Seismic Reflection Saudi Arabian petroleum resources Onshore wells = costs range from $15 million for deep and difficult wells Deepwater drilling rig rates in 2010 were about $420,000/day * a deep water well of duration of 100 days can cost around US$100 million (can be in water almost 2.5 km deep) Deepwater Horizon rig designed to operate in waters up to 2.4 km deep and drill down over 9 km into the seafloor Pump Jack: Trans-Alaska Pipeline: (why is it above ground?) Petroleum Pipelines: Keystone Pipeline: Petroleum Pipelines: Ogallala aquifer Oklahoma Dust Bowl Oklahoma Today Ogallala aquifer Keystone Pipeline: Network of Major Natural Gas Pipelines in the U.S.: Network of Natural Gas Pipelines, U.S. and Canada: Oil Refinery in Anacortes, WA Louisiana Oil Refineries: Subject to Earths Cooperation Flooded Oil Refinery In Kansas City along the Missouri River Proven World Reserves of Oil (CIA, World Factbook, 2011) Total = 1.3+ Trillion Barrels Oil Industry Resources Estimate: 5 Trillion Barrels Change in declared reserves for some OPEC countries U.S. uses 20 million barrels/day (25% of World) (7.3 billion/year) The World uses 84 million barrels/day (31 billion/year) U.S. reserves = 24 billion barrels (3.3 years) World reserves = 1400 billion barrels (45 years) World Oil Production and the Hubbert Curve (Marion King Hubbert, Shell Oil geophysicist, ) Countries that have already reached peak production (2004): World Oil Production and the Hubbert Curve: Projection EROI = Energy returned on energy invested Petroleum Production, long term (Hubbert Blip) Arctic Oil Reserves = ~ 44 billion barrels Petroleum Consumption, by Country Major Oil Trade Movements Natural Gas Reserves World Reserves = 300 trillion cubic meters World Consumption = 105 trillion cubic feet/year (60 years) Natural Gas Production World Reserves = 300 trillion cubic meters World Production = 3.4 trillion cubic meters per year (88 years)** Fracking- Hydraulic Fracturing a way of retrieving natural gas from shale layers Fracking- Hydraulic Fracturing: Environmental Concerns Fracking Earthquakes: Wastewater injected into the Ozark aquifer of Arkansas leaked into a deeper unknown fault. The heightened water pressure in the fault relieved just enough of the squeeze on the fault to allow earthquakes. Methane Gas Hydrates: Methane gas hydrate forming below a rock overhang at the sea floor on the Blake Ridge diapir. This image, taken from the DSV Alvin during the NOAA- sponsored Deep East cruise in 2001, marked the first discovery of gas hydrate at the sea floor on the Blake Ridge. Methane bubbling out of the sea floor below this overhang quickly freezes, forming this downward hanging hydrate deposit, dubbed the "inverted snowcone." Methane Gas Hydrates: Methane Gas Hydrates: Early Projections (estimated to be 1000s of Pg (petagrams)) Methane Gas Hydrates: Solid hydrate forms at HIGH PRESSURE Methane Gas Hydrates: Solid hydrate forms at HIGH PRESSURE Solid hydrate forms at LOW TEMPERATURE Methane Gas Hydrates: ODP scientific drilling and geophysical studies of seafloor gas hydrate off Vancouver Island BSR = Bottom-Simulating Reflector Methane Gas Hydrates: Example of a strong BSR near ODP Site 889 off Vancouver Island showing the simple negative impedance reflection waveform, opposite to that of the seafloor Methane Gas Hydrates: Temperature-depth conditions for the stability of gas hydrate beneath the seafloor at mid-latitudes Methane Gas Hydrates: Trying to bring methane gas hydrates to the surface Methane Gas Hydrates Technical problems with retrieving methane clathrates: (a) Although the total gas amounts are huge, most natural hydrate represents a quite low energy density (b) Substantial latent heat must be provided for dissociation (c) The sediments are often fine grained, unconsolidated, and low permeability silts. (d) Turns to gas as it is brought to the surface.