Seminar 2012, Recently Edited

8/2/2019 Seminar 2012, Recently Edited

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THE ROLE OF

THE ROLE OF AGRO FORESTRY SYSTEMS FOR CARBON SEQUESTERATION

MESFIN TSEGAYE

GRADUATE SEMINAR

SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES

Programme: Agroforestry and Soil Management

HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

WONDO GENET COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE

GRADUATE SEMINAR


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MARCH, 2012


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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ..........................................................................................................................iAcronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................iWhy Carbon sequestration is important? ..................................................................................1Carbon sequestration: Conceptual frame works in view of agro forestry systems ...................5

Below and above ground biomass potential of Agroforestry systems for Carbon Sequestration . 9Carbon sequestration in above ground biomass ......................................................................9Carbon sequestration in below ground biomass ....................................................................10

Comparative advantages of Agro forestry systems for carbon sequestration ............................ 11Conclusion .................................................................................................................................16References .................................................................................................................................17

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GHG Green House Gases

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change

Mg Mega Gram

Mt Mega Ton

NMA National Meteorological Agency

NMSA National Meteorological Services Agency

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's

SOC Soil Organic Carbon

SOM Soil Organic Matter

Tg Tera gram

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1. Introduction

To date, searching cost effective methods to sequester carbon is emerging as a major

international policy goal in the context of increasing concerns about global climate change.

Hence, the role of Agroforestry as an option for carbon sequestration gets attention because of

carbon storage potential in its multiple plant species and soil as well as its applicability in

agricultural lands and in reforestation. The potential seems remarkable; however, it has not yet

been adequately documented and properly exploited. If Agroforestry systems are properly

designed and managed, it could be effective for sequestering carbon. Like in other land-use

systems, the extent of C sequestration will depend on the amounts of C in standing biomass,

recalcitrant C remaining in the soil, and C sequestered in wood products (Montagnini and Nair,

2004).

Why Carbon sequestration is important?

Obviously, the entire scientific community agrees that global Warming is really taking place

right now, and has taken centre stage in the international arena over the last decade and it is

now becoming a serious, perhaps even a thorniest societal issue and has produced profound

changes in many earth systems and consequently to biological and human activities that are

sensitive to the climate (IPCC, 2007; Nordhaus, 2007). This is due to increase in temperature of

the earths near-surface air and oceans in recent decades; the major reason for this is increase in

atmospheric concentrations of the so-called greenhouse gases (GHGs). More importantly, CO2

is the principal one causing this threat as a result of human activities such as burning of fossil

fuels (carbon-based) fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas and deforestation (IPCC, 2007).

NOAAs Annual Greenhouse Gas Index (AGGI), which tracks changes in radiative forcing

from greenhouse gases over time, shows that radiative forcing from greenhouse gases has

increased 21.5% since 1990 as of 2006. Much of the increase (63%) has resulted from the

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contribution of CO2. The contribution to radiative forcing by CH4 and CFCs has been nearly

constant or declining, respectively, in recent years. Almost all of the increase is due to human

activities (IPCC, 2007).

Human induced climate change due to emission of greenhouse gases is one of the major

environmental problems of the 21st century. It is a frightening challenge due to several factors:

Climate change will have impacts on human health, terrestrial and aquatic ecological systems,

and socio-economic systems (e.g. agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and water resources (IPCC,

2001b).

Due to climate change, the agricultural sector in developing countries has been among the most

vulnerable. At the same time, climate change is yet an additional threat to urgent rural

development demands including food security improvement, poverty reduction and provision

of an adequate standard of living for growing populations. Furthermore, the impact of climate

change is also affecting developing countries more severely than developed countries because

of their generally low adaptive capacities (IPCC, 2003).

Developing countries in general and least developed countries like Ethiopia in particular are

more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate variability and change. For example, due to

the effect of climate, Ethiopia has experienced both dry and wet years over the last fifty five 55

years. Years like 1952, 1959, 1965, 1972, 1973, 1978, 1984, 1991, 1994, 1999 and 2002 were

dry while 1958, 1961, 1964, 1967, 1968, 1977, 1993, 1996, 1998 and 2006 were wet years.

Studies made at NMA have shown that there is a link between ElNino and LaNina Phenomena

and Ethiopian rainfall (Haile, T., 1988, Korecha, D., and Barnston, A.G, 2007, Gissila, T. etal,

2004). With regard to temperature changes, studies revealed that there has been a warming

trend in the annual minimum temperature over the past 55 years. It has been increasing by

about 0.37 0 C every ten years.

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For the IPCC mid-range (A1B) emission scenario, in Ethiopia the mean annual temperature

will increase in the range of 0.9 -1.1 C by 2030, in the range of 1.7 - 2.1 C by 2050 and in the

range of 2.7-3.4 C by 2080 over Ethiopia compared to the 1961-1990 normal. A small

increase in annual precipitation is also expected over the country.

Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to drought. Most of the country is prone to drought (NMSA,

1996, Degefu, W., 1987). Drought is the single most important climate related natural hazard

impacting the country from time to time. Drought occurs anywhere in the world but its

damage is not as severe as in Africa in general and in Ethiopia in particular. Due to low

adaptive capacity. Recurrent drought events in the past have resulted in huge loss of life and

property as well as migration of people. Furthermore, the other climate related hazards that

affect Ethiopia from time to time are flash and seasonal river floods. Areas in the Afar Region

along the Awash River, in the Somali Region along the Wabi Shebele River and in the

Gambela Region along the Baro-Akobo River, in the Southern Region along the Oomo-Gibe

River, Bahirdar Zuria and Fogera areas along the Abbay River in the Amhara Region are prone

to seasonal river floods (Endalkchew, B, etal, 2004).

The major adverse impacts of climate variability in Ethiopia include:-.

Food insecurity arising from occurrences of droughts and floods;

Outbreak of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, water borne diseases (such as cholera,

Dysentery) associated with floods and respiratory diseases associated with droughts;

Land degradation due to heavy rainfall;

Damage to communication, road and other infrastructure by floods;

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Major floods which caused loss of life and property occurred in different parts of the country in

1988, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996 and 2006. For example in the 2006 main rainy season (June-

September), flood caused the following disasters (NMA, 2006):

More than 250 people died, about 250 people were unaccounted for and more than 10,000

People became homeless. Due to the Diredawa flood, more than 364 people died, and more

than 6000 people were displaced due to flooding of about 14 villages in South Omo.

More than 16,000 people were displaced in West Shewa.

Similar situations also occurred over Afar, Western Tigray, Gambella Zuria and the low lying

areas of Lake Tana.

To date, Climate change is the burning issue, for example Schmidt et al., (2010) indicated that

it is caused by the obvious gases such as that water vapour accounts for about 50% of the

Earth's greenhouse effect, with clouds contributing 25%, carbon dioxide 20%, and the minor

greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols accounting for the remaining 5%.

Since carbon dioxide accounts for 80% of the non-condensing GHG forcing in the current

climate atmosphere, carbon dioxide therefore qualifies as a major GHG which is being the

principal control knob that governs the temperature of Earth. The increasing carbon emissions

into the atmosphere have drastically modified water and energy balance on the earth and

peoples livelihood (IPCC, 2000, 2001; Houghton, 2002, 2003, 2005).

IPCC (2007) reported that the average surface temperature of the Earth is likely to increase by

1.1-6.4C by the end of the 21st century, relative to 1980-1990, with a best estimate of 3.2 to

1.8-4.0C. The average rate of warming over each inhabited continent is very likely to be at

least twice as large as that experienced during the 20th century.

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From the aforementioned discussions it is obvious to realize that, Humans are at a difficult

crossroad. Carbon dioxide is the lifeblood of civilization. It is also the direct cause for climate

disaster. Consequently, it needs an urgent way out of this climate disaster through direct human

intervention to enhance the capacity of carbon sinks (carbon sequestration) to absorb GHGs,

especially CO2 from the atmosphere.

In this regard, agro forestry plays it part for carbon sequestration. However, the long term

solution for climate change is neither a one-off intervention nor a stand-alone activity.

Keeping this in mind, the central theme of this review is to show the role of agro forestry for

carbon sequestration by undertaking literature reviews.

Carbon sequestration: Conceptual frame works in view of agro forestry systems

Agro forestry is a sustainable land use system, and encompasses a wide range of working trees.

It includes: fertilizer trees for land regeneration, soil health and food security; fruit trees for

nutrition and income; fodder trees that improve smallholder livestock production; timber and

fuel wood trees for shelter and energy; medicinal trees to combat disease, particularly where

there is no pharmacy; and trees that produce gums, resins or latex products (Garrity, 2004).

Interest in agro forestry in line with climate change has increased since a report by the Inter-

Centre Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001). Consequent to this, land use change from

annual crops to agroforestry is one of the most promising approaches for sequestering carbon

through CDM.

Carbon sequestration potential of land-use systems, including agroforestry deals the

fundamental biological processes of photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition. As Nair

(2003) carbon sequestration is the difference between carbon gained by photosynthesis and

carbon lost or released by respiration of all components of the ecosystem. Carbon (C)

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sequestration is also the mechanisms to reduce CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and

depositing it in a reservoir. Consequently, the role of trees is so immense to capture and store

atmospheric CO2 in vegetation, soils, and biomass products (Malhi et al., 2008; Ning Zeng,

2008).

Besides, Carbon sequestration involves the net removal of CO2 from atmosphere and storage in

long-lived pools of C. Such pools include the aboveground plant biomass; belowground

biomass such as roots, soil microorganisms, and the relatively stable forms of organic and

inorganic C in soils and deeper subsurface environments, and the durable products derived

from biomass (e.g., timber).

Kumar et al., (2009) reported that Carbon sequestration, i.e. capturing and securing carbon that

would otherwise be emitted and remain in the atmosphere might be a suitable alternative to

control atmospheric emission of carbon. Plants capture CO2 during photosynthesis and

transform it to sugar and subsequently to dead organic matter. As the trees grow, they sequester

carbon in their tissues, and as the amount of tree biomass increases, the increase in atmospheric

CO2 is mitigated.

Houghton et al. (1998) conceptually, trees are considered as a terrestrial carbon sinks. As trees

are the integral components of agroforestry, they can contribute a lot for Carbon sequestration.

Dixon (1995) reported that there are two primary beneficial attributes of agroforestry systems

in terms of C sequestration: (1) direct near-term C storage (decades to centuries) in trees and

soils; and (2) a potential to offset immediate greenhouse gas emissions associated with

deforestation and subsequent shifting cultivation. Accordingly, some projections have been

made on the role of agroforestry in reducing the C emission from tropical deforestation.

According to his report, at a global scale, it has been estimated that agroforestry systems could

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be implemented on 585 to 1275 106 hectares of technically suitable land, and these systems

could store 12 to 228 Mg C ha1 under the prevalent climatic and edaphic conditions.

Watson et al.( 2000) also indicated that the rates of C sequestration in the tropics for

smallholder agroforestry systems ranging from 1.5 to 3.5 Mg C ha1 yr 1 and can be

projected to tripling of C stocks in a twenty-year period, to 70 Mg C ha1.

Kursten (2000) reported that incorporating trees in agricultural production systems like in agro

forestry increase the amount of carbon stored in lands serve for agriculture, at the same time

allowing for the growing of food crops. C sequestration can be estimated based on long-term

carbon storage potential of all components in the system including detritus, soil, and forest

products.

The above discussions can be cemented by the following points: (i) Soil fertility may be a

limiting factor in realizing carbon sequestration potential of planted forests; (ii) mixed stand of

plants might be more efficient than sole stands in carbon sequestration; and (iii) C sequestration

estimates should be based on a holistic view of the long-term carbon storage potential of all

components in the system. Thus, agroforestry outweigh in all above respects than other land

use systems.

Kumaret al., (2009) reported that agro forestry sector has received recent attention for having

the potential to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect.

Average carbon storage by agroforestry practices has been estimated to be 9, 21, 50, and 63 Mg

C ha1 in semiarid, sub-humid, humid, and temperate regions (Schroeder, 1994).

Tree-based land-use systems sequester CO2 through the C stored in their biomass (CIFOR,

2000; Roshetko et al, 2008).

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As reported by different scholars Land-Use Change and Forestry report of the IPCC, agro-

forestry offered the highest potential for carbon sequestration (Nairet al., 2009).

Table 1 Potential carbon storage for agro forestry systems in different eco-regions of the world.

Carbon storage values were standardised to 50-year rotation.

Table 2 Estimated C sequestration potential through agroforestry practices in the USA by 2025

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Eco-region System Mg C ha-1

Africa humid tropical highlands agro-silvicutural 2953

South America humid tropical lowlands agro-silvicutural 39102

Dry lowlands 39195

Southeast Asia humid tropical lowlands agro-silvicutural 12228

Dry lowlands 6881

Australia humid tropical lowlands silvopastoral 2851

North America humid tropical highlands silvopastoral 133

154

humid tropical low lands silvopastoral 104

198

Dry lowlands silvopastoral l90175

Northern Asia humid tropical low lands silvopastoral 1518

Source: Nair and Nair (2003)

Source: (Albrecht and Kandji, 2003)


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Below and above ground biomass potential of Agroforestry systems for Carbon

Sequestration

Carbon sequestration in above ground biomass

Through the establishment of tree-based systems, on degraded pastures, croplands, and grass-

lands, the time-averaged C stocks in the vegetation would increase as much as 50 Mg C ha1

in 20 years, whereas the soil stocks would increase only 5 to 15 Mg C ha1 (Palm et al., 2000).

World Agro forestry Centre (2007) indicated that, even though agroforestry is not primarily

designed for carbon sequestration, it contributes for the mitigation of climate change by

reducing CO2 emissions from the atmosphere and storing it in the above ground biomass, most

carbon enters the ecosystem via photosynthesis in the leaves, consequently carbon is

accumulated in the aboveground biomass.

Long-term sequestration of CO2 occurs efficiently when carbon is stored in woody plants;

hence agroforestry has greater benefits than other farming systems. Studies suggest that

through agroforestry carbon sequestration could be increased from 2.2 Up to 90-150 tonnes of

carbon per hectare over a potential area of 900 million ha worldwide.

Table 3 Carbon content in above ground biomass of 10 plantation-tree species at 10 years of

age at la Selva, Costa Rica

9Source: F. Montagnini (unpublished data).


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From the above table one can understand that, as trees are the integral components of agro

forestry they play significant role for carbon sequestration through their above grounds

biomass, such as foliage, branches and stem.

Carbon sequestration in below ground biomass

The potential of agro forestry practice for carbon sequestration in below ground biomass, for

example soil-carbon-sequestration has attracted attention besides other environmental benefit

(Lal 2004; Montagnini and Nair 2004; Mutuo et al. 2005; Jimenez et al. 2007; Nair et al. 2009;

Haile et al. 2008).

As far as carbon sequestration is taken in to account, soils have good deal of contribution in

global carbon budget and greenhouse effect. Thus, they contain 3.5% of the earth's carbon

reserves, as compared with 1.7% in the atmosphere, 8.9% in fossil fuels, 1.0% in biota and

84.9% in the oceans (Lal, 2004a).

Moreover, agroforestry systems improve soil quality, through organic inputs from crop residues

and tree litter, resulting in the maintenance or increase of SOM (Young, 1997). Higher levels of

SOM improve crop yield and stabilize soil C.

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Plantation species Stand density

(trees ha1)

Carbon content (Mg ha1)

Foliage Branch Stem Total

Balizia elegans 764 0.6 2.5 17.3 20.5

Calophyllum brasiliense 551 5.8 10.8 29.7 46.3

Dipteryx panamensis 670 5.3 15.4 82 102.6

Genipa americana 278 1.1 4.8 17.5 23.3

Hieronyma alchorneoide 660 2.4 13.5 43.8 59.7

Jacaranda copaia 596 0.8 1.6 42.5 44.9

Terminalia amazonia 462 4.7 14.6 63.2 82.5

Virola koschnyi 610 2 4.1 31 37

Vochysia ferruginea 556 2.7 5.7 30.6 39.1

Vochysia guatemalensis 551 2.2 5.2 55.5 62.8


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Paul et al. (2002) and Sauer et al. (2007) reported that carbon sequestered in soils under agro

forestry from biomass turnover would be greater than under conventional agricultural

operations. Soil carbon in agro forestry systems is from sequestered sources (e.g., biomass

turnover) and external sources deposited within the plantings.

Bangroo et al., (2011) Soil C sequestration helps off-set emissions from fossil fuel combustion

and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long-term plant

productivity.

Comparative advantages of Agro forestry systems for carbon sequestration

As compared with other land use systems, agro forestry systems provide multiple co-benefits

along with carbon sequestration. IPCC Technical Paper-V Gitay et al., (2002) and Korn et al.

(2003) reported that, agro forestry was identified as an activity that can sequester carbon and

have beneficial effects on biodiversity because it creates more biological diverse systems than

conventional agricultural lands

Time and again, most tropical forests are being cut down largely for agricultural expansion to

feed and to satisfy the energy demands of the burgeoning population; it is unlikely that

productive agricultural lands will be reforested to accumulate carbon. On the other hand, in

agroforestry the accumulation of carbon in woody biomass need not compete with agricultural

production and little or no loss of agricultural productivity. Hence, agroforestry system

outshines other land uses (Unruh et al., 1993).

In natural forest stands, nutrients are efficiently cycled with very small inputs and outputs from

the system, and the soil surface is continuously protected by one or more plant canopies. In

most agricultural systems, the opposite happens; nutrient cycling is limited, while inputs and

outputs are large, and the soil is not continuously protected by a plant canopy. Agroforestry

encompasses the continuum between these two extremes, and emerging hard data show that

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species in agroforestry systems provide added value to soil processes when the competition for

growth resources between the tree and the crop component is adequately managed,Such added

value occurs more commonly in sequential, as opposed to simultaneous, agroforestry systems,

because the competition for water, nutrients and light between the crop and tree component is

separated over time (Sanchez, 1995).

Moreover, agro forestry would be one of the interesting areas of research in land-use related to

carbon sequestration, for various reasons. First, the surface involved is considerable and the

rate of carbon gain is relatively high (0.23.1 t ha1 yr1 according to IPCC. Second, it can

mitigate the important CO2 emission resulting from deforestation. Third, it could provide a

sustainable system from technical, ecological and economic points of view.

FAO (2004); Kumar (2006) indicated that woody perennial based production systems, such as

agroforestry, have the potential to sequester large quantities of CO2 and thereby partially offset

the global warming process.

Besides, agro forestry systems are believed to have a higher potential to sequester C than

pastures or field crops (Sanchez, 2000; Roshetko et al., 2002; Sharrow and Ismail, 2004; Kirby

and Potvin, 2007).

For example, if agro forestry is established immediately after slash and burn agriculture,

35% of the original forest C stock can be regained (Sanchez, 2000).

Studies indicated that carbon sequestration projects relied on single species plantations or fast

growing exotics that are effective in storing carbon, could produce other adverse effects (IUCN

and UNFP, 2002). Such plantations can often result in substantial losses in stream flow, and

increased salinization and acidification (Jackson et al., 2005).

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Figure 1 carbon sequestration potential of different land use systems in millions of tonnes per

year.

From the above figure, as a land use system agro forestry can havegreater potential to sequester

around 600 Mt C year-1, which is larger than other systems.

Moreover, Agroforestry system can sequester large amounts of carbon while providing

additional benefits to the landowner and society (Brandle et al. 1992b; Schroeder 1994; Ruark

et al. 2003; Montagnini and Nair 2004; Peichl et al. 2006). The amount of carbon sequestered

per unit area by agro forestry is substantial due to the large amount of carbon sequestered in the

woody biomass.

Dossa, et al., (2008) also has shown the biomass C stock in the shaded coffee agro forestry

system was higher than that in the open agricultural system.

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Figure 2 Summary of carbon stocks in different ecosystems of the humid tropics. Data are from the

benchmark sites of the Alternatives to Slash and Burn Programme of the Consultative Group for

International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)


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Agro forestry do not only accumulate carbon on site but conserve carbon in existing forests by

reducing the need for fuel and agricultural land normally obtained from neighbouring forests

(Baldock, 2007).

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Table 4 carbon stocks ( MgC ha-1) in improved fallow systems adapted from Albercht and

Kandji, 2003, and assuming that biomass is 47 % C.

Several studies on soil carbon dynamics have indicated increased soil organic matter after a

few seasons of tree planting on degraded soils. The above table indicated on-farm trials

conducted in the sub-humid tropics of Togo and Kenya. Soil organic carbon accretions through

improved fallow were estimated between 0.73-12.46 Mg per hectare depending on sampling

depth. Costs and amounts of carbon stored per hectare, according to the agro forestry

mitigation scenarios.

The impact of climate change is affecting developing countries more severely than developed

countries not the least because of their generally low adaptive capacities (IPCC, 2003).

Beyond the apparent mitigation effects of agro forestry systems as outlined above, agro forestry

offers a potential as biomass energy provider. Producing firewood from arable or grazed land

presents interesting opportunities in CO2 mitigation through the substitution of fossil energy

consumption by using wood as energy sources and the protection of existing forests and other

natural landscapes.

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A number of observations indicated that the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) offered by

the Kyoto Protocol could reduce rural poverty by extending payments to low-income farmers

who provide carbon storage through land-use systems such as agro forestry (Smith and Scherr

2002).

Conclusion

As to the scope of this particular seminar review, different literatures pertinent to the present

topic indicated that there are now strong evidences, which show that the earths climate is

changing dramatically. This is mainly because of the increasing concentration of greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere in general and CO2 in particular. Besides, Different reports across the

world also mentioned that warming of the climate system is mainly due to anthropogenic

factots as indicated in the above points. These days, it is time to take care of the roof over our

heads, i.e. the atmosphere and we should not forget that the floor under our feet, because the

impact is directly or indirectly associated with them.

As far as human induced climate change is concerned, carbon sequestration through different

agro forestry systems might be a suitable alternative to control atmospheric emission of carbon

by reducing CO2 concentration from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir. However,

Carbon sequestration measures should not be a stand-alone undertaking. Its objectives should

be in accord with other international action programmes. Such as Convention on climate

change: reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, Convention on biodiversity: reduction of

deforestation and preservation of natural habitats, Convention on desertification: increasing

vegetative cover and prevention of land degradation and special programme for food security:

sustainable agricultural practices toward increased food production through maintenance of soil

fertility.

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