potassium 5085 1365 3908.33 1365.77

Phosphate 7 0 2.58 2.58

The chemical analysis of MSW samples of Nainital which has been done at six sites in the study

area. The pH of sample max. 7.52 Which is basic in nature and min. 6.11 which is acidic in

nature, the average is 6.73 and std.dev. is 0.49. The moisture content (%) of the sample max.

51.5 % and min. 18.5 %, the average is 39.7 % and the std.dev. is 12.7 %. Loss on Ignition (%)

of sample max. 82.25 % and min. 27.82 %, the average is 65.97 % and std.dev. is 20.37 %.

carbon (%) of sample max. 47.71 % and min. 16.14 %, the average is 38.27 % and std.dev. is

11.79 %. The Ash (%) of sample max. is 72.18 % and min is 17.75 %, the average is 34.03 %

and std.dev. is 20.32 %. The heavy metal analysis of sample which is Cadmium max. is 1.452

mg/kg and min. is 0.278 mg/kg, the average is 0.61 mg/kg and the std.dev. is 0.44 mg/kg. Cobalt

max. is 7.323 mg/kg and min. is 0.94 mg/kg, the average is 2.51 mg/kg and std.dev.is 2.47mg/kg.

Iron is found in the sample is very high its max. is 20618.601 mg/kg and min is 3237.735mg/kg,

the average is 7815.15 mg/kg and std.dev. is 6558.60 mg/kg. Lead is max. 36.65 mg/kg and min.

19.21 mg/kg, the average is 29.25 mg/kg and std.dev. is 5.98 mg/kg. Potassium is max. 5085

mg/kg and min. is 1365 mg/kg, and average is 3908.33 mg/kg and std. dev. is 1365.77 mg/kg.

The last one is Phosphate its max. is 7 mg/kg and min. is 0, and the average is 2.58 mg/kg and

the std.dev. is also 2.58 mg/kg.

5.2 Discussion

In order to estimate per capita waste generation rate of MSW from Nainital city, simply volume

and density method is opted due to non availability of any weighing bridge within or nearby city.

As per MSW Management and Handling Rule 2000, The waste generation per capita per day in

kg/day within the Indian Standard it is 0.0102kg/day in the Nainital city.

63


The physical composition of MSW samples of Biodegradable or Compostable materials are

51.17 % of the total waste collected in the city, lies within the Indian Standard it is good

degradable climatic condition for composting, but the Inert, Ash and debris 18.54 % was found

out be the maximum due to tourist place they throw bottles, bags, old cloths etc that are not

degraded in the nature.

The chemical analysis of MSW samples as per Indian Standard showed that they are slightly

acidic in nature as its average pH was 6.73 and the range of variation was 6.11 - 7.52. Average

moisture content of the samples was observed to be 39.7 % with maximum and minimum values

of 51 % and 18 %, respectively. MSW samples contained average Carbon is that 38.27% and

maximum and minimum values are 47.74% and 16.14%. LOI and Ash has average value is

65.97% and 34.03%. The maximum and minimum values are 82.25%, 72.18% and 27.82%,

17.75%. Heavy metals were also analyzed in MSW samples. The concentration of cadmium was

0.65 mg/kg, Cobalt as 2.51 mg/kg, Copper concentration as 35.27 mg/kg and lead was observed

to be 29.25 mg/kg, Iron concentration as 7815.15 mg/kg, the concentration of heavy metals in

MSW samples are within Indian Compost Standards as per (MSW Management and Handling

Rules, 2000). Comparison of the observed values with Indian Compost Standards is presented

through table. Since the heavy metals content is within the limit and the compost can be used as

a fertilizer for food crops. However, repeated addition of heavy metal bearing compost as soil

conditioner needs to be studied in a more elaborate manner as it is a matter of concern.

Silent Findings in MSW in Nainital

Achievement in Present MSW System

Plastic recycling is being done at Haldwani Recycling plant

Dumping yard and composting plant for composting of waste

Deficiencies in Present MSW System

Inadequate door to door collection system. Door to door collection is taking place in few places

No segregation of waste (waste is being collected in mixed form).

Single Bin system in being practiced to a large extent in the city.

Inadequate no. of community bins and these bins are placed on unsurfaced platforms.

Shop owners in Market area haven’t been provided bins to store their waste, and they are

throwing waste on roads/open ground in front of their shops

Disposal/Dumping of construction and demolition waste in Narayan Nagar Area

Street sweepers are not provided with proper tools

64


Manual collection and transportation has been practiced.

Poor practice in markets storage of waste in front of open space on ground.

Storage System and Collection system are unsynchronized

Issue of plastic bags

Lack of public awareness

The approach road of dumping yard is in poor condition

At existing Landfill site rehabilitation is required Biodegradable waste is being dumped in the

landfill and composting of waste is taking place in small pits which occupies large space

Machineries and equipments are in poor condition

Improper infrastructure is available at existing land fill site/dumping site.

Unscientific Dumping of Waste at Landfill Site. Uncontrolled dumping at a site down a gorge

like formation.

65


CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The study conducted in Nainital revealed following points:

1. There is the need to promote recycling practices in Nainital as lot of tourists come to the city

and waste materials like plastic, bottle, paper, cloths are indiscriminately thrown which need to

be taken care.

2. Decentralized composting due to Nainital is a tourist place and unavailability of organic

wastes and flow of organic wastes are not consistency and adopted recycling plants for the

recycling of materials.

Finally a framework for Nainital city is proposed for improvement in the existing waste

management system:

66


67


Fig 16: Framework of MSW Management of city Nainital

6.1 Recommendations

Four bin pushcarts of will be introduced for door to door collection.

NNPP shall arrange door step collection through containerized push carts and shall deployed

motorized vehicle in both hilly areas.

68


NNPP authority may extend their help in primary collection of such waste by deploying their

man power and machineries for door to door collection and levy spot fine if no garbage is

given in segregated form (Bio degradable and Non biodegradable)

Delegate power to sanitary supervisor to levy spot fine if no garbage is given in segregated

form ( Bio degradable and Non biodegradable)

Hotel waste shall be stored at site into a container of 50 lit capacities. Container should have

appropriate handle at top or side for easy lifting.

Vegetable market waste shall be keep in sturdy container of capacity 50‐100 lit. with handle

at top or side

In Vegetable market, all shop owners shall be provided with 15‐50 lit of bin for collection of

waste.

Street cleaning shall be done on daily basis or once in three days depending upon importance

of street and workers shall be provided with brooms, shovels and push carts.

For plastic waste recyclable process will be adopted by using extruders.

Excel organic waste composters, composting technology has been suggested on trial basis at

landfill site to check suitability of treatment. Excel organic composting is required to treat

waste from market and hotels during peak season as compostable waste increases drastically

and land available for composting at Narayan Nagar is not sufficient for handling this

amount.

Windrows machinery area will be covered with asbestos sheet for protection.

Create public awareness

6.2 Future Scope of Project Work

Details analysis and study of Organic waste to set up Composting facility

Proximate and ultimate analysis to determine the waste composition at molecular level on

economical and commercial strata.

Comparative MSWM study of hilly region from national and international level to learn

from their success to fill the existing lacuna for this city

69


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