Sell - Religious Orders of Islam

8/8/2019 Sell - Religious Orders of Islam

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PRINTED AT THl !lB. P. C. K. PRESS; VEPERY, MADRAS

1908

PREFACE

THE main portion of this hook formed achapter in my "Essays on Islam," publishedin 1901. I have made many additions to itand have added information more recent thanany 1 then possessed. I have published it inthis separate form, in order that attentionmay be more directly drawn to an importantmovement in Africa. Although increased interest is being taken in African Missions, Idoubt whether there is yet any adequateconception of the seriousness of the position,or any true realization of the extreme urgencyfor immediate action. I trust this simpleaccount of a lit tle-known movement may bea means of developing sti ll more interest inthe affa.irs of all Societies engaged in missionwork in Africa.


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THERELIGIOUS ORDERS

OF ISLAM.

THE two mos t active elements in Muslim landsin the opposition to social, political, and religiousreforms and to th e advance of modern civilizationare the 'Ulama, th e men who may be said to formthe lawyers and the clergy of Islam, and thevarious Orders of Darweshes. The 'Ulami< speakin the name of the sacred Law, eternal, unchange-able. The Darweshes look upon Islam as a vasttheocracy, in wbich their spiritual leaders are thetrue guides. I t is conceivable that the 'Ulamamight be b rough t to see tha t, if some concessionswould save a Muslim Stat e from ruin or extinc-tion, it might be to their advantage to m!1ke them.The D!1rwesh treats with scorn !1ny attempt atcompromise, and looks upon !1 Muslim govern-ment, which in the least dep!1rts from the lawsand practices of the early Kh!111fate, as disloyal-to the great principle that Islam is a theocracy.


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2 ,THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE DARWESHESIts first rulers were neither kings nor princes:they were preachers, Khalffas, or vice-regents ofthe Prophet. In the opinion of the Darwesh, asit was then so it should be now. Muslims shouldbe governed by an Imam, who is both a religious and a political leader, whose chief business it is to maintain the laws of Islam intact , toexecute justice according to thei r standard, toguard the frontiers, and to raise armies for thedefence of the Faith. He should be so manifestlya ruler that the words of the sacred Traditionwould be realized, namely, that "He who dieswithout recognizing the authority of the Imamof the age, is accounted dead and is an infidel."It is the special function of the great ReligiousOrders to keep this principle active and to teachthe people its vast importance. The most religious of the Muslim people see that the civilization of Europe, now finding its way into Muslimlands, is a very great danger, and they seek tomeet and to counteract it by a large development of the Religious Orders. Throughout theEast these confraternities, like all which influenoes the religious life of Islam, are conservativeand hosti le to modern civilization and Europeaninfluence. In Afrioa and in parts of Asia thishas resulted in a great pan-Ish'mic movement,s till actively going on, and having for i ts objeotnot merely "resistance to the advance of Chris-

tianity; but also opposition to the progress of allmodern civilization:' 1 Since the beginning ofthe nineteenth century, this same movement hasgrown with great rapidity. Under varions pretexts, innumerable agents of the Religious Ordershave gone throughout the Muslim world. Theyhave adopted many disguises. Sometimes theyare students, preaohers, doctors; sometimes artisans, beggars, quacks; but they are everywherereceived by the people and protected by themwhen they are suspeoted by the rul ing powers.A Frenoh writer, one of the best living authoritieson the subjeot, says that the reform movementin I slam dur ing the n ineteenth oentury has ledto a great iucrease in the Religious Orders. Themovement has not depended on the orthodox ex-pounders and authorized keepers of the canonlaw, but, on the contrary, has relied on the l e a d e r ~of the mystical seots, such as the Bah, the Mahdland the great Darwesh leaders. The most aotiveelement in Islam is now to be found amongstthese Darweshes, and from them has prooeededan aotive propaganda., especially in Africa. Thisauthor sums up a long review of the whole position by saying that" all this constitutes a gravedanger to the civilized world," 2

1 Count Ca.stries, "L' Islttm," p. 220.j;J CharteIier, "Iahtm a.u xix;. Sieole," p.187.-


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6 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM AOTIVITY OF THE DARWESHES 7and his two chief officers were publicly executed,the abolition of the Order Was proclaimed, manyof it s monasteries were demolished, and even theDarweshes connected with it were compelled tochange their distinctive costume, but the Ordersurvived and is powerful still. These men werenot lacking in courage. One of them stoppedSultan Mal:tmud at the gate of Galata and seizingthe bridle of his horse said: "Giaonr Padishah,ar t thou not yet content with abominations?Thou wilt answer to God for all thy godless.ness, Thou ar t destroying the institutions of thybrethren, thou revilest I slam, and drawest thevengeance of the Prophet on thyself and on us,"The Sul tan called on his guard to put this 'fool'away. " I a fool," said the Darwesh, "it is thouand thy worthless counsellors who have lost theirsenses. Muslims to the rescue I " This DarweshWas executed the next day, and it is said thatthe following night a soft light was seen overhis tomb. He is now venerated as a sain t.In Algiers, the work of the Darweshes has beenmore manifest since 1830. The Emir 'Abdu'l

Yenioherec, its figures sha.ll be fair "nd shining, its a.rmredaubta.ble, its sword sharp. I t shall be victorious in allba.ttles and ever return triumpha.nt." In memory of this,the Janisse.ries wore a. white felt ca.p, ha.ving a piece ofthe sa.me ma.terial penda.nt on their backs. These troopswere very closely attaohed to this Order, and this mayhave exoited the animosity of Snltan Ma1)mUd against it.

Qiidir owed much of his popUlarity and successto the intrigues and support of the members ofthe Qadiriyya Order. The insurrections in 1864,1871, 1881 were due in grea t par t to the actionof these Darweshes. In the last the membersof the Ral:tmaniyya Order also took part andst irred up the Kabyles to active opposition. Theywork in secret and influence the masses of thepeople. I t is very difficult to counteract theirinfluence, for whenever, after a local insurrection,. the French have destroyed the Ziiwiyahs,1 ormonasteries, of the Religious Orders, whose mem-bers helped to stir up strife, it has been foundto be invariably the case that it has had no effectwhatever in lessening either the number, or eventhe influence of the Darweshes; but has ratherincreased both.'In Egypt the Darwesbes are very numerousand are regarded with respect. In Turkey thepeople believe in them, for, on the whole, the13ympathy of the Darweshes is with the masses.The upper classes fear them. Some of the Darwesh leaders are broadminded men, in spite of1The,e are called Takyo. in Turkey. They are often-erected nea.r or over the gra.ve of a. Bha.ikh renowned forhis piety. Grea.t ca.re is ta.ken of these tombs, costlyc loths cover, and la.mps burn before them. Visitorsmake vows and present offerings with a. view of obtainingtempora.l a.nd spiritual rolief.2Rinn, II Marabouts et Khouarn ," p. 109.


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8 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE 'ULAMA AND THE DARWESHES 9much about them that seems intolerant . On theother hand, the system affords oppor tuni ty formuch that i s low in morals, especially when thehigher degrees are reaohed and the res traints oflaw are set aside : when creed and formulas ar elooked upon as fetters to the inspired and exaltedsoul.The temporal power has some hold on theOrders. In Egypt t he person who exercises onthe part of the State that authority i s oalledthe Shaikhu'IBakri, and is always a descendant.of the Khalifa AbU Bakr. The Khalifa 'U maralso has a r epresentat ive who is the head of theEm\niyya Darweshes. The Khallfa 'Uthman hasnone, as he left no issue. The Khallfa 'Ali hasone oalled Shaikhu'sSMat, or Shaikh of theSayyids. Eaoh of these is said to be the "oooupant of the sajjada, or the prayer carpot, ofhis anoestor." The head of an Order is also oalledthe occupant of the saj jada which belonged tothe founder of i t. This saj jada is looked uponas a throno. In Turkey the Shaikhu'IIsh\m exeroises a oer ta in amount of control over the headsof a Monastery, though he has probably littlepower with the actual head of the Order. As arule, the attitude of the Darweshes to the f i r m ~ n s .of the Sultan and to the fatwas of the Muftisis one of resistance. Many of the Orders add totheir prestige in the sight of the masses by the.

nobility of the origin of their founders, who wereSharlfs, or lineal desoendants of the Prophet.The great enemies of the Orders are the 'Ulama.

and the official clergy. The feeling is not unlike that between thll secular and the monasticclergy in the middle ages. The 'U!ama, in orderto maintain their own prestige, oppose the Darweshes and appeal to th e orthodox standards ofthe Faith; but the Darweshes do the same.The lat ter reproach the former with being meretime-servers, to which the retort is made thatthe Darweshes are heretical in doctrine andscandalous in practice. The mass of the Muslims,who do not care for theological disputations, area tt racted to the side of the Darweshes. Theyare not shocked at the dancing and the music;they look upon the Darweshes as the chosen ofGod, the favouri tes of heaven. Othe rs again,who look upon some of their practices as border.ing on the profane, yet , on the whole, respeotthem. The ignorant man also soos that, thoughdestitute of the eduoation needed for an 'Ulama,he may without i t acquire in an Order a rel igiousstatus and power equal to that attained to by hismore orthodox and learned brother.'

II I A man who does not belong to the IUla.ma sees witha. sense of surprise that, thanks to the support of the Orderto whioh he belongs, he oan withoutinstruotion a.nd in spiteof the obsourity of his birth a.oquire religious power


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10 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE MUQADDIMS 11With this general introdnction we can now Po,sson to consider the constitution of the Orders in

more detail. The organization of eo,ch is practically the same. The head of o,n Order is thespiritual heir of its founder, and is called theShaikh. In some Orders he is a direct descendantof the founder; in others he is chosen by thebrotherhood. He is the Grand Master, and hasunlimited power. He is also, as a rule, a man ofconsiderable diplomatic skill whose influence oftenextends beyond the limits of his Order. Hiscounsels and correspondence are transmitted togreat disto,nce with a marvellous rapidity-" Thevoice of the Shaikh influences also all thc tribesin Algeria. Mystical in form it is difficult for outsiders to understand, but, known as it is byorientals, it preaches obstinate resistance to allprogress, to all civilization." 1 The Shaikh residesin one or other of the Zawiyahs belonging to theOrder. As a rule, the Shaikh is the husband ofone wife and only marries a second, when thefirst is childless and when his office is hereditary. The Shaikh is supposed to have a perfectknowledge of the sacred law and to p o s s ~ s s skillin dealing with those who place themselvesunder his guidance. He is looked up to with theequal, a.nd sometimes superior, to that of the Ma.ra.bonts."Hl1noteau et Letourneux, If Les Ka.byles," Vol. ii, p. 104.

1 Comte de Castries, H L'Istam/' p. 224.

greatest venemtion; in fact, absolute obedienceto t he Shaikh is the very essence of the system." 0 my master, you have taught me that youare God and tha t all is God," says one disciple.The founder of the B a s ~ o l . m i y y a Order said:" Glory be to me! I am above all things." Theadoration of the Mas ter too often to,kes the plo,ceof the worship of God, o,nd the ideal life of aDarwesh is one which ia in absolute conformityto the will of the Shaikh. In every word o,ndin every o,ct the disciple must keep the Masterpresent to his mind.Subordino,te to the Shaikh are the Muqaddims,who act under his orders and have cer ta in functions allot ted to them. A Muqaddim is placedin charge of each Zawiyah. In a diploma conferred by the Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Order on al\fuqaddim, the instructions given to the membersof the Order are that they should yield implicitobedience to the Muqaddim, who has the confidence of the chief of the Order; that they mustnot enter upon any enterpr ise without his knowledge. Obedience duly rendered to him is asobedience to the Shaikh, who is descended fromthe saint of saints, 'Abdu'I-Qol.diri'I-JJIani. Thespirituo,l guide is called a PIr.

From o,mongst the Ikhwan, ' or brethren of theOrder, certain persons are selected o,s assistants1 A modern form of this is Khouan.


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14 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE MARABOUTS 15Yassfn found them lax in their religious life. Hisstern discipline was not acceptable to them and healmost gave up the work in despair ; but Ya1).ya re-monstrated with him and said: "You came hereat my request, let us go to a secluded place and de-vote ourselves to the service of God for the rest ofour days." Accompanied by nine faithful Kedalis,they retired to an island in the river Senegal wherethey bui lt a ribat and gave themselves up to a lifeof devotion and austere practices. As a punish-ment for and as a preven tive of sin, they punishedthemselves by bodily torture. The news soonspread that all thi s was done to obtain Paradiseand a number of people flocked to the rib:\t.Thus a nucleus was formed of a brotherhood,bound to severe rules of penance and of strict ob.ligation to obedience. When about one thousandpersons had joined the community, 'Abdu'llll.h ibnYassin addressed them thus: "Is it not yourduty to fight those who refuse to submi t to yourdoctrines? " "Command wha t ever you please"said his disciples. Then, "Return to yom ownpeople and urge them to be converted. I f theyrefuse, we will make war on them till God shalljudge between us. He is the best of judges."The tribes were still obstinate and so force wasemployed and in the end the people were bythis persuasive argument soon converted. Yahyawas the spiritual and temporal head of these

converts,l and the Marabouts, as his disciples werenow called, made !tn expedition into the $a1).are.,subjugated the King of Sigilmasa and ravaged thecountry far and wide. They thus became a power-ful body and under Yusuf ibn Tashfln extendedthe ir conquests , founded the c ity of Marrakeshin A.D. 1062 and cap tured Fez in A.D. 1069, whieheity, suceessfully besieged eight times in the firstfive hundred years of it s existenee, has only onceknown a foreign master, when the Turks tookpossession of i t in 1554 without a siege.The name Marabout quickly became synony-mous with that of Waif, or saint, to whom prayersmight be addressed and offerings made.The credulous believe that the Marabout cancure all evils and bless every enterpr ise. I f he

produces catastrophes, brings epidemics and con-demns the sinful to eternal fire, he can also assistthe weak, protect the great and strengthen thefaith of the humble. They believe that from hissanctuary the Marabout sees, hears, knows allthings, and brings to nought the plans of thosewho are careless about religion. All th is he doesby a marvel lous superna tura l power, as a truesaint , as an intermediary between God and man,as thc depository of the Qur'anic lore.1 'Abdu'lldh died in A.D. 1059, but the work he begancontinued to grow a.nd groat numbers of tho Berbersbecame Muslims.


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THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE MARABOUTS ITThe growing power of the Ma,rabouts marked a,

distinct phase in the evolution of Islam in Africa.M. Albert Reville sa,ys: " I f humanity at a oertainmoment 01 religious development needs humangods, it is perhaps in Mul;ll1mmadanism that thisidea draws most of it s force and appea,rs mostevident. In any case the Ml1rabouts ha,ve pla,yedand still play marvellously well the part of humangods. Their success depends entirely on thefundamental idea of the Musalman religion thatman is powerless to find the right wa,y-the truth.From that to Ma,hdiism and aga,in to the Mar-aboutic worship the dista,noe is quickly crossed:'1

The early Marabouts took care to ensure thattheir successors should enjoy the ma,terial aswell a,s the spi ri tual advantages of the powergained over the masses of the people. ' The super-stition of all classes brings to the descendant oftheir special saint gifts for their advice. Theiramulets and talismans are used hy, l1nd their1 Quoted by Dopant at Coppolani, If Les Confl'crics Roligieuses Musulmanes," p, 148.2 The late Bishop Crowther in the OJLS. II Intelligencer"for 1880, pp. 253-4, ga.ve a. very gra.phio description of thowork of these men, of the lucrative profession of writingcha.rms and of some of their methods of propagating Islftm.One wa.y is :_1{ When childless womon, 01' those who have

lost their children in infancy, a.pply for these oharll'ffi, th e(Muslim) priest a.lways imposes it as a. condition of. successthat the future children must be l\Iul].arnmad3l11s."

supposed mimcles a,re worked on beha,lf of theirsupplicants. Ma,ny sa,intly legends a,rose and thl'power of the Ma,mbout is viewed with mysterious",we. In his gmve he is supposed to stil l possessthe mca.ns of protecting those who venera,te hismemory, and of punishing the forgetful a,nd theungmteful, who neither ohey his teaching nor aidhis successors.

There a,re two sta.ges in this religious develop-ment in Africa,. First, the Ma.mbouts propa,ga.teda,mongst the Berbers the idea , of the sl1nctity ofthe saint and of the divine gmce tmnsmitted to thedescendants of the PTOphet, and 'finally mouldedthe thoughts of those thus infiuenced by them.In political life, therefore, the power of the Ml1r-about plays l1 distinct pl1rt. Secondly, comes thereligious Brotherhood. Though apparently re-speeting the positions conquered by the l\1a,mbouts,the Brotherhood goes on, little by little, to gaingTOund by the practices of asceticism, contem-pla.tion, hysterical mysticism and the force of ll,combined association.The founders of the Orders were strictly ortho-dox; that is, they not only followed the Qnr 'an,but also accepted the Sunna, the record now pre-served in the Traditions of the Prophet 's wordsand deeds, as a divine rule of a,ith and pra,otioe.Certa,in sa,yings of the Prophet himself on thispoin t were accepted by them as authoritll,tive,2


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15 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE ORIGIN OF AN ORDER 19~ u c h a ~ " Conform to my Sunna. He who followsthat ~ h o w s that he loves me, he who does notis not a Muslim." The founders of the moremodern Orders follow the special teaching ofsome famous theologian, who oan show that hispar ticu lar instruc tion was based on that of menuf t he earliest days of Islam. Their declaredobject is, by their efforts and pious pract ices , tobring the faithful to the eternal blessing promisedto all who walk in the "good way" revealed byQ",briel to Muhammad, who has also given tothe founders of the Orders all knowledge coneerning it. The Shaikhs, therofore, can nowlead the disciple on, stop by stop, to a pure and. moral s ta te , abounding in that spiritual perfec-tion, which draws tho creature to tho Creator.Thus they maintain that their object in foundingthese Orders is the glory of God, the extensionof Islam, and the salvation of men. They elaimto he able to leD.d thei'" disciples on by successivestages to such a stD.te that they attain, or atleast approximate to, spiri tual perfection.Then a supernatura l origin is also claimed formany of these Orders. The members glory inthis, the masses of the pooplc freely admit it.Very often this is connectcd with the legends

abbut al -Khidr (Elias), who is said to have beenthe greatest saint of his age and to be still theintermediary between God and the founder of ,.

Religious Order. As he did not die, he is supposed to be stil l actively employed and to givepower to tbe religious devotee who attains tothe dignity of Qutb, a t erm to be explained later.on. Owing to hi s miraculous t rans lat ion, to hisbeing transported from place to place by thespirit of God, to h is investi ture of Elisba withthe prophetic office, i t is said that al.Khigr sti llretD.ins and exercises great influence with menwho rise to a high order of saintship. To tbemhe unveils tbe future, confers the gifts of blessing(baraka), and gives supernatural powers (tasarruf).It is this supposed supernatural character of theinception of an Order which gives it it s greatinfluence. All the members of it participate inthis blessing, and in the abundance of spiritualgood, transmitted from the founder of the Order,who entered into secret and direct communicationwith o.l-Khidr D.nd with the Prophet. The ShD.ikhof an Order D.lmost alwD.ys nominD.tes his successor. He summons the chief Muqaddims and asmany of the Mur ids as he Can conveniently gathertogether, and states that, after seeking the guidance of the Prophet, he has chosen a man whowill maintain the traditions of their founder andthe purity of their Order. "Some, however, onthe ground that the Prophet made no regulationon the subject of succession to supremo power,leave the election to the Muqaddims. In some


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20 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAnr THE MUQADDIMS 21cases the candidate must belong to the family ofthe founder of the Order." 1 In Oonstantinoplecertain Orders require the Sultan, or the Shaikhu'l.Islam, to eonfirm the appointment thus made.

The Muqaddims are persons of much impor.tance, and great care is taken in the ir selection.As a rule only such men are appointed to thisoffice who are acceptable to the brethren of theOrder. One is placed in charge of each Zawiyahand is a sort of Abbot of a monastery. Besidesthese, other Muqaddims are placed in charge ofthe various missionary enterprizes, or are engagedin diplomatic business in the inte res ts of theOrder. In Turkey the Mufti at Oonstantinoplehas the right to confirm the appointment ofthese men, and the Shaikhu'I-IsIam the powerto remove one from his local charge.Once or twice a year t he Muqaddims meet inconference and consider questions relating to thewell-being of the Order. The state of eachZawiyah is gone into, it s financial eondition isexamined, and all matters of business are attendedto. The Shaikh issues from the eonferencepastoral letters to the breth ren. Amulets andcharms blessed by him are sold.' New members

1 Rinu, II Ma.ra.bouts ct Khouan," p. 60.2Chatelier writing of the Muslims in 'Western Afric8I say!!that they retain and nse many of the pagan snperstitions,charms a.nd inoa.ntations. Hypnotism is a.lso pra.ctised by

are admitted into the Order, and when all isdone the members disperse, after receiving theblessing of the Shaikh. This meeting is calledthe J;Iaq.rat, a word which means the Presence.On his return home each Muqaddim holds asynod of the brethren of his Zawiyah. lI e entertains them at a feast, and then gives an accountof the proceedings of the conference and readsthe pastoral letter. After this is over, thebrethren,one after another, salute the Muqaddim anddeposit an offering on the tray placed beforethem. This synod is called JaW, the Glorious.I have already stated that these Religious Ordersolaim to be strictly orthodox. Innovation in thesphere of dogma is considered to be horesy ofthe worst kind. They can trace their beliefback through a long succession of holy men upto primitive times. These lUen are honoured bydistinctive titles, according to their standard ofsaintliness.the religions teachers. Thus the practice of Ishlm, thoughnotits doctrines, has been la.rgely influenced by its environ-ment. He adds, "In any case the only question is one ofritual. Islam whioh owes its success especie,lIy to itsadaptability, has yielded in. some mea.sure to the Qustoms ofthe country. But fetish beliefs have not been able to in-fluence ita doctrine, for they only exist as f orms o f ritualor as traditions} and hase nothing of a. philosophiooha,racter." (Chlltelier, IC VIslam dans PAfriquc o c c i d e n ~t.le," p. 313.)


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22 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM QUTB AND AUTAD 23

The highest rank of all is that of Ghauth,1 aman who, owing to the superabundance of hissanct ity and the influence of his merits, is ableto be the sin-bearer of the faithful, without inthe least endangering his own salvation. He isvery often, therefore, called the Ghauthu'I-'Alam,or 'Refuge of the World,' or 'Defender of theWorld:Then come the men of tho next rank who arecalled Q u ~ b , . or Axis. The title seems to implythat this saint is a centre of influence roundwhich all the greatness and the real grandeurof the world revolve. He has attained to sucha Jegree of sanctity that he reflects to the generalbody of beliovers the heart of the Prophet himself.The one mos t pre-eminent in his day is callodthe Qu(.bu'I-Waqt-tho Axis of the Age. He isthe recipient of the special favour of God, bywhom all the affairs of tho lowor and higherworlds are entrusted to him. All the AuJiy>l;',01' saints, are subject to him. I t is sltid thatthe founders of the Rif>t'iyya, the Qadiriyya, theAhmadiyya, and the Barahim Ordors held thisoffice, and that each one was the Qutb of the age inwhich he lived. I t is alleged that the Qutb oftenappears in the world, but t ha t men do not knowhim as such. He has certain favoured stations

where he appears, such as the roof of the Klll'bain Mecca, one of the gates of old Cairo and otherplaces. Onhis right and leftthere are twopersons,called Umana', ' the faithful ones. When the Qutbdies, the Amin on the left hand side succeedshim;the Amin on the right passes over to the left, andhis place is then taken by one of the Autad. Iti s believed that the Qutb oan in a moment oftime transfer himself from place to place; but heusually wanders about the world, awarding goodor evil, as the destiny of the rec ipien t may be,through tho agency of Walis, or saints, subordinate to himself.'The Autad 3 is the namo given to holy men ofInfluence in a country, or is applied in a myst icalsense to those who have att ained to the s tage ofmg,'rifat, the knowledge of God. The term hassomewhat of the meaning of arkan, or pillars, inthe phrase Arkan-i-Daulat-Pillars of the State.They are four in number .There are five other persons oalled the Anwar,'o r lights , who succeed to vacant places amongstthe Autad., Plural of (:wl-amfu, a faithful one.2 Agood account of the superstitious notions which ha.vega.thered round the q u ~ u b is given in Lane's II ModernEgyptians," vol. I, pp. 290-4.3 Plural of .ll,-w.td,. pillar. Plural of ) f -nur, light.


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1 Buratu'l.yunus (X) 63.

that every morning they go to Mecca and reportto th e Qutb th e result of their wanderings.Then follow th e Najib, who is an ass is tan t to

th e Muqaddim, and th e Naqib or chamberlain;bu t these are ord inary human bcings and need nodescription.

Wali, or saint, is a title givcn to a holy manafter his death. These saints are highly venerated, an d thi s reverence is based on a verse ofth e Qur',;,n: 1 "Verily on tho favourites of Godno fear shan como, neithor shall thoy grieve,"Tho word for favourites is Auliy,;:, tho plural formof WalL They aro supposea to possess th e powerof working miraclos. Pilgrimagos to their tombsare very common.

These various classes of holy men aro said toexist to demonstrate now the authenticity of theQur'an an a th e veracity of th e Prophet. Theyare popularly supposed to have great influenceover th o course of events in th c world. I t issaid to be by their blessing that fruitful seasonsoome round, that th e ear th yielas i ts increase,that Muslims are victorious over their foes. Thisgreat power they gain by th e care with whichthey observe tho Sunna , or th e truditions of th eProphet's words and deeds, and by the absoluteabnegation of their own will '1nd wishes.

24 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAMThe next in order are th e Shuhadli:,1 or martyrs

of whom there are forty. They are sometimescalled th e rijalu'l-ghaib, or absent ones. Eaeh dayin th e month they wander over a fixed por tion ofth e earth, going over i t all once in each month.It is believed that, if a person can on an y day oft he m on th ascertain where one of th e Shuhadlt' is,he ean obtain from him spiritual aid.Then come th e Akhy,;,r,2 a torm signifying ex-cellent men. They are seven in numbor and areever on the move, spreading th e light of Islltm.

Anothor class are the Abdal,3 the changeable.Their hearts are so purified that no vice dwellsin them, and so they are said to bo "changod,"I t is supposed that, in consideration of th e meritthese men have acqUired, God still preservos andblesses the world. Thoy a re seventy in number,of whom forty reside in Syria and thirty elsewhero.' When one dies God appoints a successor,hu t no one can recognizo thoso AhdM and no oneknows th e exact place where they reside. This isknown to God alone. On th e day of judgmentGod will summon them to himself. I t is said

1 Plural of ~ - s h a h l d , a martyr. P lu ra l o f p'---khaiyir, a good man. Plura l of j!.'"'l-badfl, a ,ubstitute.4 Some authorities givo tho number as forty, of whomtwenty-two reside in Syri" and eighteen in 'Iraq (CambOll,I'Les Ooufreries Roligieuse/' p. 81).

TH E WALt, OR SAINT 25


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26 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLhr THE TRAINING OF A NOVICE 27The Shaikhs, or Grand Mast er s of the Orders,lire very skilful i n dealing with new converts,and show great discernment i n adapting theirinstruction to the various classes of men withwhom they have to deal. On some general pointsthe re i s much s tr ic tness and sameness . All mustabsolutely obey the Shaikh, keep secret the affairs

of the Order, and be loyal to it ; but beyond thatthe te,whing and discipline varies. A very rel igious-minded disciple is directed to observe themost minute details of the ritual acts of worship,a superstitious one has talismans and charmsgiven to him. The mystic finds sat isfact ion inthe rel igious ecstasy to which his devotions lead;the learned and philosophical are charmed with thereligious speCUlations opened up to them; whilstthe weak and oppressed find, as members of anOrder, the support of a powerful associat ion. Theneophyte gains admission to and promotion in anOrder very slowly, and only af ter a long ascetictra ining. At first heis only a Talmidh, a.disciple;then a Murid; an aspirant; then a Faqlr, poor inthe mystica l sense. At this stage he learns thathe possesses nothing, even his existence is liSif it were not.' He now enters upon the tariq,or path, and sees visions and has supernatural

1 A Tradition recorded on the authority of Ma.lik statestha.t the Prophet sa.id, II the poor will enter Pa.radise beforethe rich,"

revelations. Thus he beeomes a Salik, a travelleron the mystical road, bu t many pass on tostill higher stages of life and become MajdhUb,the attracted-that is, they are powerfully drawnby God to Himself and are illuminated and inspired. .The life of such an one is whol ly spiritual and not material, and the outward r ites ofrel igion are no longer needed. He is so absorbedin the contemplation of God that he passes onto the s ta te of taul;lid (unity) , and is identif iedwith the Supreme and so loses all sense of separateexistence.' Not all Darweshes attaiu to thesehigher degrees; they are reserved for the few alone.From all thi s it will be seen that the initiation

of a novice is a matter of great importance.>I There are thus four stages through which a Mudd maypass: (1) The Shari'at, or Law, in obedience to which hemu,t live and the rule, of whieh he must observo. (2) The':f"a.riqa.t. or pa.th. He may now abandon forms a.nd cere-monies a.nd enter on the mystica.l life. (8) Ma1rifat orknowledge. He now gains superna.tural knowledge and is

believed to be inspired. (4) Haqlqat or Truth. He hasnow reached the sta.ge of uni ty a.nd becomes one withGod. Few pass beyond the seeond stage.2 '{ The following is given as a. direction by the Sha.ikhSa.misi. When . t ~ e , a.dept is a. common man, he ought onlygrodually to be Initia ted in tbe precept; thus only the easy

p r a ~ e r s should be taught bim, until his soul is graduallyfortIfied a.nd strengthonod. Then the instruction is increasedby the addition of tho invocations by the Prophet . . . .When tho results of the practice of the dhikr and of pro.found fa.ith have removed the impuri ty of the soul, aud


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30 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM RELIGIOUS DU'fIES 31naturally. To attain that object, one must engrave in his own spiri t the image of his Shaikhand look upon i t as On his right shoulder . Thenfrom the shoulder to the heart , he will draw aline along which the spirit of th e Shaikh can comeand take possession of his heart." 1Sometimes as part of the initiation the Shaikhtouohes the head of the novioe and breathes intohis ear the words la ilaha illa' llah, whioh he hasthen to repeat one hundred and one, one hundredand fifty-one, or three hundred and one times.This is called the talqin. The novice then retires,spends much time in meditation alone, and fallsinto a dreamy condition. This is oalled khilwat.He has to r epo rt his dreams to the Shaikh, whothen breathes a seoond time into his ear the words,ya Allah, 0 God, and the other names of God.This goes on for for ty days or so, when the novioebecomes a Murid, or disciple. "In the Egypt ianbranch of the Khilwatiyya, a woman is lookedupon as an impure being. The Shaikh does nottouch her, but holds one end of a cloth, the otherend of which the woman holds." In anotherOrder, a s imultaneous ablut ion is made. "TheSbaikh or Muqaddim and the sister plaoe theirhands in a vessel of water and olasp their handstogether. Tbe faoe of the woman must be seen

1 Rinn II Mambouts et Rhouau,u p.286.

only by i ts reflection in the water. In theRal;tmaniyya Order the hand of the woman is nottouched. I t is sufficient if she recites af te r th eShaikh certain prayers of initiation. Sometimesthe ends of a rosary are held by each." 1

In addition to the duties involved in rennnciation of the world, retreats, watchings and fasting;the Ikhwan' must observe the zhirat, the hadyaand the dhikr. A zi>\ro.t is a religious visitat ionfor the purpose of col lecting funds when therevenue of the Order falla short. A regularassessment is made which the Muqaddim collectsthrough the agency of the Oha'ush. The poorerpersons suffer from this, often without a murmur,saying, "I t is to God and not to man" we give.In Algiers the impost has been, with good resnlts,regulated by the French Govemment; but inMorocco, where there are no such restriotions; theMuqaddim lays heavy burdens on the people."The rapacity of the religious chiefs arc a principalcause of the misery which permanent ly exists iumost of the Muslim States . This is especiallyso in Morocco, where the representatives of thereligious Orders abound." 3

1 Dopant ot Coppolani, p. 199.2 II In Northorn Afrioa. they a.re called l{houan. In thoEast, Darweshes. The Qddiriyya. Order keep the nameFaqlr (poor one). In the Tijaniyya Order tho mombors areoal1od A ~ ! ) a b (companions)." (Ibid, p. 195.)J Rinn, II Mara-bouts at Khomm, P, 04.


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32 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM T HE DHI KE 33The hadya is an cxpiatory offering made by the

Ikhwan for the infraotion of soma rnle, or thenegleot of some duty. I t is also a kind of tributewhich the Muqaddim exacts from the chiefs of tholocal tribes and which few, owing to their fear ofassassination or other injury, are bold enough torefuse.The dhikr I is a most important part of thedaily life of a D


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34 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE DHIKR 35Sometimes there is also a meditation On certain

verses of the Qur',;,n, as, "He is the First. Heis the Last. Tho Manifest: The Hidden'" "Heis with you wherever you go'" "We (God)are closer to him (man) than the veins of hisneck:' 3 "Whichever way ye turn, there is theface of God" 4 "God encompasseth all things." 5The dhikr is said to produce union of tho heartand the tongue in the aot of saying the nameof God, to cause the soul to recover it s calm inthe presence of the Shaikh. The mysteriousvirtue attached to the rite vanquishes evil desires.A Murid ought to say a dhikr three times inone brea th and so impress it on his heart, whichis thus kept constantly occupied with the thoughtof God. Similar exercises to the dhikr are thetasbih, or saying subl;1,;,nu'll,;,h-holiness to God;the tahmid, or al-l;1amdu'll,;,h-praise be to God;and the takbir, or Allllhu Akbar-God is great.Muhammad is repor ted to have said that he whorepeats the tasbil;1 one hundred times morningand evening will have all his sins forgiven. I tis by the use of dhikr, by khilwat, or retiringfrom men for devotional purposes, by tawajjub,or turning the face towards God devoutly i nprayer , by the muraqabbah, or contemplating, S("atuI.Mujildil.h, (IvIL) 3. 'Sumtu'IMujadilah, (IviL) 4.3 Sumtu'IQaf, (I.) 15. 4S6ratu!B.qamh, (iL) 100.5S(,mtu'l1.NisD., (iv.) 125.

God wIth fear, by the t ~ a r r u f , or mystical spirit.ualism, that the f ervent Darwesh gains thespiritual internal powers, which enable him tosubdue the will of others. It is said of twoShaikhs, in i llus trat ion of this, that one daythey saw some wres tlers equally matched, andthey determined to will that one particular manshould gain the victory. He did so and thenthey willed that the defeated man should conquer, and in turn he did so. The mechanicalrepetition, consecutive and prolonged, of the fewwords in the dhikr natumlly weakens the personalwill of the Darwesh, and deadens his intellect.I t produces a morbid state of mind in which heis easily and bl indly led by the stronger will ofhis roligious superiors. I t maintains the habit ofdiscipline and of submission. In fact, the wholesystem is now so developed that individuality iscrushed out and the Order is exalted. The willof the Shaikh is absolute and all venerate himand implicitly obey his commands.There a re now altogether eighty-eight ReligiousOrders.' The first came into existence in the first

year of the J;lijra and the last was founded inA.H. 1293-A.D. 1876. I t is said that the KhalilaAbu Bakr f ir st called men to a sort of commonlife. A short account will nOW be given of a1 The names o f the founders of these Orders, with da.tes,are given by Rinn in II Marabouts at Khouau," pp.26-51.


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36 T H E R E LI G IO U S ORDERS OF ISLAM TH E ALW,uUYYA ORDER 37few of the most important Darwesh Confraternities in their h is torica l order.Th e ~ i d d 1 q i y y a Order takes i ts n am e from theword ~ i d d i q I - the righteous-a t it le given to AbuBakr, and it exists to this day in Yemen, in Egypt,an d in small numbers in Algiers. It s chief principle is said to be the profound contemplat ion ofth e person and virtues 01 th e Prophet. Th e resultis that they say t he P ro ph et appears to a Darwesh of this Order in times of difficulty, andin hi s hours of ecstasy. Th e joy of this is sogreat that it ca n be known only by experience.Th e religious exercises are continued by th e piousmembers until th e soul of Muhammad appearsto them in sleep and in the ir waking hours,to nourish them and to lead them on to heightsof spiritual perfection.The Uwaishiyya Order arose thus: i n t he thirtyseventh year of th e I;Iijra, Uwaisu'IKarani, whoha d lived th e life of a recluse, announced that

I Tho Blst4miyya, tho Naqshbandiyya, an d tho BaktIlshiyya Orders claim to have dosoonded Irom thel?iddlqiyyaoommunity foundod by AbU Bakr. The Uwalsiyya, thoAdhiimiyya, the Qadiriyya, and th e Sanusiyya ardorsconnected themselves with the Khalifa. 'Umar a.nd alsowith the Rha,,1ifa. IAli} to whom a.ll the other Orders lookup as their original bea .d . E llCh Order ha.a its Bilsilah orcha.in of sucoession, up to ono of these KhaIifas. IAn ardor is always oaIlod by tho adjeotive formod fromtho namo of its fonnder.

Gabriel had appeared to him in a dream, andrevealed to him the constitution of an Order tobe star ted on s trictly ascetic principles. Uwaiscarried his veneration for the Prophet so far as toextract his tee th, because Mul;tammad had losttwo at the battle of Uhud. Uwais then requiredhis followers to do the same. The Prophet hada great regard lor Uwais and commanded that hisown mantle should be given to him. I t wasmade of wool with a collar and long sleeves reaohing to th e knee. I t is said to be still preserved inConstantinople by a descendant of Uwais. Oncea year it is carried in procession to the OldSeraglio. The mantles of th e Darwesh Orders aremade after th e fashion of this-the Khirqa-iSharif. The Uwaishiyya Order has not spreadbeyond Arabia.The first Order with special rules and distinctivereligious exercises is th e Alwaniyya, founded byShaikh Alwan in A,H. 149-A,D. 766. He WaSth e first to make formal rules for the initiation of a novice and to regulate th e duties of thespiritual direotors and th e Murids. The wholesys tem in it s present form may be said to datefrom tho time of this Shaikh.The Bistamiyya Order Was founded by a Persian about A.H. 261-A.D. 874 and traoes its connexion up to th e Khalifa 'Ali. Sufi doctrines aretaught in it. AbU Bayazid B i s ~ a m i , its founder,


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38 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE QADIRIYYA ORDER 39is looked up to as a saint by the Shaikhs ofmany of the most famous Orders.'1'he Qadiriyya, founded by 'Abdu'IQadiri'IJilani,who died in A.H. 561-A.D. 1165, is one of th elargest and most respected Orders.1 Other Ordershave arisen ou t of it. The banner and the turbansof this Order are white. A rose is worn in thecap. I t is found in the northern parts of Indiaon the one side and in Algiers on the other. Asearly as the fifteenth century it was introducedinto Western Africa, by emigrants from Tuat. Asettlement was formed at Walata, but beingdriven from that place the Order moved on toTimbuktu. The great revival of religion at thebeginning of the nineteenth centUl'y, probably dueto the Wahbabi movement in Arabia, stirred upthe membcrs of this Order to great activity'Shaikh Si Ahmad ibn Idris, a man of grea t reputat ion, was then the chief of the Order. Hesent in 1835 one of his disciples, Muhammad'Uthmanu'I-Amir Ghani, to the Nile region wherehe enrolled many Muslims in the Order and proceeded to Dongola and then to Kordofan. Inthe latter country he stayed unt il h is death in1853 l1nd gl1thered ml1ny pl1gl1n t ribos into thofold of Islam. Theso he formed into l1 neWOrder, cl1lled the Amirghl1niyyl1.

1An excellent 31ocount of the founder is g iven by S. D.Margolionth in the R. A. S. J. for April, 1907, pp. 267-306.

In their innumerable l:awiyahs the brethren ofth e Order plMe much trust in the ir mysticl1lceremonies l1nd seek in the hl1llucinl1tions of theecstl1tic stl1te to realize all their aspimtions. Thishas been thus described : - " at each moment ofth e day and night thei r thought s tri ves to crossllpace, to perceive the Unknown. Their lipsrepeat the dhikr revealed to 'Ahdu'l-Qadir and,with half shut eyes l1nd the rosl1ry slowly movingbetween th e thumb l1nd forefinger, they invokethe Supreme Being, l1nd l isten to the beating oftheir hearts, as if they expected an inward revelation of the Divine spirit-the beginning of thebeatific vision. Softly they r ise and bow and ml1ketheir ablut ions , take a frugl11 meal and return tocrouch in the same spot , still with the same tenllion of mind, awaiting the psychological momentwhen the divine breath will v is it the ir purifiedminds." 1 On Friday they gl1ther together inllilence and concentrate their facult ies on a singleidoa, tho majes ty of God. Seated in a half circlebefore the Shl1ikh or Muqaddim, with legs crossedand the fingers of the open hand spread on theknee, they recite in unison many hundreds oft imes thc dhikr compiled by thcir groat founder.The dhikr of this Order is l1 very long one. Thenovice, however, on admission has on ly to add to

1 Depont at Coppolani, p. 156.


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40 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE QADIRIYYA ORDER 41the namaz, or five obligatory prayers, the repetition one hundred and sixtyfive times of the oreed,I.. ilaha illa'llahu. One form used by the mostspiritually advanced members is to recite theFatiJea. with the intention that the reward for itshall go to the Prophet and to 'Abdu'I-Qadir; torepeat one hundred and twenty-one times thewords, "0 God, bless our Lord Muhammad and hifamily"; then one hundred and twenty-one time"Glory be to God. Praise be to God. There ino god but He. God is great. There is nopower except in the Lord Most High"; thenone hundred and twenty-one times "0 Shaikh'Abdu'I-Qadir, something for God"; then onehundred times Suratu Ya Sin (xxxvi); thenforty.one times Suratu'I-Jinn (Ixxii); then onehundred and twenty-one times Suratu'n-Nasr(ex); then e ight times Suratu'I-FatiJea; thenonce St\ratu'I-Ikhlas (cxii); and finally three timesthe words, "God bless the Prophet."1All this must be done with great precision.The Shaikh gives the signal for prayer, controland corrects the movements. Then slowly all

turn their faces to the right and, with an admirableI To each dhikr the following words aro added:-

.In ;U-


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46 TH E RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE SHADHILIYYA ORDER 47din Chisti, who was born A.H. 537-A.D. 1142.He died in Ajmir in India. His tomb is avery favourite place of pilgrimage. He was adisciple of 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani. The memhersof this Order are mostly Shi'ahs. They arc fondof music and perform the dhikru'l-jali.The Suharwardiyya Order was founded byShahtlbu'd-diu as-Suharwardi, who died in Persia

about A.H. 623-A.D. 1226, The majority of itsfollowers are s ti ll found in Persia, but it s influence has been felt elsewhere. The teaching ofas-Suharwardi was highly mystieal and dealt withthe deeper aspects of Sufii sm. Now, it is not somuch an Order as a sehool of mystie philosophywhich has had a great influence on the teachingof many of the African Orders and fosters th egrowth of fatal ism amongst them.The Shadhiliyya Order was founded in A.H.656-A,D. 1258, and is spread through mostMuslim lands. I t flourishes in Egypt and inAlgiers. I t has given rise to many brancheswhich now form sepamto Orders . It s doctrinesare held by almost all the model'n Ordel's. TheSlLm\siyya al'e affiliated to it. A famous telLcherAbu l\fadian al-AndlLlusia, who was born in SevilleP a . n ~ I s l 8 . m i c mo\"ement is in Mecca., doea not think tha.tthe Grand Sh::trff a.nd his assistants play any groa.t part init. He also thinks that tho influence of the ReligiousOrders in this matter is over-rated (" Revue de l'Histoirodes Religions 1I tome, quarante-quatrieme, p. 281.)

in A.D. 1127, a disciple of 'Abdu'I-Qadiri'I-Jilli.ni,brought the mystioal teaching of his master intoNorthern Africa, whilst his disoiple, 'Abdu's-SaIamtaught it in Western Africa, He too had anearnest follower, Sidi Abu ~ ' l a s a n u ' s h - S h a d h i l who,oarried on the propaganda both in Northem andEastern Afrioa and in Egypt. AbU Madian addedto his great knowledge of mysticism, a modestyof manner and a r eady eloquenoe which helpedto make him one of the most influential men ofhis age. The early ohiefs of the Order, worthydisciples of their great master, took lit tle interestin worldly affairs, di ligent ly disseminated histeaching and were really the heads of a mysticalphilosophioal sehool. One of the instructions ofShadhil was "obey your Shaikh before you obeyyour temporal sovel'eign." Abu 1;Jasanu'sh-Shadhil, a man of great reputation as a mystio,moralist, jur isoonsul t and theologian gave hisname to the Order. He was born in A.H. 593.He was a good example of a Muslim mystio andhis followers were looked upon as excellent Sufis.He said to his disciples, "You will not smellthe oaour of sanotity until you are detached fromthe world and from men. He who desires gloryin this wodd and in the next should accept myteaching. Then he will reject from his heartall that is not God, will seek nothing, will lovenothing but God, Hear him who calls you to


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48 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE NAQSHBANDIYYA ORDER 49peace, not him who calls you to hattIe. God hasgi ven me a register in which my companions11nd their disciples are enrolled and wil l be sheltered from hellfire." He was known in Moroccoand his popularity so influenced the 'Ulama. ofth e University of alAzhar in Oairo that he waslooked upon as the spiritual Master of confratern it ies in Mecca, and wise men and philosophersof both these cities highly r egarded him as aneloquent doctor, an imcomparable master.When he died he left no heir. He appointedno successor, but the brethren retained his nameand the SMdhi liyya soon occupied the frontrank of the existing Orders. In the course oftime it gave rise to many other Orders whichform distinc t groups, tinged, however, with themysticism of the older one. Some of them havemade practical changes, and devote less t ime tomystical studies and more to practical ones; bu tthey noW fonn a very great social and religiouspower.The Maulawiyya, oft en called the dRoncingDarweshes, are the most popular Order in theTurkish Empire where they are known as theMevlevi Darweshes. The re are no Za.wiyahs of

this Order in Algiers. These men are famousfor their music and their mystic dance, whichconsist chiefly of whi rling round and round.This is said to represent the reVOlution of the

spheres and also the circling movement of thesoul, caused by the vibrations of it s love toGod. They say their prayers in silence, sta.nding up and turning round from east to west.Their religious performances are to be seen inOonstantinople and in Oairo. The Order wasfounded by Maulana Jalalu'ddln Rumi who diedin A.a. 672-A.D. 1273. I t is a very wealthyOrder. There is in it a singular union of austerepractices, political obsequiousness to the S u l ~ a n ,and frivolous ceremonies'! The Shaikh of theOrder must be a descendant of it s founder. Theoffice is hereditary and so the marriage of theShaikh is obligatory.The Naqshbandiyya Order was founded byMul;mmmad BeM'u'ddin Naqshbandi who died inPersia in A.H. 7l9-A.D. 1319. He was a man

of learning and piety and a ~ U f i . At first he didnot wish so much to form an Order as to gathertogether an association of religious people, whomight meet for prayer without much outwardshow or special ri tes . He held that "The ext erior is for the world; the interior for God"; 'but the association grew into a ve ry large andimportant Order which is found chiofly in Central Asia and in Turkey, but is little known in

1 For a. full aocount of the de,nces, Bela Brown, U TheDal'weshes," pp. 199-201. ~ t . l \ 1"1kl\4


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50 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE QALANDARIYYA ORDER 51Africa. I t attracts men Of high social posit ionand of learning. They general ly per form thedhikru'l-khafi, or silent devotions, and are moderate in their mysticism. In addit ion to this eachmember must daily recite the istighfar, or prayerfor forgiveness, once; the sallimat, or prayer forpeace , seven times; the Flitiha seven times;Suratu'l-Inshirah (xciv) nine times; Suratu'l-I k h l ~ (cxii) once, and then the appointed dhikran indefinite number of times. The conformi tyof it s teaching to tha t of the I{halifa Abu Bakr,the dignity of its outward ceremonial , the highclass of persons affiliated to i t are amongs t thecauses which give this Order a very high placein the esteem and regard with which o ther Darweshes look upon it.The important Orders, the Q8.diriyya, the Rifa'iyya, the Maulawiyya and the SMdhiliyya, wereformed at a t ime "when, through the influence ofGhazali , Sufiism had won for itself a secure and arecognized position in the Muhammadan Church.Orthodoxy was forced to accept the popular saintworship and to admit the miracles of the auliy>i:,although many Muslim puritans raised theirvoices against the superstitious veneration whichwas paid to the tombs of holy men, and againstthe prayers, sacrifices, and oblations offered bythe pilgrims who assembled." 1

1Nicholson , "A Literary History of the Arabs," p. 93.

The Qalandariyya,l or wandering Darweshes,were founded as an Order by 'Ali Yusuf Qalandari,a native of Spain,' who died in A.H. 724-A.D. 1323.He was a disciple of Jalalu'd-din Rumi and ofJ;[aji Baktash and was also, for a while, a member of the Chist iyya Order which he afterwardsleft and founded an Order of his own. He travelled much and finally settled down at Panipat,where pi lgrimages are made to his tomb. Thestatutes of the Order oblige i ts members to liveon charity, to be always on the move, and notto amass wealth for themselves. They are practically ~ u f i s . The Order exists in India, Persia andTurkcy. Their dhikr contains a prayer for thefounder and certain passages from, the Qur'an,3repeated many times, and concludes with thedurud, a prayer for blessing on Mul;iammad andhis family, which is said twice. The QalandarDarwesh is a well known character in Easterntales.

1Tho word Qalanda.r is a.lso used for a. ma.n who neadnot be conneoted with an Order. He may bo s sort ofunatta.ched wandering friar. Suharwardi says that theyare persons possessed of an intoxicatioll, whioh they callpeace of heart and that, they are men who total ly dis.regard the ordinary rules a.nd customs of society.2: Some authors say he was horn at Panipat in Hindustan.3The Fati1}.a, or the opening chapter, of the Qur'an;Suratu Ali 'Imrd.n, ii. (256), three times; Suratu'tTatfif,(lxxxiii), three times: Sumtu Yusuf (xii), ten times: then'thodurud (prayer for MuJtammad and his descendants) twice.


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52 THE REfJIGIOUS ORDERS OF I S L A ~ IThe Baktashiyya Order was founded by Haji

Baktash, who died in A.H. 738-A.D. 1337, and isfamous in Turkey owing to it s connexion withthe Janissaries.' I t is very popular with thearmy still. The symbol of the Order is themystic girdle which is put On and off seventimes. Thc Darwesh in so doing, says : -1 tienp greediness and nnbind generosity; I tie upavarice and nnbind piety; I tie up anger andunbind meekness; I tie up ignorance and nnbindthe fear of God; I tie up passion and unbindthe love of God; I tie up hunger and unbind(spiritual) contentment; I tie up the influence ofSatan and unbind the influence of the Divine.The symbolical nnmber of the Order is twelve,and so each of it s communities contains twelveelders, to whom special duties are assigned. Theesoteric doctrines held by these Darweshes are acurious mixture of panthe ism and materialismand are thus described, "Each human soul is aportion of divini ty which exists only in man.The eternal soul, served by perishable mediums,constantly changes it s dwelling without quittingthe earth. Morality consists in enjoying the goodthings of ear th without injury to ",ny one, whatever causes no i ll to a person is lawful. Thewise man is he who regulates his pleasures, forjoy is a science which has dcgrees, made known

I Ante, p. 5.

THE BAKTASHIYYA ORDER 53little by little to the ini tiated. Contemplat ion isthe best of a ll joys, for i t belongs to the celestialvision." I Orthodox Muslims now look with disfavour on this Order. This has been a tt ri but edto the influence of the IjIurUfi sect ' amongstthe BakMshiyya Darweshes. In 1871-2 someBaktashis publi shed a IjIurufi work which wasseverely condemned by the orthodox 'Ulama.Gibb says that the IjIurufis were antinomianswho, believing themsclves to be identical withGod, looked upon the moral law as not bindingupon them. He adds, "such beliefs may lead tono practical evils so long as they are confined tosaints and sages; but when they are proclaimedopenly to all classes of society, and when, in ad-dition, the promised Paradi se is declared to behere in this present world and the Houri-bridesto be none other than the beauties of earth, theflood gates of social anarchy have been tiungopen. Here we have the real cxplanation of therelentless hostility shown towards the I;Iurufis." 3This sect originally Persian is now unknown inPersia. It exists in Turkey and is strong inAlbania, where, it is said, the Baktashiyya Order

1 Rinn, II Mara-bout.s et K h o u ~ m , n p. 37.2 For an a c o o u n ~ of this o u r i o ~ s sect, soo articles byProfessor Browno, R. A. S. J ., January 1898, pp. 61-94;R. A. S. J" July 1007, pp. 533-40; a.lso Gibb 1 If OttolUnl1Poetry,"' '01. I, pp. 338-42; 353 -5 j 373.3 Gibb, I, Ottoman Poetry," vol. I, p. 387.


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THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE KHILWATIYYA ORDER 55has also eighty thousand lay members, supposedto be more or less connected with the politicaldisturbances in that region.The initiation of a Baktashiyya Darwesh is madein secret. He is deprived of nearly all his c lo th ing to show that he makes a voluntary sacrif iceof the world and it s wealth. With a rope roundhis neck, he is led in to t he assembly and, as aslave, begs the Shaikh to pardon his sin. Hethen goes through the ri tual of initiation. TheShaikh whispers in his ear the secrets of the Orderwhich he is charged most solemnly never todivulge. A special sign is made known to himby which all the memhers of his own Zawiyah,or Takya, can recognize him.The origin of the Khilwatiyya Order is traeedto Brahimu'zZahid, who lived about the middle ofthe fourteenth century A.D., bu t it was bronghtinto notice by Si Mul;1ammadu'IKhilwati and stillmore especially by 'Umaru'IKhilwati , who diedin A.H. 800-A.D.1397. In Turkey and in Egypt heis looked up as the practical founder of the Order.Influenced by the ascetic practices and the doc-trines of the Qadariyya Order, he fasted long andlived in strict retirement (khilwat). 'fhe practiceof holding "retreats" is still kept up as a customderived from the Shaikh. In the Zawiyahs ofthe Khilwatis there are a great number of oellswhere the brethren shut themselves up for stated

periods, often for forty days, in sol itary seolusion for contemplat ion and prayer. The sense ofhunger, thirst and isolation disappears; the ideaof existence vanishes, and they say their sonlsare rapt in the contemplation of the Divine. Inimagination they hear the voioe of God and seethe angels who are near to him. The ultimategoal to be desired is the annihilation of individua li ty by the absorption of the individual intothe essence of God. They pray for the welfareof all Muslim people and in Turkey and in Egyptfor the State that it may be preserved from alltemporal evils.In the eleventh oentury of the Hijra , a numberof the Khilwatiyya Darweshes went forth fromtheir Zawiyah in Egypt and built many monasteries amongst the ruined ones of Christian monks.They set tled in Persia, Arabia, Khurd is tan, Turkey, SY"ia and Northern Africa. Many otherOrders have branohed out from this one.The ini tiat ion of a neophyte is long and to him

the great meri t of sol itnde is highly extolled. I tis said that the Prophet in speaking to 'Ali laidgreat stress on this habit and that, through a longline of men, this teaching of Mul,lammad washanded down to the Founder of the Order. TheTradition is that one day 'Ali said to the Prophet,"whioh is the shortost way to the knowledge ofGod? " He replied, "repeat daily the name


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50 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE BAICAYIYYA ORDER 57

of God in solitary plMes, such is the virtuea ttached to the invocat ion of the name of God.""In what posit ion shall I make the invocation? ""Close your eyes and say after me 'There isno god but God ' th re e times." 'Ali did thisfLnd thus the sanct ity of th e idea of sol itudecame down to the Khilwat iyya leaders, whoto the presen t day have maint ained intfLCt thedoctrines and prfLctices of the Founders of the irOrder. They observe this solitude with all it srigours, they keep long and exhausting fasts,they repeat the dhikr unceasingly in solitudewith a special posture of the body and head.The old Persian pantheism appears under t heveil of Sufiism. The oath of allegiance to thoShaikh is a strict one and is rigidly observed.I nte ll ectual freedom is c rushed out, the mindis enslaved. Such is t he inward condit ion. Outward ly there is systematic opposition to politicaland social progress, persecut ion of those whotouch, or endanger, the temporal power of theOrder which, from its wide-spread influence andthe sanctity which has gathe red round it, owingto it s prolonged poriods of meditat ion in thedarkness of seclusion. is a grcat antagonistice lement to the cause of civil ization and enlightenment. "The very secrecy with which muchof their worship is done tends to produce in menanimated by the same passionate sen timents

this retrograde polit ical spiri t. They have stirredup trouble in Egypt and many of them joinedthe Ma,hdi in the Sudan." 1 I t is largely recruited from pilgrims of a,n ascetic tendencywho come to live in the sacred cities of Mecca.md Madina.The Orders more recently formed a,re to be

found in Timbuktu, Algiers and Morocco. They!lore. generally speaking. offshoots from the olderones, especia,lly from the Shadhiliyya. I givesome a,ccount of the more important ones.The Bakayiyya, Order ha,s it s centre in Timbuktu. I t was founded by Ahmad Bakkay, whodied in the year A.H. 960-A.D. 1552. I t is anoffshoot from the Shadhiliyya Order and hasmuch influence south of Morocco. I t is entirelyin the hands of the Marabout family cf Bakkay.In former years it s members extended the religionof IshLm t o the ext rcmc south of the Sahara andnow the Bakkayis are in many tribes the realpolitical and spiritual rulers.Tho Shaikhiyya Order was founded in A.H. 1013-A.D. 1604. I t is named after Sid 'Abdu'I-Qadir

Mu!;>ammad, known as Sidi Shaikh. He was alineal descendalilt of the Khalifa AbU Bakr. I t isnot so distinctly an Order as others are, butrather a confederation of individuals. often disagreeing among themselves, but nnited in one

1 Chatelier, II Les confrericsMusnlmancB du Hedjaz, p. 74,


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58 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE TAIBIYYA ORDER 59common bond of regard for the Sidi Shaikh, andfor the spiritual teaching of Hasan ash-Shadhil.I t is powerful in the southern part of Algeria andits influence is now more political than religious. The dis tinguished lineage of i ts Founder,and the character of many of it s leaders, who asMambouts died in the odour of san iti ty , havegreatly increased and maintained the reputationof the Shaikhis. At present the a ims of i ts leadersseem to be directed less to the rel igious good oftheir followers, than to the maintaining , fortemporal and polit ical ends, all the superstitiousnotions and practices of the Marabouts.The K",rzaziyya Oraer was founded i11 A.H.1016-A.D. 1607. The founder , a member of theroyal family of Morocco, had been a Muqaddimof the Sbadhiliyya Oonfraternity. He taugh t hisfollowers to reject r ea son as it was a guide toerror, to place absolute confidence in the Shaikh,to meet death boldly and to be ever ready tofight in the cause of God. The leaders adoptedan ascetic life and assumed a VOluntary- poverty.This caused them to be held in great esteem.The Muqaddims are chosen by the members ofthe Ordol'. I t is spread over the east and southof Morocco. Sha ikh Mulai Karzaz, the founder,was a patron of the Berbers and of the nomadictribes. His Zawiyah at Ka,rzaz was an asylumfor the poor and for those who were oppressed

by the warlike Tuwariq Tribes. His successorsfollow his kindly example and so this Order ishighly esteemed hy the common people. I t haskept the favour of the Sultans of Moroooo andhas also maintained friendly relat ions with theFrench. It s members are soattered over theSa1;"i,ra and the Order, if hostile, could from itshead Zawiyah, situated near to TUli,t, give muchtrouhle.

The Taihiyya. Order was founded by Mula.i'Abdu'l!ti,h, who died in A.H. l090-A.D. 1679. Thefirst Zawiyah erected was at Wazzan where thechiefs of the Order are buried and whioh is nowa place of pilgrimage. The Sultan of Morocoohoped that this Order, founded by a member ofthe royal family would be a g rea t suppor t t o hisdynasty. The Order is named after its secondShaikh, Mulai Taib, a man of austere life, devotedto the in teres ts of his Confraternity. Oonvertswere numerous from the negroes, who becamehenceforth free from the danger of slavery. TheOrder is inolined to be polit ical in its aims. Thedhikr is long and complicated. Such sentencesas, " I implore the mercy of God, the Almighty;I celebrate the praises of God; 0 God I give th yblessing to our Lord Mu\!ammad, his wives anddescendant s; There is no god but God and Mu\!ammad is the apostlo of God" are repeated hundreds of times in a day. The very pious members


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GO THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE HANSALIYYA ORDER 61of the Order m!l.ke over four thousand recitations daily. The leaders are careful not to offendmen in authority. I t is said that some Sultanshave been affiliated to it. The neophytes swearthat they will render implicit obedience to th eShaikh and obey all the rules laid down for theirguidance. Every year inspectors go forth f romWazzan to look into the affairs of the differentZ:iwiyahs, to strengthen the weak, to stir up thezeal of all and to collect money.The Order has cultivated friendship with th eFrench, whilst still remaining devoted to the causeof 1\1orocco. The Shaikh 'Abdu's-Salfm in 1876wished to be declared to be a citizen of Franceand was an admirer of European civilization.lI e mar ri ed an English lady, a governess inthe family of a gentleman in the diplomaticservice, and sent his sons to be educated in aLycee at Algiers. lI e took no part in the opposition to the entrance of the French into Tuat,or to their occupation of the surrounding country.Still, the interests of the Order wi th Moroecois very s trong and a French wr it er says: "Weought no t to lose sight of the possibility of enormous difficulties to our interest from the TaibiyyaOrder in Algiers, Senegal and Morocco, shouldits Shaikh become hostile to our authorities."They are said to be rather unfriendly, at leastin appearance, with some of th e other Orders,

such as the Qadiriyya, the Tijaniyya and theDarqawiyya, though this does not prevent the irworking with them when an occasion calls for it.The lIansal iyya Order was founded by Sayyidibn Yusufu' l-Hansali, a native of Morocco whodied in the year A.H. 1114-A.D. 1702. It is another offshoot of the Shadhiliyya confraternity.The founder was connected with a Berber family.After the pilgrimage to Mecca, he studied forawhile at the al-Azhar University in Cairo ; butthe toil and fatigue he had to undergo in his longjourney home made him forget all he had learnt.So he led an ascetic life, and spent a long timein constant devotion at a shrine of a famoussaint, wi th t he result that his memory returnedto him and his vocation was revealed to himby God. There are many legep.ds about themarvellous things that happened to him on hisjourney. The influence of this Order is verygreat amongst the Berhers of the Atlas Mountains,a people of an independent spirit, fanatical andwarlike. In addition to the dhikr, the Ikhwanrecite some portions of a famous poem on theninety-nine names of God. I t is said that ifthe Darwesh who recites anyone of these ve;sesis not in a state of complete moral purity, heexposes himsel f to the divine displeasure. Onthe next page I give a tranelation of a few verseson ten of the names.


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62 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE HANSALIYYA ORDER 68o Pardoning God, I cry to Thee,Thy pardon to implore.o Sovereign Lord, subdue thro' me\Vhoe'cr subverts 'fhy law.Thy glory, Glorious Being, dothMy feeble strength increase.o Thou who humbles t in tho dust,Cause lying tongues to cease,Knowledge and understanding give,0, Giver of a.ll, to me.Sustainer, for my sustenanceI look for ease from Thee.The souls of a ll Thine enemies,o Seizer of spirits, seize.o Scatterer of gifts, increase desire

In bea.uty's devotees.o Humbler, humble Thou tho powerOf all who Thee oppose.o Thou who ra.isest, raise me upIn spite of these my foes.8.li , If " )IM, \!, ..,; "' " V- t) J ~ ~ \ o , . 4 ,

l\ j (:)'" ~ .J" ~ e l) 4 ,

The doctrines of the Order are similar to thoseof the SMdhiliyya, but Hansali introduced manyaustere practices and exaoted rigorous penances.The mystery which surrounds the ir teachingmade these Darweshes a dangerous secre t association in constant conflict with the Turks untilthe French oocupied Algiers. Since then,theyhave been loyal to French rule but there are onlyfive Zawiyahs in Algeria. The pres tige of theOrder is high and it s leaders have a renoWn forthe devotions and habi ts peculiar to Darwoshsaintliness. This is, perhaps, the reaSon why theamulets they prepare have a great reputationfor preserving the wearers in safety in times ofaccidents. They are scarce and difficult for aforeigner to obtain. Those who carry thembelieve that they will be preserved from evil andthat all their enterprises will prosper. Should itbe otherwise, then their faith must have becomeweak or some impious hands must have touchedtheir charm, for it s supernatural power is eonsidered to be beyond dispute. Ono of the mos tfamous charms worn is to protect the wearerfrom danger in battle. The following words maybe written on such an amulet, "0 God, if anyone st irs up against the bearer of my presentwriting any manner of evil, smite off his head.Restrain his evil h e a ~ t , brie1\e his tongue and turnaway his eunning. 0 God, let the bearer of this


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THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE TIJANIYYA ORDER 67wards, in A.H. 1186, he made the pilgrimage toMecca, where he astonished the theologians by hiserudition and knowledge. Five years after he re-turned to Fez and the idea of founding an Orderbegan to take shape in his mind; but Fez was aplace too much given up to political and religi-ous s trife for such an attempt, and so he movedfurther south. In due t ime he announced to asmall body of devoted followers that the Prophethad directed him to form an Order, different toall others.' For instance, no member of it waspermitted , under pain of the severest penalties,to become affiliated to another Order. An ear-nest propaganda followed and the Order soonbecame exceedingly powerful in Tunis, in theSaham, the Western Sudan, and even as far asTimhuktu. The chief Zawiyah was, in due time,located i n Fez under the patronage of the thenMoorish Emperor. The Order has been a mili-tant 2 as well as a teaching one. Haj! 'Umar, oneof it s leaders, in 1833 went to Bornu and then

1 II The Prophet a.ppeared in grea.t splendour a.nd said,I Aba.ndon all the waoys thou ha.st pursued. Be my vicarupon t,he ea.rth. Proclaim thy independence of the Shaikhs,who have ini tiated thee into their myst ical dootrines. Iwill be thy intercessor before God a.nd thy guide before thobelievers, who will be inspired by thy counsels a.nd willfollow thy way.'' ' (Dopont ot Ooppolani, p. 416.)

2 For an accountof its wars and for a deta-iled account ofRaj{ 'Umar's work, see ChateJier, Cl L'Ishim dans l'AfriqueOccidenta.le," p. 167.

to the Hausa country. He was a man of greatvigour, of considerable learning and very fanatical.He reproached the ordinary Muslims with theirgnorance and their apa thy. Even the Qadiriyyawere too tolerant for him, Later on, under hisinfluence and by means of his military expeditionsmany converts were made and the Order extendedits opera tions from Senegal to Timbuktu, and asfar south as the hinterland of Sierra Leone.' Thekingdom he thus set up soon became divided intovarious smaller ones, but the influence of Islamremained. Thus, this Order, a resul t of the activerevival of I sl am at the end of the eighteenthcentury, has done more to advance the cause ofMul;1ammadanism in Western Africa than anyother has accomplished, and it is still ll, livingpower. "From the mon th of the Senegal toLagos, over two thousand miles, there is said tobe hardly any town of importance in the seaboardin which there is not, at least, one mosque, withactive propagandists of Islam," 2 Since the estab-lishment of French influence in t he Senegal andin the Niger regions the political power of theTijaniyya. has declined. The European oocup",tionof these regions may stay any further politicalintluence and development, but so active an Order

1 Chatelier, "L'Islam dans l'Afdquo Occidenta.le," p,176.2 Blyden, quoted by Arnold in the II rrhe prea.ching of

IsM.m," p. 277.


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68 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE RAIPIIANIYYA ORDER 6Dmo,y yet give trouble, o,nd it s religious influenceis no t l ikely to decrease under the more settledconditions of these lands.The two Orders, the Qadiriyyo, o,nd the Tijaniyyo,ho,ve plo,yed th e chief part in the propo,gation ofIslam in the Western Sudan. l Under the Qadiriyya the propagand'" was by peaceful methods.By the instruction i ts leader s gave to their disciples, by the colonies they founded, they multipliedin the Sudan their chief centres of action. TheOrder is widely scattered. It s members o,re fourtdo,s far south as Sierra Leone and in the UpperNiger regions, "The whole religious movement inthe Eastern Sl\CUn ",Iso has been direeted by theinfluence of the Qadir iyya Darweshes s ince thefirst half of the nineteenth century.'"The Tijaniyya, as we have seen pursued opposite

methods and, so long o,s they had power, wontheir wo,y by force. Cho,telier speaks of them as" ardent aux guerres saintes" o ,n d o f the Qadiriyyo,o,s" pacifique et debonnaire." 3 It is, however, saidthat of late years the Tijaniyya Order has pursuedpeaceful methods more regular ly , and that it isnow loyal to the French Government and readilyassists French tmvellers in the Sahara.

The Ral;1maniyya Order was founded by anothernative of Morocco, Si Muhammad ibn 'Abdu'r

I Chatelier, II L'Ishtm datos l'Afrique Occidentale/' p . 318 ., I bi d, p. 166. 3 Ibid, p. 166.

Ral;1man, who died about the yeo,r A.H. 1208-A.D.1793. He was for a while a student in the 0,1-Azhar College in Cairo. After t his he travelledand preached in many lands. Thns his fame asa saint, renowned for his miraculous powers,preceded his return to his native land. After hisarrival the re , great numbers flocked to hear hispreaching and to receive his instruction. This ledto the formation of the Order, which SOon becamea powerful proselytising associat ion among theKabyle tribes. The fatwas of the 'Ulama, givenat the instigation of the Turkish anthorities, whofeared this r is ing power, were unable to check it sgrowth. At present, the Ral;1maniyya Order issaid to be disunited by the internal rivalry ofit s chiefs and to ho,ve thus los t much of i ts eo,rlyreligious spirit. I t ho,s now become a polit icoreligious society, by nO means indifferent totemporal advantages, and which is sti ll powerfulenough to require careful observo,tion.

This Order has great inf luence in the westernSlld.n. I t also has in Algeria one hundred andseventy-seven Zawiyahs, and eight hundred andseventy-three Muqaddims and one hundred andfifty-six thouso,nd members. In the chief Zawiyahsthe Ikhwan keep up, by means of relays day andnight , the repet it ion in a loud voice of the nameof God.

The ceremony of the initiation of a Darwesh


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70 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE DARQAWIYYA ORDER 71into the Rahmaniyya Order is given as follows.The Shaikh takes the right-hand thumb of theneophyte and says to him, shnt your eyes and sayafter me, " I seek refuge with God against Sat2,nthe stoned . I ask forgiveness of God. Le t us return to God and to His messenger and renouneesin. God of the worlds forgive the past and makeus better in the future." The Shaikh then tellshim to be silent and says three times, "There isno god but God," which the person to be initiatedalso repeat s three times. Then both togetherthey repeat the Fatiha and invoke the aid of theProphet and of the founder of the Order. Thedisciple is then directed to obey God and theProphet and to say, "Tbere is no god but God,"three hundred times after the morning and theafter-noon prayer respectively. From the afternoon prayer of Thursday til l that of Friday ineach week, the Darwesh must say, "0 God, letthy favour rest upon our Saviour Muhammad,his family and his Oompanions and grant themsalvation." The afternoon prayer of Friday mustconclude with a prayer called al'Ummi (the unlettered), " a God, le t Thy favour rest on our Saviour, Muhammad the unlettered Prophet, his fl1milyand his Oompanions." This prl1yer should be repeated twenty-four times when God will remit thesins of twenty-four years. The neophyte is thenexhorted to prl1ctice the duties of bro therhood,

to be resigned I1nd to repeat the dhikr of theOrder faithfully. He is told that entrance intothe ranks of the brotherhood is like entering intothe o,rk of Noah or into the home of Abro,ho,m, andthat all who did this obtained salvation, and sowill he in the Order to which he is now to beo,dmitted,The Darqawiyyo, Order Wo,s founded by a Sho,rifof Morocco, Mulai al-'Arbi ibn Al;1mad ibn alJ;fasanu'd-Darqawi at the end of the eighteenthcentury. He preached the doctrine of absention

from worldly affo,irs o,nd, dur ing his life t ime andthat of his successor, the Order kept clear of allpolitical entanglements; but about the year 1840,Il. fanatico,l and ambitious man, Si 'Abdu'r-Rn.l;1manTuti became the leader, Since then many of thebrethren have discarded the views of thei r firstShaikh and hold quite opposite opinions as regardstheir relation to worldly affairs. "Most of thebre thren appear inoffensive: in real ity they arevery dangerous, we may look upon them as theprecursors I1nd initil1ters of the Sanusiyyl1." J InMorocco the Order is now distinc tly political init s aims and is in full sympathy with the moreturbulent tribes. It s members are said to havebeen largely concerned in many insurrections... In all the rebellions movements in Algiersand Morocco, we have found t he hand of these

1 Frisoh, U La Ma.roo,II p. 191.


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74 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLhr THE RELIGIOUS REVIVAl, 75in Constantinople. The Shaikh sends forth hisDarweshes into all plrts. They seek to inspirethe Shaikhs of the var ious other Orders withtheir political propaglndl. To the Shadhiliyyathey Ippear as teachers of their doctr ines, to theDarqawiyya as arden t reformers , to the 'Ulamaand to men unconnected with any Order theyextol the power and dignity of the Sultan asthe Khalifa of Islam. In this way they ingratiate themselves with a great number ofpeople and gain much influence. They keepalive a spirit of restlessness and encourage thehope that all Muslim bnds will be freed fromthe yoke of the infidel, and will be rounitedunder one great theocmtic rule-- the Empire ofthe Khalifa. They a re the stern enomies of rellprogress and owe much of their power to theprotection of the Government. In Algiers theyfind recruits Imong the Musalmalls employed hythe l!'rench. They endeavour to win them overto thei r views and to employing them as secre tagents. Thore are two Zawiyyahs in Algiers.In Morocco the Order has not much influenoe.It s connexion with the Turkish Govormnont isknown, and this discredits i t because in Moroocothe claim made by 'Abdn'l-Hamid to the Khalifateof Islam is not acknowledged. They have a fewZawiyahs there but th eir Muqaddims have littleinfluence, and probably remain in Morooco chiefly

as spies. In other parts of Africa and in theHedjaz they are active and powerfnl. The rapiddevelopment of the pan.Islamic movement owedvery much to the zeal and administrative skillof Shaikh Ja'flr and his disciples of the MadaniyyaOrder. In some pllces, especially in Barka, themembers of this Order have been Ibsorbed inthe sti ll more dlngerous one of the Sanusiyya.I have now given a brief account of some ofthe older Orders and of some of the more modernones, which owe their existence to the great waveof religious revival which, stimulated no douht bythe WahMbi movement in Arabia" passed over theMuslim communit ies in Africa and led on to anactive propaganda. I slam as a theocra tic systemdoes not recognize the limitations made by political influences between the various Muslim peoples,dividing them into different Sta tes, and so theseOrders, COmmon to all lands, can at Iny timeand everywhere exercise a very real influence inany direction which their leaders may choose.

]'or many centuries Islam has prevailed notonly on the northern coast of Africa bu t hasprogressed in the inter ior. Sti ll , the great advanceis to be dated from the end of the eighteenthcentury, or the beginning of the nineteenth, andhas been mlinly due to the increased energy anddevotion of the Religious Orders. The wholehinterland from the Red Sea to the Atlantic, IS


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7G TH E RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM TH E MUSLIM ADVANOE 77far south as six degrees north latitude, an d th ec ou nt ry o n t he eastern side of Africa down t o t hePortuguese terri tory is noW more or less underMuhammadau iufluence. Isla.m ha s passed alsofrom th e Sudan into the equatorial regions. I textends from two centres. From th e west it hasgone along th e Atlantic coast to Senegal, Timbuktuaud th e Hausa laud. :Drom th e eastern side th emodern movement began when Si Ahmad binIdris, th e Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Order, sent ou tmissionaries, during th e early part of th e nineteenth century. They won over th e MuslimNubians who then joined this Order in largenumbers aud, after this, miss ionary work beganamongs t the pagans of Kordufan. This workwas afterwards carried on under the influeneeof th e Mahdi, and is now susta ined by th e greatSanusiyya Order. These two currents, sometimes more warlike and fanatical; at other timesmore social and commercial, ar e advancing rapidlyinto all th e pagan l'egions. Th e presence of th eofficials of the great European Powers in Senegal,Timbuktn, Nigeria an d othel' pal'ts may have adeterrent effect on this oxpansion, fol' trade will nolonger be in th e hands of Muslim merclmnts, who,to their credit be it said, are active Missionades.One article of eommerce also, that of slaves, willno longer exist. I t has, however, been pointedou t that the improved means of communieation,

which follow on ol'derly rule in Afdca, in one wayfacil itates the Muslim prop"ganda. "Mnham-madan North Africa is advancing surely andste"dily southwards across th e SaMm, which isno longer the barrier it once was. Instead ofbeing an unbroken desert, as once thought, it isnow known to contain teeming pagan tribes. Agre"t range of mountains has hitherto proved anobstacle to advance, an d Mu1)amm"danism has beenkept in check, bu t wi th the part it ion of Africaamongot the Powers of Europe has come a newdanger: The old mountain-passes are now beingcrossed by roads, an d the existence of a protectivegovernment is encolll 'aging a ne w activity. TheQur'an is being brought down amongst th e pagantdbes "'nd is prevailing. When once claimed hyth e Muslims these t ribes will be te n times moredifficult to reach with the gospel." I Anotherpoint is that th e Arab slave-dealers have beenoverthrown and thus the action of th e civilizedPowers has taken away from Islam a great l'eproach, which th e pagans who were asked to bc-come converts could urge aga ins t th e MuslimInissiona.ries.Amongst the earl ier agents of this extensivemovement are th e Fulahs, th e most superiorrace in the Western Sudan. They are strict

1 The Rov. T. Broadwood Johnson, If C. M. S. ~ e v i e w , "June 1008, p. 354.


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80 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM THE FULAH DYNASTY 81stage oLmoral life. He has no disoontent and ,where that is absent, desire of improvement or ofa higber life is rarely found. Reform impliesimperfechion in Islam and tbat no Darwesb teacberwill admit can be tbe case. Tbe very pride in itwbich leads men to accept i t keeps i t s tat ionary.To admit tbat any other people are tbe equals ofMuslims, or that any creed can possibly be favourably compared witb tbat of Islam is heresy oftbe worst kind and, wberever Islam is predominant , would raise up a fanatical spirit of opposit ion. Tbe Darwesh propaganda in Africa is tbenneitber for tbe well-being of humani ty, or forthe prospects of civilization. Two French writers,men who are by no meanS narrow in religiousviews, have said, "It is impossible, when comparing the present state of Alden, with its formerstate, not to see how evil the influence of Islamhas been, n,nd not to desire that i t may shor tlygive place to a political system less limited andless demoralising." I "Tbe mystical and merciless doctrines of I slam are tbe absolute enemiesof all progress. The East remains immobile."To return, however, to the FuhLhs, i t mus t beborne in mind that they never thoroughly occupiedtbe country. Tbey held tbe larger towns butnever subjugated the pagan tribes in tbe moun-

1 Ga.nniers, II La ~ : r a . r o c , " p. 87.2 Frisch, II Le Maroc," p. 47.

tainous regions. A Fulah army left a districtwhere it operated a depopulated desert. Everyform of handicraft, every pursuit in life was taxed-so heavily that decadence soon set in. "Bribery,corruption and ex tor tion marked the so-calledadministration of justice, whilst the multiplicationof l;1arems and the growth of a large class of idleprinces led to nepotism and imposition of taxafter tax to meet the necessit ies of the rulersand their idle sons and relatives. No man's lifewas safe; common people were killed withoutcompunction ; notab les were removed by poisonor secret murder. Trade was paralaysed by extortionate levies and rendered difficult by theinsecurity of the roads." I

The Fulah dynasty as a dominant power couldnot have lasted much longer, for the country wasbeing denuded of its population and enormoustracts of land had gone out of cul tivat ion. Theoverthrow of this evil rule is a great gain tocivilization and humanity. Sokoto, the capital ofthe Fulah Sultanate, was easily captured by aBritish force in March 1903, and the empirefounded by Sbaikh Danfodio amongst the Rausasof Nigeria came to an end. A few months lLlter-the Sult,an a.nd many of his Emirs lost their livesin the defence of one of the towns. I f the spread

1 U Blue Book on Northern Nigeria," No. 409, 1903, p. 20.6

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Sell - Religious Orders of Islam

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