Seljuk Architecturea brief introduction

The most enduring testament of the Seljuk Empire to posterity is their architecture. A large number of Seljuk buildings still stand in Turkey to this day (despite numerous earthquakes), and can be considered some of the most distinguished monuments ever built in Islamic lands. Of exceptionally high order and quality, this is a powerful and direct architecture: rectilinear, balanced, dignified, imposing and imperious. It projects an image of noble severity at the same time as one of subtle majestic beauty. The sculptured and carved stone decoration, an integral part of the building scheme, forms a perfect complement to the strength and artistry of the architecture. The fact that such a sophisticated building program could have been achieved by an empire so busy at war and in such a short period of time makes the accomplishment all the more impressive.

The Seljuks built mosques, the educational and charitable institutions known as medreses, hans, mausoleums, bridges, palaces, public baths, and fortifications. They date mostly from the 13th century, with a few from the 12th.

Design analysis of the carved decoration used on the monuments has led art historians to the definition of a broad chronology of Seljuk architecture:

▪A short beginning period (up to 1215), characterized by a limited, sober and restrained use of decoration (Alaeddin Mosque, Onu and Altinapa hans). The design repertoire consisted of triangles, zigzags, the Greek key, arabesque and dogtooth motifs. The carving was in low relief.

▪This period was followed by what is known as the "Classical period" of Seljuk architecture, with a fully-developed style. Lasting only briefly (1215-1250), it encompasses the most outstanding buildings of the era, notably the Sultan hans, and the Karatay and Sircali Medreses in Konya. The area of decorated surfaces on the building was increased and the tracery carving became elaborate and highly-developed, with a large place given to the arabesque, animal and floral motifs, as well as medallion bosses.

▪ The extensive use of glazed tilework, geometrical compositions and the elaboration of sculpture characterizes the third period, known as the "Baroque" period (1250-1307), corresponding to the buildings erected during the period when the Seljuks were vassals to the Mongols. Notable monuments include the Sahip Ata mosque at Konya and the Çifte Medrese in Sivas.

FEATURES OF SELJUK ARCHITECTURE

▪The architecture of the Seljuks of Anatolia inherited many aspects from the numerous empires that preceded it or with which it came in contact: the Persians (Assyrians, Sassanians, Great Seljuks), the Greek and Roman sphere, the Armenians and the Byzantines. Although inspired by many design and construction elements, Seljuk architecture developed into its own distinct entity.

▪The distinguishing characteristic of Seljuk architecture is the monumental portal, built of stone, ornately decorated in a wide variety of techniques. These portals extend outward from the facade. The entrance is surmounted by a triangular arch filled with elaborate stalactite carving.

▪Another feature is the decoration in stone and faience. This design program comprises a combination of intricate stone carving and colorful glazed ceramic decoration in a palette of turquoise blue, cobalt blue, black and white. Design elements include calligraphy, use of polychrome bands of stone, vegetal and geometric patterns, and human and animal figures. Decoration on Seljuk monuments was used in moderation, and was concentrated around the main door or the sides of the entrance, or, in the case of mosques, on the minarets or domes. Its exuberance and color was a playful juxtaposition to the severity of the plain stone walls.

▪An important element of Seljuk building construction is the iwan, a large vaulted chamber left open at one end. The iwan provided shelter and allowed contact with the outdoors. Buildings could have 1, 2, 3, or 4 iwans around a central courtyard.

▪The dome, employed in Middle Eastern cultures since Assyrian times, is another distinctive feature of Seljuk architecture. The dome was supported by squinches or pendentives in a peculiar triangular shape, known as "Turkish triangles". The inside of

the dome was decorated with tiles or glazed bricks.

▪As opposed to the brick architecture of the Iranians and Byzantines, the walls of Seljuk buildings are made of rubble or rough stone which was then faced with large blocks of beautifully dressed stone, laid with great accuracy. Building materials were readily available on site as there are rich stone quarries in western Anatolia, extensive limestone quarries in the central plateau, and good clay deposits for making tiles.

BUILDING TYPESThe Anatolian Seljuks built the following types of structures : Mosques (both the larger "ulu" (great) mosques and the smaller "mescit" neighborhood mosquesMedreses (buildings for higher education in the sciences, astronomy or religion)Hospitals (şifahane) which could also be combined with a medical schoolCaravansaraisTomb towers (kumbet)Palaces and pavilionsBridgesMilitary constructions (castles, fortresses, city walls)Civil construction and urban development BathsOther building types: dervish lodges (tekke)MosquesThe largest mosque in a city was called the Ulu Cami, or "Great" mosque, and was located in the most prominent spot in the town. The typical mosque plan consisted of an enclosed rectangular space, and this due to climatic reasons. The nave was large with an elongated basilical form, and there was no forecourt. The mosques included minarets (usually single) and domes. As many of the Ulu Mosques were commissioned by the Sultan or by his viziers, they often had elaborate decorative programs, including carved woodwork for mimbars and furniture and tilework for mihrabs (prayer niche) and minarets, not to forget specially-commissioned carpets. They could have aisles parallel or perpendicular to the prayer niche. They were often built in conjunction with a medrese to form a complex known as a külliye. There exists a series of small, square-shaped mosques covered by a single dome, known as "mescits", notably in the region of Konya and Akşehir. These were neighborhood or bazaar mosques scattered throughout the city and which were used for daily prayer. During the late Seljuk and Beylik periods developed a particular subset of mosques, known as the

"mosques with wooden pillars". There were built with a forest of wooden pillars instead of stone piers in the interiors.

Medreses (schools for theology or science)The buildings of these educational institutions were rectangular in plan with an inner courtyard, either open or closed by a central with a dome, 1-4 iwans, and surrounding cells on one or two storeys. There were dormitory rooms for students located on the ground or first floor and which were equipped with fireplaces. The iwan halls were used for lectures. These often had lavishly-decorated entrance doorways topped by pointed arches.Hospitals This building type reflects the social dimension of the Seljuk state and its attachment to providing health care for all citizens. Hospitals were made available free of charge, and were operated by endowments set up by royalty or wealthy persons. The operating expenses were paid for by income from farmland and businesses determined by the endowment agreement. They were often operated in conjunction with a medrese used for the teaching of the doctors. The Seljuks paid much attention to the needs of the ill and the poor, especially as concerned health issues. Orphanages, mental institutions and almshouses followed the same general building plan as the medrese for building plan and decoration. In Divriği, the hospital is located next to the mosque; in other instances the hospital is attached to a medrese (Kayseri Cifte and Sivas Keykavus Medreses, for example).Hans (or Caravansarais)Of all of Seljuk buildings, there is one type of building that stands out from the others as particularly distinctive: the caravansarai, or han. These hans are interesting not only for their architecture and decor, but also for their purposeful agenda behind their development. They are indeed the most distinctive products of Seljuk architecture. They made their first appearance in Central Asia during the Karakhanid times, growing in response to the extensive trading network of Transoxiana. Of considerable size, they show impressive decor on their entrances.

K ü mbet tower tombs In addition to hans, the Seljuks also developed the specific building form of the tomb tower, known as a "kümbet", or "türbe". Turbes were of 2 types: a cylindrical tower with a low flat dome, sometimes covered on the outside with turquoise tiles; or a circular, polygonal or octagonal body fitted onto a square base by means of Turkish triangles and roofed with a conical turret. They often had carved inscriptions and figures. They comprised two storeys, with

Döner Kümbet, Kayseri, ca. 1275

the sarcophagus in the upper chamber, which also served as a mosque chapel with a mihrab. The empty sarcophagus serves as a marker for the remains of the deceased which are buried in the earth below it. The entrance to the upper chamber was set fairly high on one side. Türbes are the translation in stone of the former shamanistic tent tombs of the Turkomans. An important number of them can be found in the city of Kayseri. No one who has seen the forest of gravestones and the eleven Seljuk türbes in the cemetery of Ahlat overlooking Lake Van can forget their poetry and mystical evocation.

Palaces and pavilions Compared to the large dimensions of the mosques, medreses and hans, palaces were modest structures, built of rubble stone and brick. No complete example exists, but much information has been gleaned from excavations of several sites. The Kubadabad Saray ("palace"), on the southwest shore of Lake Beyşehir near Konya is the only Seljuk palace to have been systematically excavated. It was built in 1236, according to (as legend would have it) plans drawn up by Alaeddin Keykubad I himself. Composed of 16 pavilions and a hunting grounds, it was decorated with a spectacular program of mural tile decorations some 2 m. high (which can now be seen in the Karatay Museum in Konya). Excavations have revealed kitchens, apartments, pavilions and stables. There are traces of other Seljuk palaces. These include the Keykubadiye (1224-26) in Kayseri, which consisted of 3 pavilions decorated with geometric tiles, and the Alaeddin Kiosk in Konya, at the foot of the hill where stands the Alaeddin Mosque. Very little is known of this latter structure, other than it was 2 storeys high and probably served as the palace of the Sultan. Its construction was started by Kiliç Arslan II and was completed by Alaeddin Keykubad I. It is believed that its interior was decorated with stucco and tile. Other Seljuk palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad include the Alara Saray (1224), decorated with frescoes and tiles, and the kiosk at the rear of the stage of the Aspendos theater. The Sultans also built villas or "pleasure pavilions" for resting, entertaining or for hunting parties. These include the Haydar Bey, Hizir Ilyas and Kizil K ö şk structures outside of Kayseri, and the Gulefşen, Sedre and Hasbahce villas outside of Alanya.

Military and civil constructionThe most outstanding example of Seljuk military architecture is the Kizil Kule (“Red Tower”) castle on the hill above Alanya, built in 1226 by Alaeddin Keykubad I. It extends down to the sea and encloses a naval dockyard and arsenal guarded by a 33 m. high octagonal tower of red stone and

The Arsenal at Alanya

The Haydar Bey Pavilion

brick. Other military constructions include the city walls and fortifications of Alanya, Konya, and Sivas, as well as the sea walls at Sinop.

Civil and urban construction The urban plan of a Seljuk city comprised an administrative sector, which included a inner castle or palace, a commercial district which included bazaars, markets, and squares, as well as residential neighborhoods. The city comprised one large Ulu mosque and numerous neighborhood mosques. Urban constructions comprised covered and open markets, houses, gardens, streets with conduits for water and sewage, public water fountains, pools, and public baths. The more important cites (Konya, Kayseri and Sivas) were surrounded by walls with entry gates. There is no remaining example of a typical Seljuk house, but the plan probably comprised rooms opening onto a courtyard. A late Seljuk summer pavilion, the Haydar Bey Kiosk in Kayseri, can give some indication as to the layout of a Seljuk house.BathsAbundant mineral springs exist in Turkey, and the Seljuks took advantage of them by encouraging a building program for baths, spas and fountains (Havza, Kirşehir, Ilgin). Some of these mineral spas were reserved for horses and valuable animals. The plan appeared to be centered on an octagon with four iwans, and there was no central bathing pool as in the Roman-style baths. There were separate twin buildings for men and women, with a disrobing room, tepidarium, and hot room.

BridgesAn impressive number of Seljuk bridges exist to this day. They were built to accompany the building program of the hans, and comprise spans of pointed arches. They were built over both the major rivers of Turkey and also smaller rivers.Sundry constructionsDervish lodges, or tekke, were an important part of Seljuk society, but few remain standing today. An outstanding example of a Seljuk tekke is the Ş eyh Turesan Veli lodge outside of Kayseri.

Yildiz Bridge in Sivas Eğriköprü in Sivas Hidirlik Bridge in Tokat over the

Yeşilirmak River, 1250

Introduction and definition

WHAT IS A HAN ?

The architecture of the Seljuks of Anatolia (1077-1307) is seen at its most spectacular in an impressive group of buildings called hans or caravansarais, many of which still stand today. These buildings and the organization of their services are a testament to the energy and creativity of this short but glorious period of Islamic history.

The word is also rendered as caravanserai, caravansary, caravansaray, caravansara or khan. The word is based on a combination of the Persian words “karvan” (caravan, meaning a group of people engaged in long-distance travel) with “sara” (palace with enclosed courts) and the nominative suffix “yi”. A caravansarai is also known as khan in Persian, han or kervansaray in Turkish, and funduq in Arabic.

A caravansarai is a building to house a brief overnight stop-over of a caravan, which is a body of merchants who travel together for greater protection. It is thus an overnight inn for traveling merchants. These buildings are generally known in Turkish as "hans" or the more poetic caravansarai (written in Turkish as kervansaray), meaning "a palace for caravans". Palatial they were, and a closer look shows that they were more than just overnight inns along the road.

The typical Seljuk han is a monumental stone building with a huge, highly-decorated main portal which provided access to a large open courtyard and a vaulted hall to the rear. The outside walls are plain but may have side towers and supporting buttresses of cylindrical, half-octagonal or half hexagonal shape. In the larger hans, there are roof gutter spouts in the shape of stylized animals heads. The main portal is often elaborately decorated in carved stone with bands of geometric patterned elements, rows of Koranic inscriptions and stalactite vaulting known as muquarnas. Once inside the main door, the visitor would enter a large courtyard, surrounded by service rooms (dining hall, treasury, baths and latrines, repair shops and stores). The vaulted hall to the rear could also have a richly-decorated entry door. It was lit by a raised cupola in the middle and small slit windows.

Hans constituted the second largest group of Seljuk-era buildings after mosques. Although it is estimated from texts and references that there were over 250 of them built in Seljuk times, today, approximately only a hundred or so remain in various states of repair today. Some are intact, some restored, and many are in a ruined condition. The Turks began building hans upon their arrival in Anatolia. The earliest dated han appears to have been built in 1210 by Sultan Giyaseddin Keyhüsrev I, but the majority were built during the glory days of the Seljuk Empire from 1220-1250. They represent the second largest group of buildings after mosques in the Seljuk architectural program.

Six of the hans are known as “Sultan Hans”, as they were commissioned directly by the reigning sultan himself. These Sultan Hans include the Evdir, Sultan Han Aksaray, Sultan Han Kayseri, Incir, Şarafsa and Alara hans.

The Seljuk sultans of Rum, established in their capital at Konya, realized the importance of commerce to the prosperity of their empire. They set out to encourage incoming revenue by increasing the flow of transit goods throughout their lands. The first step taken was to repair the existing trade routes which had served merchants for generations. Having been neglected and fallen into disrepair during many years of constant warfare, these roads were repaired, with the existing bridges solidified and new ones built. They then undertook the construction of a network of merchant way-stations along these roads. This network was largely responsible for the expansion of both domestic and international trade. Hans connected trading centers both inside and outside the Empire, such as Tabriz, Baghdad, Aleppo, Alanya, Antalya, Izmir, Istanbul, Trabzon, Erzurum and Kayseri. These hans were built along specific trade routes which served the major cities of the empire. One main route led north from Antalya on the Mediterranean coast through Konya and Aksaray and on eastwards to Erzurum, and another led from the Black Sea coast to Tokat, Sivas, Amasya, and Malatya. Hans were constructed approximately every 18 to 25 miles, calculated on the distance a camel could cover in 9-10 hours, although this is not a fixed rule. Caravans were led by hard-driving entrepreneurs who often pushed their camels for 15-19 hours at a stretch. Some of the camels carried more than 400 pounds, and could go for 10 days without a drink of water. In many cases, hans were spaced very close together (for example the 4 hans on the short stretch of road between Konya and Beyşehir) or at great distances apart (in the east).

Hans did not just serve the needs of commercial caravans, but fulfilled other roles. They most probably had military uses, as did their predecessors, the ribats of Transoxania. They served as well as royal guesthouses for visiting sultans and dignitaries, as prisons, dervish lodges, government outposts for the Sultan during military campaigns, temporary residences for the Sultan while traveling to the various cities of his empire, and most probably as post offices.

Yet it is in their role as commercial structures that the hans will be remembered. In addition to ensuring support for precise trade functions, the hans proposed an entire social services structure. The building of hans and the social structure provided by them represent one of the most liberal institutions created by the Seljuks. Every traveler, whatever his nationality, religion or social status, was entitled to three days lodging with food, medical care and other services, all at the expense of the State. Complete care for the animals was provided as well, with the larger hans able to house up to 400 beasts of burden (donkeys, camels, and horses). Each han employed a physician, imam (religious official), inn keeper, wainwright, money changer, tailor, cobbler, superintendent of provisions, veterinary surgeon, messenger, blacksmith and cooks to provide these services.

Although most of the hans were built as pious endowments (usually by the Sultan, his family or his principle viziers), they were also revenue-generating operations, in order to ensure their upkeep and service needs.

The basic functions of the hans were thus to provide safety, shelter and services to tradesmen:

Safety was ensured by the thick stone walls, a single entrance with wooden bar to bolt it shut, buttresses and crenellations, roof watch platforms and small slit windows.

Shelter: All hans included stables for bedding and feeding of animals, places for loading and unloading of goods, and accommodation space for travelers. Most hans included two different levels. The lower section at the ground level housed the area reserved for animals, and an upper area, usually comprised of a raised flat platform approx. 3 feet height was reserved for humans and goods. These raised "loading dock" platforms made easier the loading and unloading of goods. Some of them include a row of basins underneath the arches, possibly for fodder and water for the animals. People would spread their bedding along these raised platforms, as they offered some elevation from the dirt and animals. A few of these platforms show remnants of the traditional tandir clay oven used for heating, cooking and baking.

Service areas were generally located on the sides of the courtyard. These comprised either open galleries or rooms (open or closed). The service facilities included spaces for administrative offices, food supplies, bathing and latrines, loading areas, storage and religious needs. The most common service areas were the single or double galleries with vaults parallel or perpendicular to the exterior wall. These single or double galleries were used to accommodate people, goods, and animals in warm weather. The raised "loading dock" platform is nearest to the arched openings, and the rear area was the stable section. In many cases, the courtyards also included enclosed spaces lining the sides of the courtyard, generally on one side only. There were often larger,

interconnected rooms near the entrance which were used for storage and administration. The smaller courtyard rooms were used for accommodations and often had a slit window or a window over the door. There is no rhyme or reason as to the number of rooms, galleries or to their layout, with each han presenting its own particular take to the organization of the services and their subsequent layout. The courtyards also had iwans, which are large open spaces enclosed on three sides. They were used for daytime use of travelers and sometimes for sleeping in warm weather. Generally raised up by 1-2 feet above ground level, they offer a separation from the general bustle and dustiness of the courtyard level where animals circulate.

Expenses for construction and maintenance were borne by the Sultan, or by other court members or private wealthy individuals who established foundations for their operating expenses. The deeds of trust of these foundations spelled out the guidelines of operations for each specific han. In addition, the State provided an insurance policy to compensate merchants who were attacked or robbed. Foreign merchants who came to Anatolia enjoyed extensive rights and reductions on customs duties. The hans also generated revenue, which was used for operations and upkeep.

There was a frenzy of han building in Seljuk Anatolia during the 13th century, and most were of a fairly homogenous type. The majority of these establishments were built during the period of great commercial expansion brought about by Giyaseddin Keyhusrev I, Izzeddin Keykavus I and Alaeddin Keykubad, in the years of 1204-1246. They belong for the most part to what is known as the "Classical period" of Seljuk architecture. According to contemporary sources (the Danishmendname and Ibn Bibi's Seljuqname), the Sultans themselves visited and stayed in hans, or used them for army postings. Sultan Hans were used by Izzeddin Keykavus and Rükneddin Kiliç Arslan as a fortress where they gathered their troops of some 10,000 men. Baybars I of Egypt stayed at the Karatay Han during his seige of Kayseri in 1276. Alaeddin Keykubad also supposedly stopped at his sultan han on his way from Konya to Kayseri.

In Europe at approximately the same time, the great Gothic cathedrals of Amiens and Rheims in France were being completed. Although these hans are more modest in program and construction techniques, they deserve to stand at their side in the historical timeline of great architectural endeavors.

DESCRIPTIONBecause so many Anatolian hans still stand today, it is possible to study them and formulate certain generalizations about this building group, such as their plans, patronage, road networks and their decoration. The Anatolian hans provide a distinctive and unified group for study. Please consult the section on

“Architecture of the Hans” for a more detailed discussion.

Although no two hans have the exact same plan, they all show the following characteristics:

They are built in one of 4 basic building plans, all of rectangular or square shape. They ranged in size from 500m2 to 4800 m2.

They were built of finely-hewn blocks of honey-colored local limestone (as opposed to the brick architecture of Iran or Byzantium), and their walls were thick and high to ensure safely from raids by robbers.

There was a single projecting monumental entrance gate, which insured control of comings and goings as well as providing security and defense. There was a vaulted vestibule inside the entrance, which usually contained rooms for the guards and other services .

Decoration was concentrated on these great entrance gates, which display some of the finest examples of Seljuk stone carving. The portal doors were made of iron to repel intruders. These doors were decorated with bands of geometric patterns, Koranic verses in calligraphic-stylized Arabic script, and stalactite vaulting (muquarnas). They are the decorative focal point for the han.

The massive solid outer walls were strengthened with rectangular, round or square towers at the corners and at intervals along the side walls, lending an appearance of a fortress. The walls are made of well-joined smooth stone, but are without decoration, except for the corner towers and buttresses, which could have geometric shapes (half-cylinder, or half octagon, or half-hexagon). The drain spouts for rainwater were often in the shape of animal or human heads.

The entry portal led to small entry vestibule, flanked by niches for guards and containing a room for the han's manager. This small hall led to a vast courtyard, surrounded by cells on one or two storeys. The caravans loaded and unloaded in these open courts. The courtyard also served for stabling or cobbling the animals. Iron rings were imbedded in the masonry for tethering. The courtyard sometimes had a raised central platform for storing goods above the ground and for facilitating loading and unloading. Animal attendants and grooms also may have slept here.

The ground floor cells around the courtyard served many purposes: rooms for storage, a bath house, lavatories, refectory, treasury, repair shop, accounting and exchange offices, and granaries. The second storey cells were the sleeping quarters. They were heated by braziers and illuminated by candles and lamps.

At the far end of the courtyard, a second massive decorated portal led into a large covered hall, with columns and piers arranged in rows to support transversal aisles with barrel-vaulted ceilings. The larger central aisle could contain a central cupola dome pierced with windows. These halls were generally poorly lit by slit windows set at a great height. It was in these halls that the goods were stored. Animals and their drivers were probably stabled

here in the winter months beside built-in stone water troughs. The length of the central nave in relation to its height was generally 3:1, and the relation of the length to width was 1:1.6.

Interior cells for sleeping were generally equipped with built-in fireplaces, cupboards and raised sleeping platforms.

If the han contained a mosque, it was either in the form of a cube in the middle of the courtyard (called a "Kiosk mescit", 4 examples) or was placed to the right of the entry vestibule or immediately above it, reached by an internal staircase. Other times the hans had simple stairways which led up from one side of the courtyard to the flat roof which was used for communal prayer.

There was usually a water source nearby, outside the han, or in the courtyard. Many hans had their own set of water systems, including drainage and sewers, inside the han. These wet systems serviced the latrines, baths and fountains. Not every han had a bath (hammam).

Lighting: most of the covered areas of the hans had slit windows in the exterior walls, but several have openings to the exterior other than the main door. The larger hans had a central oculi opening in the ceiling, which served both both lighting and ventilation. The interiors of the covered sections are thus very dark, and they were probably lit essentially by lanterns, as can be seen by the system of lion-head oil lamp holders in the Alara Han.

Ventilation: Hans often included a row of small rectangular holes at the level of the arch springing which appeared to have served for ventilation more than light, as they are quite small.

Classification by plan type

Although no two hans are alike, they have one of 4 major plan types: Hans with a covered section and an open courtyard: the covered with courtyard plan (COC)Hans of this type consist of two parts: an open courtyard and a covered hall-like section behind it. This is the most frequent type and is often referred to as the

"Classical scheme" of Anatolian hans. The covered section is referred to as a "hall", and in Turkish is known as the kişlik, or "winter section". This type is generally broken down into two subdivisions: 1) the hall and courtyard of same width, generally with 3 aisles running perpendicular to the back wall2) The courtyard being wider than the covered section, generally with a middle aisle and side aisles.Although the two sections can be of equal width, the hall is usually narrower than the courtyard. This covered section has a varying number of vaults, laying parallel or perpendicular to the portal and back wall. The covered section can contain a lantern dome in the center of the vaulting to admit light. The courtyard is usually arcaded with a vaulting system supported by piers, and can have one or two rows of cells. There can also be 1 to 4 iwans in the courtyard. The main entry to the han is often an elaborate stalactite portal with an entry vestibule section. In addition, the entry to the covered section is often again composed of a magnificent prominent portal, and can be decorated with stalactites as well. Lastly, the plan can comprise a small cubed mosque ("kiosk mescit" in Turkish) in the center of the courtyard, raised up on 4 piers.

Hans with a covered section only: the covered plan (C)This type consists of a closed, covered section (the hall) with no courtyard in front of it. This is not really a separate type, but a normal reduction in form of the covered section-courtyard. This type of han was used primarily in winter and are usually modest in size.. The vaulting system is supported by piers, and many contained a lantern dome in the center of the vaulting to admit light. Hans with this plan usually always show 3 aisles, in one or two directions. As they have all lost their inscription plaques (except the Şarafsa), dating is carried out by stylistic comparison.

Hans with a courtyard surrounded by cells: open-courtyard plan (OC)This type of han consists of an open courtyard, surrounded on all four sides by open arcades. These hans were used primarily in the summer. They can have one or two rows of cells surrounding the courtyard, and can include a covered section. This type is fairly rare.

Hans with a concentric plan (CON)A fairly evolved building type, this plan integrates the concept of the courtyard and the cells of the covered section. In this plan, the cell chambers of the covered section are laid out concentrically around an inner courtyard. The chambers were vaulted. Again, this type is fairly rare.The Classification system proposed by Friedrich Sarre and Kurt ErdmannThe basis for the classification system above was based on the work of the Islamic art historian Kurt Erdmann who developed a classification system for hans in his master work Das Anatolische Karavansaray des 13. Jahrhunderts, published in 1961. He distinguishes 2 main types, which depend on the presence or absence of a courtyard. He also added a third type, with an open courtyard surrounded by cells. The building typology for hans has traditionally followed this classification system

established by Erdmann. Other scholars have since added a fourth category, the concentric plan. The three classification types of Erdmann are thus:

hans with a covered (closed) section and a courtyard hans with a covered section only, without a courtyard hans with an open courtyard surrounded by cells

His classification criteria further included the relationship between the size of the closed section and the courtyard, and the number and direction of the vaults in the closed section. He reasoned that hans could be dated by the relationship of the width of the closed section and the courtyard: he postulated that if the two are equal, the han dates to the early 13th c., and if the courtyard is wider than the closed section, it dates from 1230-1240.Exact dating of hans is not always possible, as inscription plaques are missing or were never installed. A comparison of undated hans with similar building plans with fixed dating has traditionally been used to attribute dates. Post-Erdmann research and the "Shelter" typology classification systemAs can be expected, there are numerous exceptions to the general classification scheme proposed by Erdmann. Much research has been done over the past 30 years which brings new light to the functions of hans. Erdmann's classification system is currently being revisited by modern scholars, notably A. T. Yavuz. Ms. Yavuz presents a solid argument for the rejection of Kurt Erdmann's classification system for hans, as she believes that using the courtyard for the deciding feature of typology is questionable, and that the plan alone is not pertinent for dating purposes. She proposes a different criteria based on the functional analysis of the concept of shelter. It is certain that one can question the reasoning behind Erdmann's assumption that hans could be dated by the relationship of the width of the closed section and the courtyard. As stated above, he postulated that if the two are equal, the han dates to the early 13th c., if the courtyard is wider than the closed section, it dates from 1230-1240. Unfortunately, there is no justification for this assumption. Since the publication of Erdmann's work in 1961, much research has been conducted on individual hans, many of which are published as doctoral theses. This research has revealed new information concerning construction techniques and water systems, and has led to a new classification based on the analysis of function. Yavuz believes that function drove the design concept, and that this main function was to provide safety and shelter. She believes that the courtyard should not be the starting point or nucleus for the design, and the presence of a construction joint between the closed section and the courtyard shows that construction started with the closed section. The analysis of the way that hans functioned has led to her plan typology of "Shelter Only Hans" and "Hans with Shelter and Services". Such a functional analysis shifts the emphasis from the courtyard to the shelter function, whether the plan is closed or semi-open. Relative to this "with or without services" typology, Yavuz proposes two distinct design schemes for the plan organization of the service spaces: 1) the spaces are arranged in an additive fashion, either grouped at the entry or placed along the courtyard one next to the other as needed (Sultan Han Aksaray, Ak, Sari, Kirkgöz, Kargi, Ağzikara Han) or 2) the spaces are

arranged in 1-3 rings radiating concentrically around an open courtyard (Esab-i Keyf, Alara).Her argument that hans were designed to respond to service needs is solid, and Erdmann himself would probably not disagree to such an approach. This plan typology also seeks to remove the need for a hypothesis about tracing the origins of the han, and removes the importance of the presence or absence courtyard as the central design element. That hans were built driven by service needs seems to be obvious, yet this typology does not offer a tool for dating of hans.Despite the questioning of Erdmann's typology by current researchers such as Yavuz, it remains remains a useful organizational scheme for understanding the architecture of hans, especially for those new to their study. For this reason it will be used in describing the hans on this site.

***Catalog of hans as per each of Erdmann's 4 design plan typesHANS WITH A COVERED SECTION AND AN OPEN COURTYARD (COC)

1. With covered section and courtyard of the same width Covered section with parallel aisles running perpendicular to the rear wall-Covered section with 3 parallel aisleswith 4 vaultsEli-Kesik

with 5 vaultsAltinapaDokuzunwith 6 vaultsKuruçeşmeArgit

Covered section with a middle aisle and side aisles running parallel to the back wall-With one row of vaults in each aisle with 5 vaults

Akbaş-With two rows of vaults in each aislewith 5 vaultsDolay

2. With covered section smaller than courtyard Covered section with aisles running parallel to the rear wall-Covered section with 3 parallel aisles

with 4 vaultsAk with 5 vaultsErtokuşTahtobaDurak

with 6 vaults KizilörenÇakalliKadinHekimKesikköprü-Covered section with 5 parallel aisleswith 6 vaultsÇardak

Covered section with a middle aisle and side aisles-with one row of vaults in each side aislewith 6 vaultsPazar-with two rows of cross vaults in each side aislewith 5 vaultsHorozluSusuzSari AvanosCimcimliÇaywith 6 vaultsAğzikaraZazadinwith 7 vaultsAlaySultan Han KayseriIncirKaratayEğridir (?)with 8 vaultsObrukwith 9 vaults Sultan Han Aksaray

HANS WITH COVERED SECTION ONLY (NO COURTYARD) (C) Covered section with aisles running parallel to the rear wall-Covered section with 3 parallel aisleswith 4 vaultsKuruwith 5 vaultsDeve

EğretÇiftlikEzinepazar (?)

Covered section with a middle aisle and side aisles-with two rows of vaults in each aislewith 7 vaultsÖresin

One large central aisleŞarafsa

HANS WITH AN OPEN COURYARD SURROUNDED BY CELLS (NO COVERED SECTION) (OC)Evdir KirkgözKargiAlaraEshab-I Keyf

HANS WITH A CONCENTRIC PLAN AlaraTercan

"LOADING DOCKS"These raised platforms were especially useful for the traveling merchants. These platforms, or "loading docks", have cut-stone side walls and pavement, and are approx. 4 feet high. They exist in some 20 hans, although it can be assumed that they were present in all of them. These raised platforms made it easier to unload goods from the backs of camels. The goods were stored on top of these platforms for the duration of the merchant's stay in the han. Remnants in a few hans show that there were stone basins under the arches of the platform area, probably holding water and fodder for the animals. People would spread their bedding on these raised platforms

and would sleep alongside of their unloaded goods. The raised area would offer some degree of cleanliness from the courtyard area which held the animals. Some of these platforms even show remains of a tandir, or the traditional Anatolian clay oven.In the majority of the hans, each platform or stable area is covered by a barrel vault. A common format was to have a wide platform area with a stable area on each side, thus comprising thus three vaulted galleries (Akhan). When there are five bays, the raised platform band forms a U, but the vaults may change direction. This was the typical layout for the larger hans such as the Aksaray Sultan, Ağzikara and Sari hans.

BATHS and LATRINESWhile most of the larger hans had mosques, it has been harder to find the exact traces of bathing areas. There are only 6 known baths in the covered hall open courtyard type: Sultan Han Aksaray, Sultan Han Kayseri, Sari, Ak, Ağzikara, Elikesik, Ertokuş. To the right of the Cimcimli Han is a ruined structure, with stones decorated with Byzantine motifs, which was probably a hot springs bath. In the larger hans, the baths included all the traditional sections of an urban public hammam, from cold room to hot room, but on a reduced scale. It can be assumed that the Karatay, in view of its size, had baths. In light of the importance placed on cleanliness in the Islamic culture and as a requisite for prayer, all hans must have had some provision for ablutions and bathing. It can be assumed that the latrines were near the bathing areas, yet there is a lack of clear-cut architectural evidence for the provision of wet services. No remains of latrines have been found, but they must have been at the end of the stables and had wooden partitions similar to those in a group of latrines in the courtyard of the Aksaray Sultan Han. It would make sense that the latrine area be located in the same area as the stables, and may have been a simple space partitioned with curtains. The Evdir han had a latrine in one of the outer abutments. In the Kargi and Aksaray Sultan Han, the latrines were grouped together in a large corner space. The latrines in the latter occupy the large space at the northwest corner of the courtyard, with a deep stone channel encircling the space on the east, north and west sides. Apparently there were several individual latrines along the channel, divided by timber partitions.KITCHENSFeeding the important numbers of visitors must have been a major activity in the daily life of the han. Once again, there appears to be a lack of specific evidence for designated spaces for cooking. There are no spaces that can be clearly identified as a kitchen, with chimneys, fireplaces or water systems. One must assume that cooking was done in the various cells in the courtyard, or campfire style with portable tandir ovens in the middle of the courtyard or in a courtyard arcade.

OUTER BUILDINGSMeant as outlying trading posts, most hans by their very nature were isolated from other buildings and the town. Other contiguous buildings are sometimes noted, their occurrence probably coming after the building of the han as a natural consequence of growth.

WATER SOURCES

All of the hans had a source of fresh water nearby, either from a fresh-running water source such as a river (Sari, Kesikkopru), lake, or by springs, wells or cisterns (Kirkgöz, Evdir). No water source can be determined for about 15 hans, but it can be supposed that there was one nearby that has since dried up.DOMESDomes were located at the cross vaults and over the mescit prayer rooms. Unfortunately, most of them have collapsed.CRENELATIONThe roofs of the hall and courtyard are generally flat but usually contain crenelation.TOWERSMany hans have massive towers on their outer walls. They can be or the side of the courtyard or the hall, or can be at the corners (in hall or courtyard). They can be of many shapes: half-round, polygon, square, T-shaped, star-shaped.