Senegal Sustainable Bio-fuel Research Study 2013

7/30/2019 Senegal Sustainable Bio-fuel Research Study 2013

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An Overview of GBEP & Current Feedstock Recommendations

for Sustainable Biofuels Development

Zachary Figueroa, Biola University

Leah Wills, Biola UniversitySarah Gross, Messiah College

Sara Bissig, Asbury University

Emily DenBleyker, Gordon College

GlobalDevelopment EnterpriseGerry Hartis, Director

Spring2013

SENEGAL

Jacob Bechtol, San Diego Christian College

Bri Lopez, Westmont UniversityAnthony Kendirjian, Fresno Pacific University

Jared Henke, Carson Newman College


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TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary............................................................................1

I. CountryProfile:Senegal...............................................................4GeographyandClimate..............................................................................4

Agriculture.................................................................................................6

Economy....................................................................................................7

Health,Education,&FamilyLife.................................................................8

II. TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipIndicators:AFrameworkforEvaluatingFeedstocks...............................................................10

Degradation/Exploitation........................................................................13

Resources................................................................................................15

Land........................................................................................................17

Access.....................................................................................................19

Livelihood................................................................................................20

FoodSecurity...........................................................................................24

Jobs.........................................................................................................26

SustainableEconomicGrowth.................................................................28

Productivity.............................................................................................31BeyondtheIndicators..............................................................................33

III. FeedstockProfiles................................................................................39A.Peanuts..............................................................................................40B. SweetSorghum...................................................................................48C. Sugarcane...........................................................................................58

IV. FeedstockConclusions...............................................................70V. FinalScorecard..........................................................................74 VI. ElementsofAchievingJusticeinSenegalThroughBiofuels........75 AppendixI:ReportAbbreviationKey..............................................................79

AppendixII:FTFInfographiconAgriculture-LedGrowth.................................80


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ExecutiveSummary

COUNTRYPROFILE

SenegalislocatedonthewestcoastofAfricaanditsclimateischaracterizedbyanalternating

dryandrainyseason.Senegalreceivessmallamountsofrainfallbutmassivequantitiesof

sunshine.Itseconomyiscenteredonagriculture;groundnutsandfishhavetraditionallybeen

thecountrysmajorexportsbuthavebeenrecentlyflagging.Someagriculturalproductshave

increasedinproductionandcropdiversificationisalsogrowing.Inrecentyears,SenegalsGDP

hasmaintaineda5%annualrealgrowth.Senegalreliesheavilyondonorassistanceandforeign

directinvestment.In2012,theeconomybegantoreboundafteraweak2011buttheeconomy

continuestosufferfromunreliablepowersupply.Senegalhasworkedinrecentyearsto

strengthenitseducationalsystems,thoughliteracy,absenteeism,andinfrastructurearestill

problematic.Healthcareisstilllimitedandchildrensufferfrompreventablediseases.Senegal

alsoexperiencesfoodshortagesandlackofaccesstocleanwater.

THEGLOBALBIOENERGYPARTNERSHIPINDICATORS

In2008,aTaskForceonSustainabilityfromtheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipbeganworkingon

alistofindicatorsthatwouldrevolutionizebioenergyproductioninthedevelopingworld.The

24indicatorsareorganizedintothreepillars:environmental,social,andeconomic.They

provideaholisticandintegrativeframeworkforevaluatingthesustainabilityofpotential

biofuelfeedstocks.Ninemajorthemeswereidentifiedasrepresentingdebatessurroundingthe

developmentofbiofuels:degradation,resources,land,access,livelihood,foodsecurity,jobs,

sustainableeconomicgrowth,andproductivity.

(1)DegradationandExploitation.Senegalsuffersfromdeforestation,desertification,andpoorsoilquality.Abiofuelsindustrywouldmitigateemissionsandaddresstheseissues.

(2)Resources.Senegalhasagoodamountofwater,buttheamountofwaterneededforbiofuelsinSenegalhasyettobedetermined.Intermsofland,thethreeproposed

feedstocksarealreadygrowninSenegalsolanduseisnotamajorconcern.


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(3)Land.LandrightsinSenegalarenotstraightforward:landisnotprivatelyowned,asalllandwasnationalizedin1961.Landdistributionislefttolocalcouncils.Thisimpacts

businessesthinkingofinvesting,astheycanhavenorealguaranteeofownership.

(4)Access.Infrastructure,especiallyrailwaysandroads,areseverelydeficientinSenegal.Infrastructuredevelopmentwillbecriticaltoasustainablebiofuelproduction.

(5)Livelihood.Womenandchildrenarecurrentlyburdenedwithcollectingfuelwoodforenergyforcooking,whichlimitstimeforincome-generatingactivitiesandeducation.

Theysufferfromhouseholdairpollutionandinjuriesduringbiomasscollection.

(6)FoodSecurity.60%ofSenegalsfoodisimported,pointingtodomesticfoodinsecurity.Thereisusuallyatrade-offbetweenbiofuelproductionandfoodproductionintermsof

landandresources,andthisisaconcerninSenegal.

(7)Jobs.Senegalhashighunemploymentandmostofitsjobsareintheagriculturesector.Therearehighhopesforjobcreationthroughbiofuelproduction.

(8)SustainableEconomicGrowth.Senegalproducesnodomesticenergyandimportsitsoil,reflectingtotalenergydependence.Thecurrentnecessityoffuelwoodtodomestic

energysecurityisunsustainable.Newsourcesofenergymustbedevelopmentto

improveenergydiversityandnetenergybalance.

(9)ProductivityandEfficiency.Productivitydependsonlong-termsustainabilityachievedthroughaddressinggenderinequality,wagedisparity,andeducation.

FEEDSTOCKPROFILES

Peanuts.Peanutsareusedtoproducebiodieselthatisinterchangeableandblendablewith

traditionalpetroleum-baseddiesel.Environmentally,peanutsappeartobeasustainable

feedstockforbiofuelproductionastheyalreadygrowinabundanceinSenegalandthrivein

hot,dryclimates.Socially,however,thecurrentsituationfacingfarmersisunacceptable;many

havegoneunpaidfortheircrop.Theindustryislargelyrunbythreecompanieswhohavenot

managedthemechanicsoftheirsupplychainjustly.Economically,peanutbiodieselproduction

wouldcreatejobsbuttheproductioncostmaybetoohigh.


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SweetSorghum.Sweetsorghumisusedtoproducebioethanolandallpartsofthecropcanbe

utilized.Itiswidelyrecognizedashavingsignificantpotentialasapro-poorenergycrop.

Environmentally,thepictureisincompleteassweetsorghumisstillanewfeedstockoptionfor

biofuelandresearchispresentlybeingconducted.Likepeanuts,sweetsorghumisalready

growninSenegal.Socially,bioethanolproductionsweetsorghumdoesnotcompetewithfood

production.Butpresentproductionisonasmallscale,sothefullsocialimpactsarestill

unknown.Economically,theyieldfromsweetsorghumishighandtheproductioncostislow.

Itsnetenergybalanceisverygoodandcomparabletosugarcane.

Sugarcane.AFrenchmonopoly,theSenegaleseSugarCompany(CSS),dominatesthesugarcane

industryinSenegalandethanolisalreadybeingproducedfromsugarcane.Environmentally,

technologyisbeingdevelopedtomakesugarcaneproductionsustainable.Socially,expanding

sugarcaneoperationsshownoestimatedchangeinincomeforCCSemployees,thoughthey

couldreducefuelcostsandimproveenergydiversification.Economically,theSenegalese

governmentandprivateactorshavemadesignificantinvestmentsintosugarcaneproduction

alongthelinesoftheBrazilianmodel,butefficiencymustbeincreasedandproductioncosts

minimized.

SCORECARDANALYSIS

JUSTICETHROUGHBIOFUELS

DevelopingbiofuelsinSenegalcouldimproveenvironmentalsustainability,positivelyimpact

lives,andreducedependenceonforeignoil.Butabiofuelindustrycouldalsohavenegative

impacts,especiallywhenconsideringthefoodversusfueldebateandtheindividualrights

debate.Ifbiofueldevelopmentcouldthreatenthelivelihoodsofsocietysmostvulnerable,this

couldleadtosocialinstability.Nonetheless,Senegalmustconsiderbiofuelsbecausetheycould

provideahedgeagainstglobalinstabilityresultingfromincreasingfuelandfoodcosts.Biofuel

canprovideagreatopportunityforaccomplishingjusticeifproperpoliciesareimplemented

andrespectedbygovernmentsthatseektoreducecorruption,protecttheruralpoor,and

makelong-termplans.Biofuelcanpromotejusticethroughimprovedhealth,increasedenergy

security,andabalancedeconomy.


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I. CountryProfile:SenegalFigure1:

GeographyandClimate

SenegalislocatedonAfrica'swestcoast.Withasurfaceareaof196,722km,Senegalhas700km

ofcoastlineandisborderedbyfourcountries:Malitotheeast,GuineaandGuineaBissauto

thesouth,andsurroundingonthreesidesTheGambia.Senegalisrelativelyflat,withthe

exceptionoftheFoutaDjalonhighlandsnearthesoutheasternborder.Senegal'sclimateis

characterizedbyanalternatingdryseason,fromNovembertomid-June,andarainyseason

frommid-JunetoOctober.Averagerainfallis1,500mminthesouthofthecountry,spreadover

fourmonths,and400mminthenorth,concentratedintooneandahalfmonths.Theclimateis

somewhaterratic,directlyaffectingagriculturalactivities,livestockfarming,andtheagri-food


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industry,therebyaffectingthecountry'sabilitytomaintainsustainedeconomicgrowth.

Senegalisamongthecountrieswiththegreatestamountofsunshinehours:around3,000

hoursperyear.Themostprominentandexploitedextractableresourcesincludesodiumfrom

LakeRetba,1phosphateandlimestoneintheThisregion,andgasintheDiamniadioregion.

1Hussain,Misha.Senegallookstothesaltoftheearthinpictures.TheGuardian.29March2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/gallery/2013/mar/29/senegal-salt-earth-in-pictures


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Agriculture

Senegalsagriculturalsectorhastwocontrastingsides.Ontheoneside,sluggishsalesof

groundnutproductsandthedeepcrisisinfisheries,thecountrysmajortraditionalagricultural

exports,havebroughtdownthesectorsGDPcontributions.Groundnutsearnlessforeign

revenue,witha60%dropinoutputoverthepast20years,2andreformofthegroundnutsector

stillmuchtoaccomplish.3Overfishinghasdiminishedfishstocks,andunemployedfishermen

illegallymigratetoEurope.Effortstoconserveresourcesaretooslowandoverfishingisstill

insufficientlycontrolled.

Ontheotherside,Senegalhasseengrowthinsomeagriculturalproducts,suchascerealsand

horticulture.Productionofrice,maize,andmaniochasincreasedinrecentyearstomeetrising

localdemandsinurbanareas.Thefruitandvegetablessub-sectorpresentsthemainhopeof

diversifyingSenegalsagriculturalexportstructure.GrownmainlyintheregionsoftheNiayes,

theSenegalRiverValley,Casamance,andDakar,fruitsandvegetablesforexporthavedone

wellsincethe1994devaluationoftheCFAfranc.Senegalsgeographicalandclimaticsituation

enablesout-of-seasoncropstobegrownfortheEuropeanmarket.Theprimarysectoran

annualgrowthrateof6.2%between2002and2005.4

2Hazard,E.,A.BarryandA.Anouan.AidforTradeandAgro-basedPrivateSectorDevelopmentinAfrica:LessonsfromSenegal,OECDDevelopmentCentre,Paris(2006).3OECD/AfDB,AfricanEconomicOutlook2006-2007,OECD/AfDB,Paris.2007.

4Bankofeconomicandfinancialdata.ANSD(NationalAgencyOfStatisticsAndDemographics),MinistryofEconomyandFinance,Dakar.2007.


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Economy

Senegalhasapopulationof11,519,226,ofwhich51.9%isfemale5.About40%ofthe

populationlivesinurbanareas.Thepopulationgrowthrateis3.1%peryear.Sixmainethnic

groupsmakeupthepopulation:Diolas,Malinks,Peuls,Serers,SoninksandWolofs,butothers

exist(Kobianas,Manjack,etc.).6Senegalreliesheavilyondonorassistanceandforeigndirect

investment.Inrecentyears,SenegalhasmaintainedanannualGDPgrowthaveragingabove

5%,andannualinflationhasbeenpusheddowntothesingledigits.In2009,theglobal

economicdownturnreducedgrowthto2.2%.In2010,theIMFcompletedthePolicySupport

Initiative,anon-dispersingprogramwhich,inDecember2010,approvedanewthree-year

policysupportinstrumenttoassistwitheconomicreforms.7Senegalalsoreceives

disbursementsfroma$540millionMillenniumChallengeAccountforinfrastructureand

agriculturedevelopment.In2012,theeconomybegantorebound.Theeconomycontinuesto

sufferfromunreliablepowersupply,whichhasledtopublicprotestsandhighunemployment

andhaspromptedmigrantstofleeSenegalinsearchofbetterjobopportunitiesinEurope.

5Ibid.6Senegal.CIAWorldFactbook.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sg.html

7SenegalandtheIMF.InternationalMonetaryFund.http://www.imf.org/external/country/sen/


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Health,Education,&FamilyLife

Senegalhasbeenworkingeffectivelyinrecentyearstomakesignificantgainsinitseducation

systems,achievinguniversalaccesstoeducation,withprimaryschoolenrollmentratesupfrom

69.8%in2000to92.5%in20098.ThemostfundamentalgoalsofSenegaleseeducationareto

achieveabasicten-yeareducationforallchildren.Throughpartnershipswithgovernmental

agencieslikeUSAID9andprivateorganizations,Senegalcancontinuetostayontracktoreach

itsgoals.TheprimaryregionsbeingtargetedforsuchdevelopmentincludeFatick,Kolda,

Kedougou,Sedhiou,Tambacounda,andZiguinchor10

Amidthegainsthereremainsmuchworktodobecauseonlyapproximately47%ofSenegalese

areliterateand2.7millionchildrenstillremainoutofschool11

.Also,despiteeffortstobuild

newschools,infrastructureisstillinadequateandclassroomsareovercrowdedinmany

places.Whengirlsarephysicallyabletododomesticwork,theyaretakenoutofschool,

dramaticallyaffectingthesuccessofeducationefforts.12

Evidencehasshownthatmuchoftheresistanceineducationadvancementshavebeendueto

deeplyembeddedfamilialculturethrivinginSenegal.AlthoughcolonizedbytheFrench,the

countryhassinceadoptedanoverwhelmingSunniMuslimbasethataccountsfor90%ofthe

totalpopulation.13Assuch,Senegalismainlyapatriarchalsocietyinwhichwomenhavefewer

rightsthanmenandrightsareoftensuppressed.14Evenmoreso,womenandgirlsareconfined

tohomeliferatherthanworkoreducation.AsthecountryispredominatelyMuslim,

8EducationOverview.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/12

9EducationProgramActivities.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/4910

Ibid.

11ChallengesremaintoensurequalityeducationinSenegal,saysUNexpert.UNNewsCentre.14January2011.http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37271#.URhm0FpU6x412Shryock,Ricci.Senegalesegirlsforcedtodropoutofschoolandworkasdomestichelp.UNICEF.16November2010.http://www.unicef.org/education/senegal_56856.html13Senegalese.CountriesandTheirCultures.EveryCulture.com.http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Senegalese.html14SituationofwomeninSenegal.TieInternationales.http://www.tie-germany.org/what_we_do/new_organising_-_women_in_senegal-2.html


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overcomingreligious,cultural,andsocietalnormsisdifficultandmustremainaconsideration

foranydevelopmenteffort.

Similartoeducationandfamilialfactors,healthcareavailabilityandqualityaretwoofthemost

integralconsiderationsasdevelopmentoccurs.Overthelastdecade,significantadvancements

andinvestmenthavebeenmadeintheSenegalesehealthcareindustry.SenegalsMinistryof

Health,partneredwithlocalcommunitiesandoutsideorganizations,workstoreducethemost

pressingissuesofmaternalandchilddeaths,infectiousdisease,andotherillnesses.Efforts

havefocusedoncombattingtheeffectsofmalaria,tuberculosis,andHIV/AIDSinadditionto

advancementsinfamilyplanning.15

AsdevelopmentmovesforwardinSenegalitwillbenecessarytofurtherconsidersuchfactorsinordertomakeinformeddecisionsaboutwhichdevelopmentsmightbebestsuitedforthe

people.Ifthechildrenandfuturegenerationsarenoteffectivelyeducatedaboutthe

necessitiesofnutrition,hygiene,health,work,andfurtherdevelopmentthenanyefforttoward

sustainablegrowthwillnothavelong-termsuccess.Continuedeffortsinadvancingcultural

perceptionofwomenineducation,workforceparticipation,andsocietalparticipationwill

equallybenecessaryifsustainableadvancementisdesired.

15Healthprogramactivities.USAID.http://senegal.usaid.gov/en/node/47


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II. TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipIndicators:AFrameworkforEvaluatingFeedstocks

In2008,theTaskForceonSustainabilityfromtheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipbeganworking

onalistofindicatorsthatwouldrevolutionizebioenergydevelopmentinthedevelopingworld.

Theirlistof24indicators,publishedinNovember2011asTheGlobalBioenergyPartnership

SustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy(orGBEPIndicators),aimstoprovidepolicy-makersand

otherstakeholdersasetofanalyticaltoolsthatcaninformthedevelopmentofnational

bioenergypoliciesandprogrammesandmonitortheimpactofthesepoliciesand

programmes.16Theindicatorsareorganizedintothreeinterdependentpillars

environmental,social,andeconomicthatcategorizethethemesoftheindividualindicators.

Certainthemesguidedtheplacementofindicatorsundereachpillar.

Inourresearch,wehavetakentheGBEPIndicatorsandusedthemtodevelopapictureofthe

possibleuseofbiofuelsinSenegal,particularlyexaminingthefeasibilityandimpactofbiofuel

productioninthatcountry.

Thetwenty-fourGBEPindicatorsprovideaholisticandintegrativeframeworkforevaluating

potentialbiofuelfeedstocks.Thefollowingsectionwillexaminetheindicatorsastheyrelateto

criticaldebatessurroundingbiofueldevelopment,sothatthesustainabilityofthreespecific

feedstockscanbeproperlyevaluatedinthenextpartofthisreport.

16TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipSustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy.(GlobalBioenergyPartnership,2011),1.


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Figure2:GBEPIndicatorsRelationshipsandLinkages

Note:ThischartshowstheinteractionbetweenthethreeGBEPindicatorframeworkpillarsandhighlightsthe

debatesandlinkagesourresearchhasyielded.


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Figure3:GBEPThemePillars


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Degradation/Exploitation

FivedifferentGBEPindicatorscovertheoverarchingthemeofdegradation,whichmonitorsthe

potentialpollutantsabiomasswillproduceasitisconvertedintobiofuel.Specifically,the

themecoversairpollutants,soilquality,woodresources,andbiodiversity.Senegalhasthe

potentialtoavoidenvironmentaldegradationifitacceptstheuseofbiofuelinitscountryand

producesaccordingtotheEnvironmentalProtectionAgenciesadvancedfuelstandard.Asthe

technologyexiststomakethisarealitydependingonwhichfeedstockisusedtoproduce

biofuel,thechoiceisleftuptoinvestmentpartnersanddirectionoftheindustry.

Lifecyclegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsareasubstantialconsiderationinthethemeof

degradation.Measuringthelifecycleemissionsofbiomassaccountsforallemissionsfrom

growthtoenduse.Ifthebiomassdoesnoteffectlandchangeemissionsorintakesasmuch

carbonwouldingrowingasinburning,thebiomasscanaccountforatheoreticalzeroGHG

emission.Moreover,ifthebiofuelcanbeusedintheproductionandtransportationofthefuel,

itcanevenfurtherimpacttheemissions.Non-GHGemissionsmonitornon-carbonpollutants.

Overall,biofuelshavebeenshowntoproducefewerpollutantsthanbiofuels.Aslongas

harvestingtechniquessuchascropburningareavoided,theseemissionscanbefurther

decreased.Non-GHGemissionscanhaveaprofoundsocialimpactbyprovidingabiofuel

alternativetocurrentwoodorcharcoaluse.Indoorsmokeinhalation,aproblemduetocurrent

fuelsources,canbeeliminated.

PartofcalculatingthelifecycleGHGemissionsisaccountingforlandchangedueto

deforestation.DeforestationinSenegalisduetoavarietyofreasons,fromharvestingwoodfor

charcoaltoagriculturalexpansion.TheFoodandAgriculturalOrganizationhasindicatedin

severaloftheirreportsthatagriculturallandclearancehasbeentheprimarycauseof

deforestationinSenegalwithanannuallossof0.5%.17However,charcoalproductionisa

17Bensch,Gunther&JrgPeters.CombatingDeforestation?ImpactsofImprovedStoveDisseminationonCharcoalConsumptioninUrbanSenegal.GermanDevelopmentEconomicsConference.2011.

http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/48312/1/9_bensch.pdf


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significantcontributoraswellandaccountsfor28%ofthedegradationofSenegal'swooded

savannasandwoodland.

Senegal'ssoilqualityisverypoor.Becauseofthis,alongwithotherfactors,only10%ofthe

totallandcanbeusedforagriculturalefforts.Feedstockslikepeanutsandsugarcanethatcan

growininfertileandisolshavethepotentialtoimprovesoilqualityonavarietyoflevels.Not

onlydocropslikesugarcaneandsorghumputnitrogenbackintothesoilenrichingitforfuture

farming,buttheverypresenceofvegetationhelpsavoidwinderosion.Senegalalsofacesa

problemduetoovergrazingitsland.

Figure4:Soildegradationduetoagriculturaldevelopment


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Resources

NodataisyetavailableforhowmuchwaterisusedinSenegalforbioenergyproduction,but

generallyalargeamountofwaterisneededtoproduceethanol.IntheUnitedStates,corn

ethanolusedincarsrequiresabout50gallonsofwaterpermiledriven.18MuchofSenegalhas

accesstocleandrinkingwater,thankstoavarietyofprivate-publicpartnerships,mostnotably

theProgrammeofDrinkingWaterandSanitationfortheMillennium,launchedin2003bythe

UNDevelopmentProgrammeandthegovernmentofSenegal.Thisprogramaimstoraise

householdsrateofaccesstocleandrinkingwaterfrom64%in2004to82%by2015.In2009,

74%ofruralresidentsinSenegalhadaccesstodrinkingwater.19Senegalhasabout258billion

cubicmetersoftotalrenewablewaterresourcesperyear,equalingabout2021cubicmetersof

thesamepercapita.20

18Biofuelproduction:adrink-or-driveissue?MissouriUniversityofScienceandTechnology.2009.http://news.mst.edu/2009/04/biofuel_production_a_drink-or-.html19InSenegal,accesstowaterlife-transforming.UNDevelopmentProgram.http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/access_to_water_i

stransforminglifeinruralsenegal/20AQUASTATdatabase.FoodandAgricultureOrganization.http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm


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Figure5:VegetationandLandUseofSenegal


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Land

Landuseandland-usechangearemostconcernedwiththeuseoftheland.Becausethethree

feedstocksexaminedinthisproposalarealreadygrowninSenegal,thisisnotaslargea

problemaswithothersituations.LandrightsinSenegalarenotstraightforwardasthereare

severalmechanismsthroughwhichonecanaccesslandownership.Landisnotprivately

owned;alllandwasnationalizedin1961.Thegovernmentsetupfourzonestocategorizeland

usages:urban,special,agriculture,anddevelopment.Landdistributionisleftuptolocal

councilswhoareresponsibletomanagethelandintheirterritory.Theseruralcouncilsoften

consultwithtribalchiefswhendecidinglandallocation.Althoughthelandisnotprivately

ownedasitpassesthroughfamilylines,itcanstillbeaccessedthroughloansandrentals.

Ownershipisnotguaranteed,however,asthelandisstillownedbythegovernment.Local

councilsultimatelydecidewhogetstousetheland.Ifthecurrentownerisnotusingthelandto

produceatadequatelevels,thecouncilcangivethelandtosomeoneelse.TheLandTenureAct

of2011didallowurbanpopulationstosolidifylandrightsasitallowsownerstochangea

temporaryholdonlandintoapermanentdeed.

ThelackofindividuallandrightsinSenegalimpactsbiofuelproductionsinseveraldifferent

ways.Commercialinterestswhowanttobuylandtoeithergrowbiomassorproducebiofuel

oftenhavenoguaranteeoflandownership,despitethefactthattheycanmakeadealwiththe

localgovernment.Thismakescommercialinterestswaryofinvestinginbiofuel,astheyhaveno

guaranteeofmakingbacktheirmoneyback.

Moreover,urbanandrurallandownershiparetreatedindifferentways,furthercomplicating

theissue.WhiletheLandTenureActprovidessomeguaranteeofownershipforurbandwellers,

localcouncilsstillhaveauthorityoverruralland.Thismakeslandtenurecomplexandoffersno

guaranteeofownership.

PerhapsthemostsignificantimpactistoruralSenegalesefarmers.Thesesubsistencefarmers

relyontheirlandtoprovideforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Withoutaccesstoland,they


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wouldhavenowayofprovidingfood.Althoughthisislandthathasbeenpasseddownthrough

familylines,itlegallybelongstothestate.Thismeansthatthelocalcouncilscouldeasilyresign

ownershipofthislandforavarietyofreasons;forinstance,ifacorporationweretooffera

lucrativeamountofmoneyorifanotherfarmerneededmoreaccesstolandthelocalcouncil

couldreassigntheland.

Allthingsconsidered,productionofbiofuelwillallowforinvestmentthatwillempowerthe

people.Whenconsideringtheissueoflandrightsonecaneasilydiscerntheneedtoprivatize

landtoattractforeigninvestors.Yetifprivatizationoccurs,itneedstobedoneinanequitable

mannerthatwillnottakelandfromthepeoplethatneeditthemost.Thisindicatormeasures

thepercentageoflandusedforbiofuelproduction,includinglandusedtogrowbiomassand

refinebiofuel.Notonlydoesthislandneedtobeavailableforownership,itshouldnot

competewithfoodproduction.Inanareawherefoodsecurityisstillaveryrealissue,biofuel

productionshouldaidfoodsecurityandnotbecomeahindrance.


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Access

Thesuccessofasustainablebiofuelindustrydependsoncustomersbeingabletoaccessthe

newsourceofbioenergy.Indicator14measuresincreasedaccesstobioenergyandIndicator23

measuresinfrastructureneededfordistributionsystems.

Presently,infrastructureinSenegalisdeficient.Senegalhas906kilometersofrailway,but

difficultiesinmanagementandlackofinvestmenthaveledtodegradationoftherailways.

Therehavebeenmassivedelays:oftentrainscannottravelmorethan20kmperhourbecause

ofthebadstateofthetracks.RoadsinSenegalarealsodeficient,inbothquantityandquality.

Roadspenetrationasmeasuredbykilometersperthousandofpopulationis0.99;theworld

averageis10.15.TheWorldBanklistssomeofSenegalsinfrastructurechallengesas:improving

roadconditions,boostingairandrailtraffic,updatingelectricityinfrastructure,andboosting

thepaceofexpansionofthewater-and-sanitationnetwork.21TheWorldBankrecommends

moreprivate-sectorinvestment.

OnepositiveaspectofnationalaccessinSenegalistheportofDakar,oneofthelargestdeep-

waterseaportsalongtheWestAfricancoast.Itslocationatacrossroadsofsealaneslinking

EuropeandSouthAmericamakeitanaturalportofcallforshippingcompanies.

Inorderforabiofuelindustrytobesustainableanddevelopthecountryeconomicallyand

socially,theremustbeinfrastructureinplacetofacilitatethedistributionanduseofbioenergy.

ThisinfrastructureislackinginSenegal.

21ClemenciaTorres,CeciliaM.Briceno-Garmendia,andCarolinaDominguez.SenegalsInfrastructure:AContinentalPerspective.WorldBank.September2011.

http://elibrary.worldbank.org/content/workingpaper/10.1596/1813-9450-5817


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Livelihood

ThreeGBEPindicatorshavebeencategorizedwiththesocialthemeofLivelihood.Thistheme

examinesthepotentialimpactofbiofuelonthequalityoflife,healthandsafetyofthose

involvedinthecurrentprocessofenergycollectionanduse.Theseindicatorsare:

13.Changeinunpaidtimespentbywomenandchildrencollectingbiomass

15.Changeinmortalityandburdenofdiseaseattributabletoindoorsmoke

16.Incidenceofoccupationalinjury,illnessandfatalities

ThereislittleempiricaldataforSenegalintermsoftheseindicators,butthereissignificant

anecdotalevidencepointingtotheunsustainablenatureofthecurrentenergysituation.

Likewise,thepotentialimpactsofswitchingfromunsustainablesourcesandusesofenergyto

biofuelusearelargelyanecdotal.

Insum,awidespreadlackofaccesstomodernenergyservicesnegativelyimpactsthelivesof

theSenegalesepeopleinthewaysidentifiedbythefollowingindicators.Increasedaccessto

sustainablemodernenergyservices,suchasabiofuelindustry,wouldlikelyimprovequalityof

life,healthandsafetyofthosewhogainaccess.However,thequestionofwhowouldreceive

accessisunclear;totargetextremepoverty,onewouldlooktotheruralareasofSenegal,

occupyingtheeasternandnorthernpartsofthecountry,butalackofinfrastructureandother

concernswouldperhapsmakethisgeographiclocationlessfeasiblethanamorepopulated

area.Whileenergyaccessisatitsworstinruralvillages,peopleinurbanareasasexplained

belowstilllackaccesstoenergyandusedangerousmethodsofacquiringenergy.

Indicator13:Changeinunpaidtimespentbywomenandchildrencollectingbiomass

AccordingtoareportbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,Firstandforemost,the

energychallengeinruralareasofSenegalisagenderissue.22Throughoutsub-SaharanAfrica

22Seck,Papa.TheRuralEnergyChallengeinSenegal:AMissionReport.UNDPHuman

DevelopmentReport2007-2008.


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itislargelythedutyofwomenandchildrentocollectbiomass,usuallyfuelwood,toprovidethe

energyforcooking.

InSenegal,biomasscollectionisessentiallyadutythatisreservedforwomenandyoung

girls.23Thisdivisionofhouseholdlaborhasledtoseveretimeconstraintsonwomenandgirls.

Theprocessoffindingbiomassgenerallystartsaroundeightoclockinthemorningandtakes

severalhours.ElisabethFayeandMarieThiar,womenfromthevillageofNianing,saidThis

lifestyledoesnotaffordusamomentofrespiteastheproperfunctioningofourhouseholds

dependsonit.24AcrossSenegal,womenstimeisoppressedbyamultitudeofhousehold

responsibilities.

Collectingfuelwoodlimitsthetimeavailabletothemforeducationandincome-generatingactivities.Womenwholiveinareaswithmoderatetoseverewooddeficitsspendmoretimeon

houseworkandlesstimeonselforwageemployment.WhilethereisnoSenegal-specificdata

fortimespentgatheringbiomass,studieshavebeenconductedelsewhereinsub-Saharan

Africa.Thesestudiesrevealthatcollectingfuelwoodhasbecomeincreasinglydifficultandtime-

consumingasdeforestationandforestdegradationhaveincreasedthedistancesthatmustbe

travelledtoobtainasufficientsupplyoffuelwood.

Indicator15:Changeinmortalityandburdenofdiseaseattributabletoindoorsmoke

Lackofaccesstoclean,efficient,modernsourcesofenergyinthehomecanimpacthealthin

manyways.Theprimaryhealtheffectsresultfromtheairpollutioncausedbyburningsolid

fuels(primarilywood,butsometimescoal,dung,orcropwastes)onopenfiresorsimple

stoves.25Thesmokefromthesolidfuelcontainsvariouspollutants,includingsmallparticulate

matterandcarbonmonoxide.Breathingthispollutedairdirectlyimpactswomenandchildren

whospendmuchtimeinthehome.TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthenumberof

prematuredeathscausedbysmokeinhalationtoexceeddeathsfrommalariaandtuberculosis

23Ibid.24Ibid.

25TheGlobalBioenergyPartnershipSustainabilityIndicatorsforBioenergy.GlobalBioenergyPartnership.


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inAfrica.26By2030,WHOestimatespredictover1.5milliondeaths(or4,000daysperday)by

2030duetotheuseofbiomassininefficientstoves.27

Householdairpollution(HAP)isaseriousprobleminSenegal.HAPkills6,300peopleperyearin

Senegal,andaffectsoversixmillionSenegaleseannually.28Thislargeimpactisduetothefact

thatalarge%ageofthepopulationburnsfuelwoodintheirhomes.AccordingtotheGlobal

AllianceforCleanCookstoves,47.7%oftheSenegalesepopulationusewoodforcooking.29

Manyhavebeguntouseanimaldung,aslandclearingandcontrolsontheuseofforest

resourceshaveincreased.

NdiagaSarr,wholivesinthevillageofRoffinSenegal,testifiestothehealthimpactsofburning

biomassindoors:duringtherainyseason,bothwoodbranchesandanimalresiduesbecomeunusableandwomenhavetoresorttousingoldhouseholdclothsandplasticpans.

Consequently,womenoftencomplainofeyeinjuriesandotherrespiratoryproblemsstemming

fromtheuseofthesematerials.30

Switchingtocleanerfuelsandincreasingfuelefficiencythroughbetter,saferstovescanreduce

healthrisksforallfamilymembers,butespeciallyforwomenandchildren.

Indicator16:Incidenceofoccupationalinjury,illnessandfatalities

Besidesbeingtime-consumingandunhealthyforwomenandchildren,theprocessofcollecting

biomasscanbephysicallyunsafe.Injuriesfromcarryinglargeamountsofwoodarecommon;in

2006,theaverageloadoffuelwoodinsub-SaharanAfricawas20kg.31Testimoniesfrom

26Putti,VenkataRamana.EnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAnEmergingChallenge.WorldBank.15November2011.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/Resources/717305-1327690230600/8397692-1327691245128/Urban_and_Peri_Urban_Challenges_AEI_Workshop.pdf 27Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironment

Programme.2011.8.28Senegal.CleanCookstovesInternational.http://www.cleancookstoves.org/countries/africa/senegal.html

29Ibid.

30Seck,Papa.

31Blackden,MarkC.,andQuentinWodon,eds.Gender,TimeUse,andPovertyinSub-SaharanAfrica.TheWorldBank.2006.


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Senegalesewomenconfirmthatmanywomencarryover20kgofwood.32Furthermore,women

arevulnerabletoviolencewhencollectingfuelwood.

Alternatively,accesstobioenergywouldeliminatetheneedforexhaustiveandpotentially

dangerouswoodcollection.Jobsinthebiofuelindustrywouldlikelybesaferthanthecurrent

scenario,ofwomencollectingfuelwoodtoburnintheirhomes.

32Seck,Papa.


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FoodSecurity

Nearly60%ofSenegalsfoodisimported,leavingtheSenegalesepeoplehighlydependenton

foreignimports.TheinsecurityoffoodinSenegalreachedanall-timehighwiththefoodriots

of2007-2008.Changinganderraticweatherpatternsplayedalargeroleinthefoodinsecurity

inSenegalduringthistime.Also,thegovernmentwentthroughchangesinpoliciesthatcreated

alackofincentiveforagriculturalproductionwhichgreatlycontributedtofoodshortages.Due

totheirhighdependencyonforeignproducers,theSenegalesegovernmenthasmorerecently

beenmakinggreatereffortstofindsustainableresourcesforfoodandenergy.Senegalhas

nearly19millionhectaresofland,butonly7-12%ofthatlandisabletobecultivated.2-50%of

thearablelandisalreadybeingusedandcultivatedbyfarmersandbusinesses.

Thefoodvs.fueldebatehasexistedaslongastheprospectofbiofueldevelopmenthasexisted.

InthecaseofSenegal,itisquestionabletheirlandcouldsustainalargebiofuelindustrywithout

takingawayfromthealreadyminisculefoodsources.Butitisnotjustbiofuelproductionin

Senegalthatthreatenstheirfoodsecurity.Shouldinternationalbiofuelproductionsincrease,

thepricesoffoodbeingimportedbySenegalwillalsoincrease,becauselandthatwasbeing

cultivatedforfuelwillbeusedforbiofuels.Senegalsstateoffoodinsecuritywouldnotbeable

tohandlehavingtopayevenhigherpricesforimportedfood.Ontheotherhand,enteringthe

emergingworldmarketofbioenergycouldhelpSenegalslong-termeconomyprospectsand

thusallowthemtoaffordfoodimportsortechnologicaladvancesinagriculturalproductions.

TheWorkofUSAID

ToseehowSenegalsnationalfoodbasketaffectsdevelopmentchallengesandopportunities,a

currentU.S.governmentinitiativeforSenegalcanbeexamined:FeedtheFutures2011-2015

MultiYearStrategyPlan.ThisplanfocusesonfoodsecurityinSenegalandcanbeconsidered

whenlookingatbiofueldevelopmentinSenegal.

FeedtheFuturehasapriorityonaMillenniumDevelopmentGoal(MDG)forSenegals

economicdevelopment.ByfocusingondevelopmentpartnersincludingUSAIDtheyareaiming


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toincreaseincomesandimprovenutritionalstatusbypromotingamorediversefoodbasketat

thecommunitylevel.Thisstrategyseekstoimplementaholisticandtargetedapproachto

nutritionandagriculture.Theyarefocusingonathreestaplegrainvaluechain:rice,maize,and

millet.Thesethreecropshavethepotentialforthegreatestcontributiontodevelopmentand

partnerinvestment.

ThesethreeSenegalesestaplesgreatlyinfluencedailydietsinthepoorestregionsandholdthe

greatestpotentialforreducingundernutritionandpovertyandofferageographicfocusto

increasetheimpactoftheUSGovernmentoveralldevelopmentinvestmentsintwozones:the

SenegalRiverValleyandtheSouthernForestZone.ThisUSdonorinvestmentwillcreate

corridorsofagricultureproductivityandimprovetheprivatesectorbusinessenvironment.

Thesetwofocuszonestouchonpartsofnineadministrativeregionsrepresenting42.6%of

Senegalspopulationandincludefiveofthepoorestregions:Fatick,Kedougou,Kolda,Matam,

andTambacounda.

Itisimportanttoconsiderthatthemissiondoesnotselectpeanuts,livestock,ordairy.

AlthoughSenegalwillcontinuetoproducepeanutsasanimportantcropandbenefitnitrogen

fixingrotationtograins,thepeanutoilmarketisdecliningandlosesinthesoybean,sunflower,

andrapeseedoilmarketsarenolongerexpectedtorebound.

USAIDiscurrentlyworkingwithSenegaltoimprovenaturalresourcemanagementwithinthe

twozones.TheUSGovernmentiscreatingseedtechnologyandresearchinSenegalthatis

welcomedbytheSenegalesegovernment.USAIDandSenegalisstrategicallyinvestinginfive

soon-to-befullyfunctionalandscaledcertificationlabsinordertoaddressfoodinsecurity,

productivityandclimatechangeconcernstotheregion.Eachofthesecanbenefitdecision

makingforfeedstockchoicesinbiofueldevelopment.


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Jobs

Indicator12measurestheimpactofabiofuelsindustryhasonemploymentinanation.The

indicatorprimarilymeasuresjobcreation,whilerecognizingthepotentialforjoblossor

displacementduetoabiofuelsindustry.Tomeasurenetjobgain,thewholevaluechaininthe

biofuelsindustrymustbetakenintoaccount.GBEPsuggestscomparingtheworkersneeded

perjouleofenergycontentcreatedtocomparableenergyindustries,inordertoreceivean

accuratemeasureofjobscreated.Measuringnetjobgainmustbeconsideredwithcertain

factorsinmind:Theamountofjobsbothskilledandunskilled,howmanyjobsarepermanent

andhowmanyaretemporary,howanationdefinestemporaryemployment,howanation

definesself-employment,whetherworkdonebyfamilymemberscountsandhowmanyhours

arenecessaryforthatworktocount,whetherthejobscreatedareinlinewithinternational

laborstandards,andwhatpercentageofthejobscreatedareperformedbywomenand

youth.33

Bysomeestimates,Senegalhasa23.7%unemploymentrate.Unemploymentishigherinrural

areas,andishigherformenthanwomen.Currently77.5%ofjobsinSenegalareinthe

agriculturalsector.Theserviceindustryaccountsforanother16%ofjobsinSenegal.Senegalis

anexporteroffishandgroundnuts,itstwomainindustries.Despiteitsprevalence,agriculture

onlyaccountsfor16%ofSenegalsGPD.34

ExpectationsforabiofuelsindustrycreatingjobsinSenegalarehigh,coupledwithlittleconcern

forjoblossanddisplacementasaresultofabiofuelsindustry.Dr.PatrickE.Meyerreports,It

isestimatedthateveryethanolplantinAfricawouldcreateupto100,000jobs.Highhopesfor

biofuel-relatedjobcreationhavebeenexpressedinarangeofcountries,includingColombia,

Venezuela,Indonesia,Malaysia,India,China,Tanzania,Uganda,andSenegal.Thebiofuels

industryinBrazilhasbeenestimatedtohavecreated700,000jobs.Inlinewiththelanguageof

33GBEPIndicatorshttp://www.globalbioenergy.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gbep/docs/Indicators/The_GBEP_Sustainability_Indicator

s_for_Bioenergy_FINAL.pdf34GhanaandSenegalStudyFindings.InternationalLaborOrganization.2009.http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/yen/downloads/psi/psi_study.pdf


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theindicator,Onaverage,biofuelsrequireabout100timesmoreworkersperjouleofenergy

contentproducedthanthehighlycapital-intensivefossilfuelindustry.35Biofuelsindustryjob

creationwouldcertainlyhaveagreaterpotentialforthecreationofjobscomparedtomost

otherenergyindustries.Abiofuelsindustryalsohasthechanceofemployingmorewomen.

Ononehand,thereisgreatoptimismthatjatrophawillprovideemploymentopportunitiesfor

theruralpoor,particularlyforwomen.36Biofuelshaveagreatchanceofcreatingjobsin

Senegal,thenatureofthejobs,whetherskilledorunskilled,temporaryorpermanent,mustbe

measuredaftertheestablishmentofabiofuelsindustryinSenegal.

35Meyer,Patrick.BiofuelReviewPart6:JobCreationandGovernmentSpending.2010http://www.todaysengineer.org/2010/Dec/biofuels-pt6.asp36CaseStudy:Senegal.BillandMelindaGatesFoundation.2008.http://biofuelsandthepoor.com/case-study-

senegal/


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SustainableEconomicGrowth

Netenergybalanceisoneofthemostimportantdeterminantsofeconomicefficiencyfora

country'senergysector.Initsmostbasicdefinition,thenetenergybalanceseekstoidentifythe

countrysconfigurationofdifferentenergyuses,aswellasthelevelsofefficiencyinvaluesof

rawsupplyinputstoconvertedfueloutputsandconsumption.Thisindicatorisapplieddirectly

tobioenergyproduction,enduses,conversions,andpathways.Italsorelatestoresource

availability,importandexporttrends,andwheretotroubleshootinefficiencies.Thus,its

ultimategoalistoprovideusefuldatasystemstoensureoptimalenergybalanceisbeing

achieved,andtounderstandwheretheoutputsarelackingandwhy.

Senegalfacesaparticularchallengeinthatitproducesvirtuallynodomesticenergywhichitcan

exportandisalsohighlyreliantonbiomassandimportedoil.Becauseofthis,constant

modification,improvingtechnology,andreallocationofresourcesisofutmostimportance,as

thecostofhavingtoimportsomuchoilisbarelysustainableforcountrywithsuchalowGDP.It

isidentifiedbyIEAandvariousotherorganizationstobeacountryofparticularvulnerabilityfor

itsenergysecurity,asitsNEIR(NetEnergyImportRation)isabove50%.Thismeansthatits

currentmodelofenergyproductionsustainslessthanhalfthecountry.Ifcalculationsfor

biomasswhichareoneofitsprimaryfuelsareremoved,thecountryhasanear90%NEIR,

whichmeansitsextremelydependentonforeigncountriesforitsenergysupply.

What'smoredauntingisthefactthatnaturalshiftsintheenvironmentharmthebiomass

utilization,whichforSenegalisbasedheavilyinitemssuchasfirewoodandcoal.Forexample,

in2005,approximately2.8milliontonsofbiomasswereusedandconsistedofabout1.1million

tonsfirewoodand315,000tonsofcharcoal.Thesecurityofthefirewoodenergysupplyatthis

pointintimeisthemostimportantfactorinmaintainingoverallenergysecurity.Firewood's

contributiontotheenergybalanceandforeconomicsecurityisthreatenedbyaseriesof

constraintsbydesertification,orlossofhighqualitylandshiftingtodrydesertat

unprecedentedrates.What'sworseisthatprivateentitiesandmonopoliesseektomaintainthe

statusquo,astheyareabletoprofitofftheuseoffirewood;especiallyduringthesedry

periods.


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Althoughbiomassdoestotal45%ofthetotalendconsumptionofenergy,thishighpressureon

biomassresourcescompoundedbydesertificationandoverusehasgeneratedadeficitinthe

availabilityoftraditionalenergysourcesparticularlyforhouseholds.ThusasSenegalhashigh

relianceoncertainfuels,ensuringanoptimalNetEnergyBalanceisonceagainoneofthe

greatestdeterminantsforSenegal'seconomicsuccessandsecurity.Improvingtherationsand

reducingoverrelianceononesectorwillsignificantlystrengthenitseconomyandencourage

furtherinvestmentaswell.TheenergybalanceforSenegaliscalculatedintonsofoil

equivalent(TOE)basedonanetcaloricvaluebasistowidenthecomparisontootherformsof

energy.Alsothetotalprimaryenergysupply(TPES),therawenergyinput,istobecomparedto

thetotalfinalconsumption(TFC),whichindicateshowoptimumtheconversionprocesswasto

usablefuelsanditsendconsumption.BasedoffreportsproducedbytheIEAin2009,Senegal

hadatotalfinalconsumptionofapproximately2.13millionTOE.Thiscomparesto2006where

2.3millionTOEwasthefinalconsumption.Thehigherrate2006ismoredesirableasitreflects

notonlyabetteroutputfromprimaryresource,butalsototalenergyconsumptionmeansa

morevibranteconomyingeneral;alsomeaningthatmorehouseholdshaveaccesstoenergy.

ThisisconsistentwithreportsthatSenegalisonadownwardtrendforenergysecurity,

economic,andsocialvariables,meaningthatit'sstrugglingatthemomenttomakeprogress

andissusceptibletotheongoinginstabilityinAfrica.Theoveralldownwardtrendisalsoreflectedbya5-yeardecreaseinoverallconsumption,whichcanalsobelinkedtoemployment

andotherunstableeconomicfactors.

OnebenefitofthisisthattheTFChasahigherratethantheprimary(indicativeofpositive

energyconversionoutput),explainedbythefactthatimportsgivewaytobettertechnology

andforeignassistanceinrefiningtechnologies.Biofuelsdolackintermsofpositiveconversion

duetolackoftechnology,andin2009hadaTPESof1.21millionTOEcomparedtoitsTFCof

840,000TOE.SincethissectoriswhatSenegalreliesonsodearlyandisalmostentirely

domesticallyproduced,investinginbetterbiofueltechnologywillgoaverylongwayin

improvingtheTFCrateandimprovethelivelihoodfortheSenegalese.


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TofurtherillustratethesituationforSenegal,the2006figurealsotranslatestoatotalof0.2

TOEperhabitant,ascomparedtotheAfricanaverageof0.45TOE.Thismeansthatindividuals

areusinghalfasmuchenergyonaveragecomparedtomostotherAfricannations,further

highlightingtheimportanceofinvestingandoptimizingitsenergysector,especiallywhen

consideringthefactthatonly42%ofthepopulationhasaccesstoelectricity.

AnotherkeydeterminantofSenegalsoveralleconomicsuccessisitsadvantagesand

deficienciesofsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Oneofthehighlyelevatedandimportant

butinefficientareasofSenegalseconomyisitsagriculturalsector.Thefactremainsthatwitha

growingpopulationandoveralldifficulteconomicscenariosglobally,Senegalscurrentmodel

foragricultureisunsustainable.WhileSenegalpridesitselfinitscommunalself-farming

practiceswhichdomuchtohelpstarvationthefactremainsthatSenegallacksamarket-

basedagriculture.

OneofthegoalsofUSAIDhasbeentohelpencouragemarketeconomiesforexportandalso

tradewithinthecountry.Whatfurthercompoundstheproblemisthefactthatsincehigher

educationisntwidespread,mostoftheworkforceisforcedtoworkintheagriculturalsector.

68%ofthelaborforceisconcentratedasfarmers,thusprovidinglittleincentiveformaking

moneywithinthecountryaspricesaredrivenverylow.Wagesalsoremainlowforthefarmers,asthereisnoshortageofthem,andusuallyendupgrowingtoself-sustaininsteadofachieving

monetarybenefits.OfthetotalGDPinSenegal,farmersonlyearn14%ofthetotalGDPandthis

reflectsasevereunsustainablemodelforfuturegrowth.Thus68%oftheGDPfromthis

standpointgoestotheservicesindustry,andreflectstheeconomicbenefitsofeducation.Other

areasoffocusforlong-termsustainabilityincludereformedirrigationpractices,betterhuman

resourcescapacityforthepublicandprivatesector.


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Productivity

ProductivityonamacroscalerevealsmanytransparentissuesinSenegal.Oneofthemost

transparentproblemsinSenegalssocietalmodelisthefactthatwomenarenotexpectedto

earnawageandareencouragedtoremainathome.Theproblemwithisthateachfamilyunit

lacksanadditionalbreadwinner,andmostlabordonebywomenisuncompensated.Alreadyin

highlyindustrializedcountries,genderwagegapsexist.ForSenegalesewomenthisproblemis

madeworsebecausetheyalsohelpwithfarmingbutareoftenunderpaidorhavenoaccessto

thefundsthatareearned.ThefactremainsthatSenegalisoneoftheworld'spoorest

countries,withaboutonethirdofthepopulacelivingoffabouta$1.25aday.Thus,Senegal

shouldfaceitsfearforchangeandrealizeithasnochoicebuttoaccepthelpfromvarious

institutionsforthesakeofitschildrenandtorealizetheconsequencesofitspreferenceforself-

sustenance.Investinginchildren'sfutureshasadirectcorrelationwithallareasofprogressand

istheleadinghealthindicatorforanycountry.

First,Senegalisgreatlybenefitedfrominternationalorganizations,astheseorganizations

realizeitspotentialanditsoverallimportanceforstabilityintheWestAfricanregion.Agencies

suchastheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA)domuchtofocusonthe

progressforchildren.Theyemphasizeimprovementofaccesstoeducationacrossallsectors,

especiallyforgirls.Between2000and2010,theycreated3,447newprimaryschools.This

allowednearly600,000newstudentstoattendanear50%increaseinenrollment.UNICEF

hasalsotakenupthetaskofhelpingschoolenrollmentbyassistingCIDAonadifferentfront-

addressingspecificallythelowerattendanceforgirlsinschools.Asawhole,approximately

500,000childrendon'tattendschool,andofthis,300,000aregirls.Onemajorreasonforthisis

thelackofseparatetoiletfacilitiesforthegirls,andthegirlsareoftenharassedforusingthe

"bush"orattemptingtousethesamefacilities.

Thus,throughtheirBuildingforLifeprogram,UNICEFhashelpedbyestablishingproper

facilitiesaswellaseducatingtheSenegalesepeopleonproperhygiene,peerconflictreduction,

andstressmanagement.Thekeyistoinvestineducationtopromotemoreserviceindustry

jobsandshiftthelaborforceawayfrommainlyagriculture.Atthesametimeitmustaddress


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theproblemofneglectingfemalesattheexpenseofnotonlyhumanvaluebutalsofor

economicsecurityforfamilies.


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BeyondTheIndicators

PotentialImpactsofBiofuel

Thepotentialimpactsofbiofuelontimespentgatheringbiomassaremanifold.Modern

bioenergyservicescanreducetheamountoftimespentbywomenandchildrenonbiomass

collection,improvehealthandreduceillnessandinjuryfromHAP,freegirlstimesotheycan

receiveeducation,andfreewomenstimesotheycangenerateincome.Womensdomestic

burdenscanbesignificantlylightened.Additionally,energyfrombiofuelcouldlightuphomes,

allowingchildrentostudyindoors.

Onecasestudyreflectssomeofthesebenefits.IntheeasternSenegalesevillageofKalom,a

powerplantwasbuiltin2012withfundingfromtheGermanInvestmentCorporationand

GermanmunicipalpowercompanyStadtwerkeMainz.Itisgeneratingmorethanjust

electricity.Poweredbyagriculturalwaste,thestationhaslituphomes,lightenedwomens

domesticburdensandevenputalittlemoneyinsomeresidentspockets.37Thegeneratorat

theplantusesgroundnutshellsanddriedmilletstalksasfuel;farmresiduethatwasonce

uselesshasbecomeasourceofincome,asvillagersgetpaidtocollectthebiofuel.All1,300

residentsofthevillageareconnectedtothegrid,andover80%ofthepowergeneratedisnot

yetbeingutilized.

Accordingtoa2011reportbytheGlobalNetworkonEnergyforSustainableDevelopment

(GNESD),ithasbeenreportedthatmodernbioenergycouldplayasignificantrolein

addressingtheglobalcleancookingfacilitygapwithspecificreferencetobiogasandadvanced

cookstoves.Additionally,thedevelopmentofmodernbioenergy,derivedfromsustainably

derivedbiomassresources,isseenbymostlocalgovernmentsasanalternativeenergyoption

withgoodpotentialtoalleviatepovertyandtocontributetoruraldevelopment.38

37Adigbli,KoffiganE.BiomassPlantLightsUpRuralSenegal.AllAfrica.30August2012.http://allafrica.com/stories/201208310561.html 38Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.2011.5.


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BiofuelforUrbanandPeri-UrbanAreas

Thoughmostrelevanttoruralareas,theseindicatorsalsoapplytoperi-urbanandurbanareas

ofSenegal,makingtheissueofaccesstomodernenergyservicesnationwide.Senegalslargest

citiesarelocatedalongitscoastline;Dakarisbyfarthelargestcityat2,396,800people,

followedbyTouba,Thies,Mbour,andKaolack.39

Thoughaccesstoenergyisgreaterinurbanareasthanruralareas,40%ofpeoplelivinginSSA

citieslackaccesstoelectricity.40Accesstomodernenergyservicesinurbanareas,accordingto

aWorldBankreportentitledEnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAn

EmergingChallenge,iskeytopovertyreduction,asproductiveusesofenergygenerateincome

andprovideemployment.

Meanwhile,citiesacrossAfrica(includingSenegalesecities)willcontinuetogrowdramatically

inthecomingdecades:sub-SaharanAfrica(SSA)isthefastesturbanizingregionintheworld,

andby2025Dakarspopulationisprojectedtogrowbyover50%.

OfthepopulationlivinginSSAcities,about70%liveinslums.41Approximately50%ofthese

slumdwellersareconnectedtoelectricity;theseconnectionsaredangerousand,ofcourse,

hurtutilitiescompanies.42

Asinruralareas,slumdwellersrelyonbiomassastheirprimary

cookingfuel.

Peri-urbanareasarelocatedonthefringesofcities,betweenruralandurbanareas.Theseperi-

urbanareaslackenergyaccess,becauseelectricitycompaniesprovidecoverageforurbanareas

andruralelectrificationagenciesfocusonruralareas.Thereispotential,therefore,for

developmentofsmall-scaleperi-urbanenergysuppliers.

39Senegal:PrincipalCities. CityPopulation.2010.http://www.citypopulation.de/Senegal.html40Putti,VenkataRamana.41Ibid.

42Ibid.


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ThereportEnergyAccessforPoorinUrbanandPeri-urbanAreasAnEmergingChallenge

breaksdownenergyaccesslikethis:

Figure6:

Accordingtothesamereport,barrierstoenergyaccessfortheurbanpoorinclude:

affordability,legaltenure,adequateinfrastructure,educationandawareness,andlackoftrust

betweenserviceprovidersandslumcommunities.Waystobreakdownthesebarriersinclude:

developmentofenergyaccessprograms;multi-stakeholdercollaborationbetweencivilsociety,

utilities,community-basedgroups,andlocalgovernment;aregulatoryframeworkthatsupports

accessfortheurbanpoor;andachangeinmindsetofslumdwellersfromillegalconsumption

tolegalenergyforproductiveactivities.43

UrbanBioenergy

AccordingtotheEnergyStudiesInstitute,urbanbiomasscanproducerenewablebioenergy.

Throughnewbiotechnologies,urbanorganicwaste(urbanbiomass)canbeconvertedinto

43Putti,VenkataRamana.

Rural

-Non-proximate to grid

- Lack of access to electricity

with significant number of illegal

connections

- High un-affordability issues

- High use of traditional fuel-

wood

Peri-Urban

- Low proximity to grid

- Lack of access to electricity

with significant umber of illegal

connections

- High un-affordability issues

- Combination of different types

of traditional biomass (fuelwood,

charcoal)

Urban

- High proximity to grid

- High access to electricity, with

significant number of illegal

connections

- High ability to pay for electricity

- Combination of traditional biomass

and modern energy services


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usefulbioenergy.Dependingontheavailability,characteristicsandenergyneeds,urban

biomasscanbeconvertedintobiodiesel,biogas(includingH2andCH4),bioethanol,and

biocrudethroughwhatanIntegratedBioenergySystem(IBS).44AnIBScanprovidethe

followingbenefits:conversionofurbanbiomasstomultipleCO2-neutralbioenergysources;full

utilizationofresourcesbyconvertingbiomassresiduesintobioenergy;enhancedefficiencyof

individualbioenergyprocesseswithinterfacingtechnology;savedenergyfromtransporting

urbanbiomasstoacentralizedwastedisposalfacility;supplyingofbioenergytoclose-by

consumersinthecommunity;andmitigationofacceleratedglobalwarmingbycapturingCO2

withalgaephoto-bioreactors.45Thissystemcouldalsobeimplementedinremotevillagesand

peri-urbanareas.

WhoBenefits?

Biofuelspresentasignificantopportunityforfarmers,asthedemandforcleanenergyissurging

worldwide.Farmersproductscanmeetthisdemand.Amodernbiofuelsindustrycouldalso

providefarmerswithauseforcropresidueslikesstalksandleaves,whichcanbeconverted

intoethanolorelectricity.Anotherbenefitwouldbethedemandforlaborinbiofuel

production,asbiofuelproductionisaslabor-intensiveasagriculture.Thiscreatesan

opportunityforincreasedjobsandthereforeincomeofpoorruralpeople.

However,therearemanychallengestoproducingbiofuel(outlinedthroughoutthisreport)and

thereisnoguaranteethatbiofuelswillbenefitthepoorestofthepoor.Inordertoreach

Senegalspoorest,theremustbedeliberateattentiontotheirneedsandcarefulmanagement

atalllevelsofproduction.AsJoachimvonBraunandR.K.PachauriwriteintheirreportThe

PromisesandChallengesofBiofuelsforthePoorinDevelopingCountries,

Ascountriesmovetostrengthentheirenergysecuritybyincreasingtheiruseofbiofuels,they

shouldalsoworktoensurepoorpeoplesandsmallfarmersparticipationinthecreationofa

moresustainableglobalenergysystem.Withsoundtechnologyandtradepolicies,win-win

44RenewableEnergyfromUrbanBiomass.EnergyStudiesInstituteBulletin(2:1).June2009.

http://www.esi.nus.edu.sg/news/2012/02/09/renewable-bioenergy-from-urban-biomass45Ibid.


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solutionsthatis,positiveoutcomesforthepooraswellasforenergyefficiencyarepossible

withbiofuelsindevelopingcountries.46

OtherSocialImpacts?

Lackofaccesstomodernenergyservicesaffectsnotonlyeconomicproductivityandthe

environment,butisastumblingblocktotheadequateprovisionofotheressentialbasic

servicessuchashealthcareandeducation.47Accordingtoa2011reportbytheUnited

NationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),recentempiricalevidenceindicatesthataccessto

modernenergyinpoorcommunitiesprovidesthebasisforalleviatingpovertyandproducing

ruraldevelopment.

Donecorrectly,thereportsaysbioenergycancontributetoprovidingcleanenergyaccessin

ruralareasandthushelpcreateeconomicopportunities,generaterevenue,andcatalyzerural

development.OnecasestudyconductedinMalidemonstratessomeofthesocialbenefitsthat

canarisefromaccesstobioenergy.Mali,likeSenegal,isalsolocatedinWesternAfrica;the

villagestudiedislocatedinsouthernMali,about200milessoutheastofSenegal.

CaseStudy:GaraloVillageElectrification,Mali

TheGaralovillageelectrificationrepresentsacommunity-levelapproachtoruralenergy

challenges.Thebudgetwas$765,000andtheinitiativeprovideselectricityto250subscribers,

privatehouseholdsandcommunityfacilities.Italsoprovideselectricitytopower42public

streetlights.Thegeneratorusedisahybridpowerplantthatrunsformorethanfivehoursdaily

ondieselandjatrophacurcasoil.

46VonBraun,JoachimandR.K.Pachauri.ThePromisesandChallengesofBiofuelsforthePoorinDevelopingCountries.InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute.2006.14.47Bioenergy:Thepotentialforruraldevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.2011.8.


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Socialbenefitsoftheprojectinclude:

- Considerableeducationalprogressforstudentswhocannowreadatnightintheirhomes;

48

- Localorganizationalstructuressuchasajatrophacooperativeandavillageelectricitycommitteetorepresentthepopulationinenergyquestions,andtheconstructionofa

powerhouseandoffices;

- Increasedinformationandcommunicationtechnologiessuchastelevisions,radios,andpersonalcomputersinthevillage;

- Income-generatingactivitiesforfarmersandwomensgroupswhoparticipateinjatrophaseedproduction.

Whilethebenefitsofusingjatrophaasafeedstockforbiofuelproductionaredebatable,a

similarlocalbioenergyprojectcouldgreatlyadvancedevelopmentinSenegalandprovide

numeroussocialbenefits.

48UNEP,11.


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III. FeedstockProfilesOurcontinentshouldhaveasitsvocationtobecometheprimaryworldsupplierofbiofuels,

[]Thissteptodevelopmentcleanenergyisallthemorepertinentbecauseitcallsfor

immenseareasofcultivableland,whereAfricabenefitsfromaclearadvantage,49

-PresidentofSenegalAbdoulayeWade,Reuters,July28,2006.

BiofuelsandSocialConflict

Thoseinterestedintheopportunitiesforbiofueldevelopmentappreciatetheinterestmadeby

Africanpolicymakerswhenrealizingthepotentialroleofbiofuelsasrenewableenergy.

Biofuelspresentopportunitiesforincreasingruralincomesandreducingpovertywhen

managedcarefullyfromaperspectivetoincludetheinterestsofpeoplewhoselivelihoods

dependontheland.50Withadequateplanning,clearlyidentifieddevelopmentoutcomes,and

environmentalandsocialimpactassessmentsaswellasacommitmenttoimprovingthelivesof

theruralpoor,biofuelsmightbecomeanappropriateopportunitytopursueinorderto

revitalizeruraleconomies.Importantly,abiofuelsdevelopmentstrategythatfavorsthepoor

alsorequiresprovisionsforsmallfarmerstogainaccesstomarketsandtraining.51These

provisionsforsmallfarmersincludesocialfactorssuchas:accesstoland,localfoodsecurity,

inclusionofsmallholdersandincomegeneration,communitydevelopment,energysecurityand

localaccesstoenergy,andgenderequity.

Ourstudyyieldedthreeprimefeedstockconsiderations:

A. PeanutsB. SweetSorghumC. Sugarcane

49Africancountriesunitetosetupbiofuelassociation.MorningStar.29July2006.http://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/news/content/view/full/3295250Wolde-Georgis,Tsegay&MichaelH.Glantz.BiofuelsinAfrica:APathwaytoDevlopment.InternationalResearchCenterforEnergyandEconomicDevelopment.http://www.ccb-boulder.org/wp-

content/uploads/2013/01/biofuels-in-africa.pdf 51LodeMessenmaker,op.cit.


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A.PeanutsEnvironmentalIndicators

PeanutsareacashcropandanexistingindustryinSenegal.52Duetotheir15-18%oilcontent,

asabiofueltheyarehighlyregardedforbiodiesel.Biodiesel,ingeneral,isregardedashighly

interchangeableandabletobeblendedwithtraditionalpetroleum-baseddiesel.53

InaccordancewiththeGBEPEnvironmentalindicators,wehaveresearchedtheareasofGHG

emissions,soilquality,harvestlevelsofwoodresources,water-useandefficiency,water

quality,biologicaldiversity,andlanduseandland-usechangerelatedtobioenergyasthey

relatetopeanuts.

Carbonisamongthegreenhousegasesemittedbypeanutsduringtherefiningprocess.

However,comparedtotraditionalfuelsources,peanutsreduceGHGemissionsbyabout78%

(notincludingland-usechanges).54PeanutbiodieselGHGemissionsoverallreduceoverhalfthe

amountofemissionsoftraditionalfossilfuels.55

Peanutsgrowbestinloose,well-drained,sandysoil.56Thistypeofsoilistraditionallyfoundin

dry,warmclimatessuchasthatofthePeanutBasininSenegal.

57

ThePeanutBasiniseastofDakarandaccountsforabout30%ofSenegalslandarea.

58PeanutsinSenegalalreadyaccount

forroughly4,638.7ha,about40%ofthearablelandinSenegal.Althoughpeanutsarethemain

cropscurrentlyinthePeanutBasinregion,therearesomecottonandsorghumcropsbeing

growninthatareaaswell,mainlyasrotationcropswithpeanuts.Changingthislandfrom

peanutstoanothercropcouldbeverynegativetothecountrysGDPbecausepeanutsmakeup

52AgricultureinSenegal.Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Senegal53Biodiesel.Wikipedia.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel54Biodiesel.CenterforClimateandEnergySolutions.http://www.c2es.org/technology/factsheet/biodiesel

55Ibid.

56Howpeanutsaregrown.ThePeanutVan.http://www.peanutvan.com.au/how-peanuts-are-grown.php57SenegalAgriculture.EncyclopediaoftheNations.http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Senegal-AGRICULTURE.html58NaturalresourcesmanagementandsustainabledevelopmentinthePeanutBasinofSenegal.SenegaleseAssociationforthePromotionoforganicAgriculture.http://www.aspab.interconnection.org/projects/p2-en.html


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about60%ofagriculturalexportsforSenegal.Also,growingmorepeanutscouldaffectfood

suppliesiftheyaregrownonarablelandthatismoresuitableforfoodcrops,suchasriceor

wheat.

Peanutsarerotatedwithcropslikecotton,sorghum,andsugarcane.Forpeanutstoprosper

theyrequireabout1to2inchesofwaterperweek.59Therearenopollutantsreleasedby

themintothesoil.Nitrogenandironbasedfertilizersareknowntoincreaseyields,butthere

areknowncasesofnitrogenbeingleakedintowaterways.60Whenthesepollutedwaterways

reachtheoceanorlakestheycreatewhatareknownasdeadzones.Thesedeadzonesare

areasnearcoastlineswherenitrogenhasabsorbedoxygeninthewaterandcreatesanexpanse

ofwaterthatisinhabitabletomarinewildlife.ThiscouldgreatlyimpactSenegalbecausethey

alsohavealargefishingindustrythataccountsforalargeportionofexportsandGDP.61

Ifprocessedintobiodiesel,peanutswouldreducewoodgathering,especiallyifdiesel-powered

stoveswerebeingused.Also,becausebiodieselisnearlyinterchangeablewithfossilfueldiesel,

theprospectofpeanutbiodieselisliabletomakepositiveimpactsinruralandurbancentersif

theyusedieselpoweredgeneratorstoprovideelectricity.62

59Howpeanutsaregrown.60Gohari,AliAbdzad&SeyyedAliNoorhosseiniNiyaki.EffectsofironandnitrogenfertilizersonyieldandyieldcomponentsofpeanutinAstanehAshrafiyeh,Iran.American-EurasianJournalofAgriculturalandEnvironmental

Science,9(3):256-262,2010.http://idosi.org/aejaes/jaes9(3)/5.pdf61Biello,David.Fertilizerrunoffoverwhelmsstreamsandriverscreatingvastdeadzones.ScientificAmerican.14March2008.http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fertilizer-runoff-overwhelms-streams62Biodieselstovenowwerecooking.BiodieselEnergyRevolution.http://www.biodiesel-energy-revolution.com/biodiesel-stove.html


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SocialIndicators

Access

AccordingtoFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),Senegalsyieldforpeanutsin2010was

1.08metrictonsperhectare,producingatotalof1,286,860tonsofpeanuts.63However,in

2011theiryieldwascutinhalfto527,528tonsduetoadrought.

ForsustainabledevelopmentstrategiesinSenegalitisbesttodeterminethedegreeofland-

tenureofSenegalspeanutfarmersbylookingatthePeanutBasin,whichisnearly30%ofthe

nationslandareaandaccountsforaroundthree-quartersofSenegalsgrainandpeanut.64

AccordingtoastudybyUSAID,themajorityofSenegalspopulationlivesandfarmsinthisarea.

ThisregionistheheartofSenegalsagriculturedevelopment.Socialfactorsinthisareatobe

consideredarethedifferentsubgroupsofthepopulationwhichincludeethnicgroups,men,

women,children,aswellastheinclusionoffarmers,theirtraditionalknowledgeofsurrounding

areas,andtheirparticipationandchoiceinthedevelopmentprocess.

Jobs

AccordingtoSUNEOR,thelargestfoodcompanyandexportofpeanutoilinthecountry,

peanutsaretheengineoftheruraleconomyandtheirproductionaccountsforaround40%of

cultivatedland,takinguptwomillionhectares.Thepeanutsectorprovidesemploymentforas

manyasonemillionpeople.

However,thepeanutindustryiscurrentlyfacingfinancialtroublesthatdirectlyaffectthe

incomeofthesmallfarmer.AstudyproducedbytheInternationalIslamicTradeFinance

Corporation(ITFC)inpartnershipwiththeInternationalTradeCentre(ITC)showsthatglobal

demandforpeanutoilhasbeengraduallydecliningoverthepastfewyears,duetothe

increasedavailabilityofcheaperpalmandsoybeanoilsubstitutesandtheirregularsuppliesof

Africa,CaribbeanandPacific(ACP)exportingcountries.Duetothisdropinpeanutdemand,the

63FAOSTAT.FAO.http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor

64NaturalresourcesmanagementandsustainabledevelopmentinthePeanutBasinofSenegal.


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localoilseedcrushersareunlikelytoprocesslargeramountsofgroundnutsregardlessofthe

increasesinproduction.

AccordingtoUDAForeignAgricultureServicereportissuesJuneof2011,Groundnutswere

deliveredtofactories,yetverylittlemoneyreturnedtofarmers.Forsomecommunities,such

asthevillagesSikatourm,Koumbole,Kavil,andSanguel,intheheartofthegroundnutbasin,

largestocksofgroundnutshadbeenleftinthehandsofproducers.Itwasreportedthatinthe

ruralcommunityofFandene,morethan70%ofproducerscouldnotselltheirgroundnuts.65

ThesefinancialissuesarearesultoftroublesbetweentheGovernmentofSenegalandtheoil

processingcompanies.

Income

InadditiontofinancialinstabilitywithintheGovernmentofSenegalandSengalstopthreeoil

processingcompanies,ComplexeAgro-IndustrieldeTouba(CAIT),NouvellesValorisation

d'ArachideduSenegal(Novasen)andSuneor(whosecompanysexportsofpeanutoilaccounts

for45-50%oftheworldmarkettransactions),manyfarmersarenotbeingpaidenoughoron

time.66Aspartofofficialmarketingchannels,farmersusuallydelivertheirpeanutgrainstooil

processingfactoriesusingprivateoperatorsinchargeofstockingandtransportation(OPS).

However,duetoinsufficientfundsin2011,processingcompanieswereunabletosecure

financesnecessarytopurchaseandprocessthecrop.ThisledtomanyOPSnoreceivingtheir

money,andinreturntheycouldnotpayfarmersfortheirgrains.

Manyfarmershavereceivedbonimpays,alsoknownasI.O.U.s,fordeliveredgrains.The

OPSandthefarmersaresupposedtobepaidwhentheoilseedproducersreceivemoremoney

fromthebank.However,sincegroundnutplantingbeginsduringtherainyseason,aroundJune

orJuly,thismeansthatunlessfarmersfindadifferentsourceofrevenue,theywaithalfayear

orlongerbeforebeingpaid.

65http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Oilseeds%20and%20products%20Annual%20Update%

202011_Dakar_Senegal_6-30-2011.pdf66SuneorSA.InstitueofDevelopingEconomiesJapanExternalTradeOrganization.http://www.ide.go.jp/English/Data/Africa_file/Company/senegal04.html


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AccordingtoaUSDAreportin2012,halfwaythrough2010/11,a$32.4milliondebthadbeen

createdbyoilprocessors-leaving60%ofthefarmerswithoutpaymentforthe140,000MTof

peanutscollectedatthattime.

Manyfarmers,whopreviouslyreceivedbonimpays,haveturnedawayfromthemarketing

systemorganizedbythestate.Insteadofworkingwithprivateoperatorsinchargeofstocking

andtransportationofgroundnuts,thefarmerssellthegroundnutsdirectlytoindividual

informalprivateoperators(OPI)usuallyatabetterpricecomparedtotheonefixedbythe

governmentofSenegal.

ABBCnewsarticleindicatedthattheUnionofAgriculturalCooperatives(UNCAS),whichlooks

aftertheinterestsofpeasantfarmersinover4,500villages,hasbeenlookingintonewtransportationsystemstohelpfarmerschannelgroundnutstoproductioncompaniessince

2002.Theydontnothavethenecessarycapitaldoachievethis.Changesareneededtoprovide

fornewchannelstotheSenegalesefarmer.67

Peanutsandfoodsecurity

PeanutsaremainlyexportedratherthanconsumedbySenegal,andwillnotaffectthenational

foodbasket.Althoughthehouseholdfoodbasketiscomplementedbygroundnutsand

cowpeas,cerealsrepresentapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthedietaryenergysupply.58%ofthe

Senegalesedietconsistsmainlyofcerealssuchasmillet,sorghum,andrice,andfish,themain

proteinsource,accountsfor47%ofproteinconsumed.68

GenderEqualityImpactingFoodSecurity

Tofocusontherolebothmenandwomenhaveinthepeanutsector,acasestudyfrompeanut

plantsinAsiaisexamined.Datafromthecasestudyprovidesinsightstothespecificrolesmen

andwomenplayinthepeanutproductionandhighlightsthedifferentvalueseachgendercan

67Simpson,Chris.PeanutbluesinSenegal.BBCNews.24May2002.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1964795.stm68SenegalFY2011-2015Multi-YearStrategy.FeedtheFuture.2011.http://www.feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/country/strategies/files/SenegalFTFMulti-YearStrategy.pdf


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providefortheirfamily.Womenareheavilyinvolvedintheagriculturesectoratalllevelsfrom

workinthefieldtopostharvestprocessingandmarketing.

AstudydonebyaThaiAgronomistfromKU,presentedresearchontheRoleofMenand

WomeninPeanutProductionandPost-harvestTechnologyinThailand.Dr.Jungjun

Duangpatraspresentationhighlightstheimportanceofthepeanutcropinsmall-farm

productionthatdependsonfamilylabor.Accordingtoherresearch,forhouseholdfood

securityinthepeanutsector,thewomen'sroleseemstobemoreimportantthanthatof

men.69

Dr.PatriciaC.Jimenez,fromFarmHomeResourcesManagement(FHRM)alsopresented

researchonPeanutsinHouseholdFoodSecurityandExtensionStrategiestoEnhanceWomen'sRoleinPeanutSector.Afterinterviewswithfemalepeanutproducersinthecentral

partofthePhilippines,herstudiesrevealedwomenfullyparticipatedinallpeanutproduction

activities,suchasinplowing,harrowing,planting,weeding,harvestingandpost-harvest

activitiessuchasdryingandstoring.Womenseffortswereveryinvolvedinpeanutprocessing

andincome-generatingtosupportfamilyincome.

RoleofFamiliesinthePeanutProduction

AsummaryfromDr.Jimenezprovidedthefollowingstatementonafamilymodelinthepeanut

business:Somefamiliesdotask-sharingintheirpeanutbusiness,fatherandsondothe

cookingwhilethemotheranddaughterdothepeanutvending.Thelocalgovernmentunitsand

theRuralImprovementClubsofthePhilippinesprovideeducationonthenutritional

importanceofpeanutinmanagingdietarydeficiencies.Therearealsoprogramstoinclude

peanutproductsinchildren'sfeedingprogram.Thismodelprovidesaglimpseintodifferent

keyfactorsthatsupportbothafamilyandtheproductionofpeanuts.70

69Duangpatra,Dr.Jungjun.ResourcePapers:Summaries.FAOCorporateDocumentRepository.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac794e/AC794E06.htm70FAOCorporateDocumentRepositoryProducedbyRegionalOfficeforAsia&Pacific


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EconomicIndicators

Productivity&Efficiency

Usingpeanutsasafeedstockforbiofuels,inparticularbiodiesel,isperhapsamoneylosing

endeavor.Calculationusingwhatinformationwasavailableshowsthatproducingbiodiesel,

soldat$3.06pergallon,willnotbringprofitorbreakevenwhencomparedtofarmingcost;

however,theproductioncostsarebasedonaUSfarmingmodelincludingmachineryand

irrigation.Mostlikely,mostSenegalesefarmsdonotuseheavymachineryorirrigation.

AccordingtoanarticlebyRoyRobinsonthedollarpergallonsubsidyisdrivingthebiodiesel

industry.Evenwithsoyoil,thepriceisnotcompetitivewithdiesel,withoutthedollarpergallon

subsidy.71

Agovernmentsubsidycouldensuretheprofitabilityofpeanutsasafeedstockfor

biofuels.Otherwise,Robinsondismissestheprofitabilityofpeanutsasafeedstockbysaying

thattheproblemispeanutoilontheworldmarketismorevaluablethansoyoil,making

conversiontobiodieseleconomicallyimpractical.72AccordingtoIndexMunde,thepriceof

peanutoilontheworldmarketis$1924.00,orroughly$6.02pergallon,opposedtobiodiesel,

whichisaroundthepriceofdieselwhichcurrentlystandsat3.04pergallon.73More

informationisneededaboutthescaleofpeanutfarminginSenegalandcurrentglobaland

Senegalesepriceanddemandforpeanutoilandbiodieseltosaywithconfidencethatusing

peanutsasafeedstockforbiodieselisanon-profitableendeavor.

Peanutsarebestusedfortheproductionofbiodieselasopposedtootherformsofbioenergy.

SenegalesepeanutcompanySuneoralreadyproducespeanutoil,which,accordingtoBoiled

PeanutWorld,isonlyafewstepsawayfrombecomingbiodiesel.74TheRobinsonarticleputs

71Robinson,Roy.PeanutBiodieselPromisingButCostlyAlternativeFuel.RenewableEnergyWorld.November8,2006.http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2006/11/peanut-biodiesel-promising-but-costly-

alternative-fuel-46465 72Ibid73IndexMunde.PeanutOilvsDiesel-PriceRateofChangeComparison.March13,2013http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanut-oil&commodity=diesel74BoiledPeanutWorld.PeanutBiodiesel.2012.http://www.boiled-peanut-world.com/biodiesel.html


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peanutbiodieselproductionat123gallonsperacre,or303.93gallonsperhectare.75Suneor

producesaveragesaround900,000tonsto1milliontonsofpeanuts.76Expandingproduction

andusingtheexcessforbiodieselwouldcertainlyhaveapositiveeffectonenergyuseon

Senegal,asbiodieselcanbeusedinregulardieselengines.Anewinitiativeofa100hectare

peanutfarmwouldproducearound30,393gallonsofbiodiesel.Asthescaleofthefarming

endeavorincreasesodoestheimpactthatbiodieselwouldhaveonfueluseinSenegal,any

productionofpeanutoilbiodieselwouldhaveapositiveenergyimpactaspeanutoilbiodiesel

hasapositivenetenergybalanceinproduction.

75Ibid

76SuneorSA.


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B. SweetSorghumEnvironmentalIndicators

Sweetsorghumhasashort4-monthgrowingseason,andcanberotatedwithsugarcane,

resultingin2harvestsperyear.77Eachgrowingseasonrequires12to15inchesofrain,or24to

30inchesoverthecourseoftheyear,whichalignswellwiththe27inchesofrainSenegalgets

peryear.Putanotherway,twoharvestsperyearrequire8000m3ofwaterperhectare.Sweet

sorghumgrowsinavarietyofsoiltypesanddepths,andcantoleratesomeamountofsalinity.78

Littlenitrogenisneededinfertilizertogrowthefeedstock,only100to200kilogramsper

hectareperyear,whichmeansthatlessnitrogenwillleakintothewaterduringprocessing.

Greenhousegas(GHG)emissionsareamajorconcerninthebiofuelindustry.Biofuelfrom

sweetsorghumhaveshownareductionofGHGsinMozambique,withasavingpotentialof

1515.99to1203.58CO2eqperyearwhenusedforelectricityenergygeneration.79Inaddition,

firstandsecondgenerationbioethanolcontributestothemitigationofGHGs.However,sweet

sorghum-basedethanolrankspoorlyagainstfossilfuelinregardstoacidification,

eutrophication,photochemicalsmog,andozonedepletion.80

Biofuelfromsweetsorghumarestillbeingresearchedanddeveloped,buttheoutcomeslook

promising.Eachpartofsweetsorghumcanbedistilledandusedtoproduceethanol.Per

hectare,thegraincanproduce760liters,juicefromthestalkcanproduce1400liters,and

residuescanproduce1000liters.Thebagasseisusedforfeed,pulp,andfertilizer,andmost

commonlyco-generatesheatandpower.Thereisalsoapossibilityfortheproductionof

pellets.81

77Elbehri,Aziz,AnnaSegerstedt,andPascalLiu.BiofuelsandtheSustainabilityChallenge.FoodandAgricultureOrganization,2013.21.78Sorghumfactsheetinfavorites79BiofuelsandtheSustainabilityChallenge.20. 80Ibid.,21

81Ibid.,19.


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Comparedtocrudeoil,sweetsorghumisextremelyefficient.Forbiofuelyields,sorghum

producesabout.21to.6tons(420to1200pounds)perhectare.Theproductionofethanol

fromgrainsandsugarandtheproductionofgreenelectricityfromsurplusbagasseresultsin

thesavingof3500litersofcrudeoilequivalentsperhectareofcultivationarea.Theproduction

offoodfromgrainsandethanolfromjuiceresultsinthesavingof2300litersofcrudeoil

equivalentsperhectareofcultivationarea.Dependingontheyield,productionmethod,and

landcoverpriortosweetsorghumcultivation,,about1.4to22kilogramsofCO2eqaresaved.82

SorghumisalreadygrownincentralandnorthernSenegalwiththepotentialforgrowthinthe

southernhighplains,reducingtheconcernforlanduseandland-usechange.Becausesorghum

isnotusedforfood,itdoescontributetothefoodsecuritydebate,anditcanbeintercropped

withlegumestoreducethefertilizerrequirementandaddtothefoodsupply.Overall,sweet

sorghumisanenvironmentallyviableoptionforbiofuelinSenegal.

82Ibid.,20.


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SocialIndicators

LandTenure

AccordingtoUSDAsagriculturalresearch,sorghumsyieldofdrymatteraverages5.8tonsper

acreandethanolyieldaverageof198gallonsperacre.Theoptimumnitrogenfertilizerrate

requiredtomaximizeprofitis90poundsperacre.83Achievinggoodyieldsmayrequirehigher

inputsofpesticidesandfertilizersaswellastillageandirrigation.Newvarietiesandethanol

beingattainedfromlignocellulose-richstalksafterfermentationofthejuicehaveestimated

ethanolyieldsof760litersperhectarefromthegrainand1,400litersperhectarefromthe

residues.Biofuelyieldsrangebetween0.21and0.6tonsperhectare.

TheFAOsaysthatallcomponentsoftheplanthaveeconomicvalue.Thepotentialusesofall

partsofsorghumsfeedstockincludethegrainbeingusedasfood,theleavesforforage,the

stalk(alongwiththegrain)forfuel,andthefiber(cellulose)eitherasmulch,animalfeed,or

fuel.Morespecifically,thebagasse(cropresidueleftafterjuiceextraction)canbedriedand

burnedtofuelethanoldistillationandtheseresiduesbeingusedforanimalfeed,paper,pulp,

fuelpellets,orfertilizerwiththemostcommonfunctionbeingforco-generationofheatand

power.84

Thesimplicityofethanolproductionfromsweetsorghumcouldlenditselftoon-farmorsmall-

cooperativeeffortsatfuelmaking.Ethanolproductionplantscouldchoose,withsome

additionalequipment,tomakeseasonalrunsofsweetsorghumjuice.Thecropsstalkscontain

upto75%juice,varyingbetween12-23%insugar.85Althoughsweetsorghumhasanobvious

advantagebecauseitssugarcontentrequiresfewerandcheaperenzymesforconversionthan

otherleadingmaterialssuchascornstarch.However,thejuiceisperishableandneedstobe

fermentedimmediately.

83USDAForeignAgricultureServicedatabase.http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdQuery.aspx

84SweetSorghumResearch.UniversityofNebraskaLincoln:DepartmentofAgronomyandHorticulture.

http://agronomy.unl.edu/sweetsorghum85Ibid.


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Becausetherearenocurrentcommercialharvestersdesignedspecificallyforthecrop,sorghum

istypicallyprocessedintosyrupforhumanconsumptionthroughlabor-intensive,farming

practices.AccordingtoreportsofaU.S.basedcompanyworkingwithsweetsorghumcalled

BioDemensionsInc.,themajorityofthesweetsorghumbeinggrowntodayisusedtomake

sorghumsyrup,andgrownandproducedbyfairlysmallfarmerswhosellitlocally.86

BioDemensionsInc.isabusinessdevelopmentcompanythatharvests,crushes,andprocesses

sweetsorghum.Aportionofthesugarisfermentedtoethanol,whilethebagassewillbe

evaluatedforbothfuelpelletsandanimalfeed.Thehydrousethanolcreatedinthisprocessis

usedinanindustrialenginetopowertheon-siterollmill,whichextractsthesweetsorghum

juicefromthecane.

Sorghumisahigh-yielding,nutrient-efficient,anddroughttolerantcropthatisvitaltomeeting

theworldsgrowingdemandforsustainableagriculturalsystemsandcanbecultivatedonover

80%oftheworldsagriculturalland.Currently,sorghumisbeinggrowninthecentraland

northernregionsofSenegal.87Withanagriculturalpopulationof8,734farmersin2010,43.61%

offemalesareactiveinagriculturalwork,while56.39%aremale.Ofthepopulationactivein

agriculture,56.98%arefromruralvillages,while43.02%arefromurbanareas.88Smallholder

farmersinSenegalpredominantlyproducesweetsorghum.Althoughproductioncostsare

about50%lowerforlargerbiofuelplants,studiesshowthatsmall-scaleproductionisalso

viableandshowsgreatpotential.

Access

Comparedtotraditionalbiomasscollection,morepeoplewillhaveaccesstoenergyusingsweet

sorghumasabiofuelthroughgeneratedbioelectricity.Duringtheprocessofbiofuel

production,surplusbioelectricitycanbegeneratedfromsweetsorghumbagassesubstitutesfor

electricityoriginatingfromvariousfossilenergycarriers(i.e.coalandnaturalgas).Additionally,

86Greving,Bill.Thepotentialforsweetsorghumbiofuels.EthanolProducermagazine.15July2010.http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/6844/the-potential-for-sweet-sorghum-biofuels/87Senegal:Droughtcausesworriesinpeanutproducingregion.FAO:ProductionEstimatesandCropAssessment

Division.3September2002.http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad2/highlights/2002/09/senegal/senegal_peanuts.htm88FAOdatabase.http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#VISUALIZE_BY_AREA


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numerouscarbondioxideemissionscanbeavoided.Whentheentirebagasseisconvertedinto

second-generationethanol,theenergyforthefirst-generationethanolconversionoriginates

frometernalfossilenergy.89

Alongwithsweetsorghumgeneratingbioelectricity,thefeedstockhasthepotentialof

integratingwithsugarcanetosupplybothethanolandelectricity.Successfulproductiontrials

demonstratingthishavetakenplaceinEurope,Asia,andAfrica.Whenintegratingsweet

sorghumwithsugarcane,thefibrousresiduesobtainedfromtheextractionofsugarsfromthe

stemshavesimilarpropertiestosugarcanebagasse,whichcanbeusedinasimilarwayto

produceelectricity,aswellasprocessheatandpower.90

IntheFAOs2013study,theproductioncostsofsweetsorghumwere50%lowerforlargerbiofuelplants.However,otherstudiesshowthatsmall-scaleproductioncouldbeviableand

thatthebioenergygeneratedfromthisfeedstockhastheabilitytoreachpeopleinruralareas.

However,thetransportationandstorageofsweetsorghumpresentnumerousobstacles,

includinghowthebiomasswillbetransportedtoalocationforprocessing.Transportationand

storageposeachallengeforsmallholdersbecausesorghumneedstobeprocessedrapidlyafter

harvest(itlosessugarcontentifnotprocesseswithinthreeweeks)andthebulkinessofthe

feedstockwiththecropbeingover70%watercontent.Duetoreasons,thereisaneedforsolidinfrastructureandefficientorganizationinsorghumproduction.

Timeuse

IfbioelectricitycouldbegeneratedandsuppliedtoruralhouseholdswithinSenegal,sweet

sorghumcouldreducethetimespentcollectingbiomass.Forexample,ifethanolfromsorghum

canbeconvertedintofuelpellets,timetraditionallyspentgatheringmaterialswouldbe

significantlyreduced.Thisconversionispossiblethroughabioenergyfuelpelletmillfor

feedstock.TheHenanBrandMachineryCorporationlocatedinChinacurrentlyexportspellet

89Biofuelsandthesustainabilitychallenge.69.

90Ibid.,21


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millsfor$800-20,000dollars.Themillbreaksdownrawmaterialssuchassorghumstalkforfuel

pe

Senegal Sustainable Bio-fuel Research Study 2013

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