Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262
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Transcript of Section 10.1 Summary – pages 253-262
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•In 1905, Reginald Punnett, an English biologist, devised a shorthand way of
finding the expected proportions of possible genotypes in the offspring of a
cross.
Punnett Squares
•This method is called a Punnett square.
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•If you know the genotypes of the parents, you can use a Punnett square to
predict the possible genotypes of their offspring.
Punnett Squares
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Probability and Punnett Squares
A. Genetics and Probability
a. If you flip a coin three times in a row what is the
probability that it will land on heads up every time?
B. Punnett Squares
a. Monohybrid Cross
b. Genotype Ratio
c. Phenotype Ratio
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Punnett Square-MonohybridMonohybrid Cross
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Punnett Square-Monohybrid
•Punnett Squares – Ratios
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•In reality you don’t get the exact ratio of results shown in the square.
Probability
•That’s because, in some ways, genetics is like flipping a coin—it
follows the rules of chance.
•The probability or chance that an event will occur can be determined by
dividing the number of desired outcomes by the total number of possible
outcomes.
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Probability
•A Punnett square can be used to determine the probability of getting a pea
plant that produces round seeds when two plants that are heterozygous (Rr)
are crossed.
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•The Punnett square shows three plants
with round seeds out of four total
plants, so the probability is 3/4.
Probability
R r
R
r
RR Rr
Rr rr
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Probability
•It is important to remember that the
results predicted by probability are more
likely to be seen when there is a large
number of offspring.
R r
R
r
RR Rr
Rr rr
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Question 1
The passing on of characteristics from parents to offspring is __________.
D. allelic frequency
C. pollination
B. heredity
A. genetics
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Question 2
What are traits?
A. Traits are characteristics that are inherited.
B. Height, hair color and eye color are examples.
C. Different gene forms
D. Both A and B
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Question 3
Gametes are __________.
D. fertilized cells that develop into adult organisms
C. both male and female sex cells
B. female sex cells
A. male sex cells
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Question 4
Which of the following genotypes represents a plant that is homozygous for
height?
D. tt
C. tT
B. Hh
A. Tt
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Answers
1. B
2. D
3. C
4. D
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Complex Patterns of Inheritance
•Patterns of inheritance that are explained by
Mendel’s experiments are often referred to as
simple.•However, many inheritance patterns are more
complex than those studied by Mendel.
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Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a
third phenotype•When inheritance follows a pattern of dominance,
heterozygous and homozygous dominant
individuals both have the same phenotype.•
When traits are inherited in an incomplete
dominance pattern, however, the phenotype of
heterozygous individuals is intermediate between
those of the two homozygotes.
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Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a
third phenotype•
For example, if a homozygous red-flowered
snapdragon plant (RR) is crossed with a
homozygous white-flowered snapdragon plant (R′
R′), all of the F1 offspring will have pink flowers.
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Incomplete dominance:
Appearance of a third phenotype•
Red•
White
•All pink
•Red (RR)
•White (R’R’)
•Pink (RR’)
•Pink (RR’)
•All pink flowers
•1 red: 2 pink: 1 white
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Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a
third phenotype
•The new phenotype occurs because the flowers
contain enzymes that control pigment production.•
The R allele codes for an enzyme that produces a
red pigment. The R’ allele codes for a defective
enzyme that makes no pigment.
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Incomplete dominance: Appearance of a
third phenotype
•Because the heterozygote has only one copy of the
R allele, its flowers appear pink because they
produce only half the amount of red pigment that
red homozygote flowers produce.
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•Red
•White
•All pink
•Red (RR)
•White (R’R’)
•Pink (RR’)
•Pink (RR’)
•All pink flowers
•1 red: 2 pink: 1 white
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Codominance:
Expression of both alleles•Codominant alleles cause the phenotypes of both
homozygotes to be produced in heterozygous
individuals. In codominance, both alleles are
expressed equally.
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Multiple phenotypes from multiple alleles
•Although each trait has only two alleles in the
patterns of heredity you have studied thus far, it is
common for more than two alleles to control a trait
in a population.•Traits controlled by more than two alleles have
multiple alleles.
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•In humans the diploid number of chromosomes
is 46, or 23 pairs.•There are 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes
called autosomes. Homologous autosomes look
alike.•The 23
rd pair of chromosomes differs in males
and females.
Sex determination
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•These two chromosomes, which determine the sex
of an individual, are called sex chromosomes and
are indicated by the letters X and Y.
Sex determination
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•If you are female, your
23rd
pair of
chromosomes are
homologous, XX. •If you are male, your
23rd
pair of
chromosomes XY,
look different.
•X
•X
•Female
•Y
•X
•Male
Sex determination
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•Males usually have one X and one Y chromosome
and produce two kinds of gametes, X and Y.•
Females usually have two X chromosomes and
produce only X gametes.•
It is the male gamete that determines the sex of the
offspring.
Sex determination
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•XX
Female
•XY Male
•X
•X
•X
•Y
•XX
Female
•XY Male
•XX
Female
•XY Male
Sex determination
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•Traits controlled by genes located on sex
chromosomes are called sex-linked traits.•
The alleles for sex-linked traits are written as
superscripts of the X or Y chromosomes.•
Because the X and Y chromosomes are not
homologous, the Y chromosome has no
corresponding allele to one on the X chromosome
and no superscript is used.
Sex-linked inheritance
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•Also remember that any recessive allele on the X
chromosome of a male will not be masked by a
corresponding dominant allele on the Y
chromosome.
Sex-linked inheritance
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•Females:
•Males:
•1/2 red eyed
•1/2 white eyed
•all red eyed
•White-eyed male (X
rY)
•Red-eyed
female
(XR
XR
)
•F1 All red eyed
•F2
Sex-linked inheritance
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•The genes that govern sex-linked traits follow the
inheritance pattern of the sex chromosome on
which they are found.
Sex-linked inheritance
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•Polygenic inheritance is the inheritance pattern of
a trait that is controlled by two or more genes.
•The genes may be on the same chromosome or on
different chromosomes, and each gene may have
two or more alleles.•Uppercase and lowercase letters are used to
represent the alleles.
Polygenic inheritance
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•However, the allele represented by an
uppercase letter is not dominant. All
heterozygotes are intermediate in phenotype.•In polygenic inheritance, each allele
represented by an uppercase letter
contributes a small, but equal, portion to the
trait being expressed.
Polygenic inheritance
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•The result is that the phenotypes usually show a
continuous range of variability from the minimum
value of the trait to the maximum value.•
Examples in humans: height, eye color, intelligence, skin color
Polygenic inheritance
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Environmental Influences•
The genetic makeup of an organism at fertilization
determines only the organism’s potential to develop
and function.•As the organism develops, many factors can
influence how the gene is expressed, or even
whether the gene is expressed at all.•Two such influences are the organism’s external
and internal environments.
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•Temperature, nutrition, light, chemicals, and
infectious agents all can influence gene expression.
Influence of external environment
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•In arctic foxes
temperature has an
effect on the
expression of coat
color.
Influence of external environment
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•External influences can also be seen in leaves.
Leaves can have different sizes, thicknesses, and
shapes depending on the amount of light they receive.
Influence of external environment
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Influence of internal environment
•The internal environments
of males and females are
different because of
hormones and structural
differences.•An organism’s age can
also affect gene
function.
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Which of the following does NOT have an effect on
male-pattern baldness?
Question 1
D. incomplete dominance C. sex-linked inheritance
B. internal environment
A. hormones
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Answer
D. incomplete dominance
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•Remember that in codominance, the phenotypes of
both homozygotes are produced in the heterozygote.
Codominance in Humans
•One example of this in humans is a group of
inherited red blood cell disorders called sickle-cell
disease.
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•In an individual who is homozygous for the sickle-
cell allele, the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin
differs by one amino acid from normal hemoglobin.
Sickle-cell disease
•This defective hemoglobin forms crystal-like
structures that change the shape of the red blood
cells. Normal red blood cells are disc-shaped, but
abnormal red blood cells are shaped like a sickle, or
half-moon.
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•The change in shape occurs in the body’s
narrow capillaries after the hemoglobin
delivers oxygen to the cells.
•Normal red
blood cell
•Sickle cell
Sickle-cell disease
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•Abnormally shaped blood cells, slow blood flow, block
small vessels, and result in tissue damage and pain.
•Normal red
blood cell
•Sickle cell
Sickle-cell disease
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•Individuals who are heterozygous for the allele
produce both normal and sickled hemoglobin, an
example of codominance.•Individuals who are heterozygous are said to have
the sickle-cell trait because they can show some
signs of sickle-cell-related disorders if the
availability of oxygen is reduced.
Sickle-cell disease
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•Mendel’s laws of heredity also can be applied to
traits that have more than two alleles.
Multiple Alleles Govern Blood Type
•The ABO blood group is a classic example of a
single gene that has multiple alleles in humans.
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•Human Blood Types
•lA
lA
or lA
li•
lB
lB
or lB
i•
lA
lB
•ii
•Genotypes •
Surface Molecules•
Phenotypes•
A•
B•
A and B•
None
•A
•B
•AB
•O
Multiple Alleles Govern Blood Type
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•Determining blood type is necessary before a person
can receive a blood transfusion because the red blood
cells of incompatible blood types could clump
together, causing death.
The importance of blood typing
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•The gene for blood type, gene l, codes for a molecule that
attaches to a membrane protein found on the surface of
red blood cells.
The ABO Blood Group
•The l
A and l
B alleles each code for a different molecule.
•Your immune system recognizes the red blood cells as
belonging to you. If cells with a different surface
molecule enter your body, your immune system will attack
them.
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• The lA
allele is dominant to i, so
inheriting either the lA
i alleles or
the lA
lA
alleles from both
parents will give you type A
blood.
Phenotype A
•Surface molecule A is produced.
•Surface molecule A
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• The lB
allele is also dominant
to i.
• To have type B blood, you must
inherit the lB
allele from one parent
and either another lB
allele or the i
allele from the other.
•Surface molecule B is produced.
•Surface molecule B
Phenotype B
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• The lA
and lB
alleles are
codominant. • This means that if you inherit the
lA
allele from one parent and the lB
allele from the other, your red
blood cells will produce both
surface molecules and you will
have type AB blood.
•Surface molecule B
•Surface molecule A
Phenotype AB
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•The i allele is recessive and
produces no surface molecules.
•Therefore, if you are
homozygous ii, your blood
cells have no surface molecules
and you have blood type O.
Phenotype O
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•Many human traits are determined by genes
that are carried on the sex chromosomes; most
of these genes are located on the X
chromosome.
Sex-Linked Traits in Humans
•The pattern of sex-linked inheritance is
explained by the fact that males, who are XY,
pass an X chromosome to each daughter and a
Y chromosome to each son.
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•Females, who are XX, pass one of their X
chromosomes to each child.
•Male
•Female
•Sperm
•Eggs
•Female
•Female
•Male
•Male
•Female
•Male
•Male
•Male
•Female
•Female
•Eggs
•Sperm
Sex-Linked Traits in Humans
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•If a son receives an X chromosome with a recessive
allele, the recessive phenotype will be expressed
because he does not inherit on the Y chromosome
from his father a dominant allele that would mask
the expression of the recessive allele.•
Two traits that are governed by X-linked recessive
inheritance in humans are red-green color blindness
and hemophilia.
Sex-Linked Traits in Humans
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•People who have red-green
color blindness can’t
differentiate these two
colors. Color blindness is
caused by the inheritance of
a recessive allele at either
of two gene sites on the X
chromosome.
Red-green color blindness
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•Hemophilia A is an X-linked disorder that causes a
problem with blood clotting.
Hemophilia: An X-linked disorder
•About one male in every 10 000 has hemophilia,
but only about one in 100 million females inherits
the same disorder.
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•Males inherit the allele for hemophilia on the X
chromosome from their carrier mothers. One
recessive allele for hemophilia will cause the
disorder in males.•Females would need two recessive alleles to inherit
hemophilia.
Hemophilia: An X-linked disorder
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•Although many of your traits were inherited through
simple Mendelian patterns or through multiple
alleles, many other human traits are determined by
polygenic inheritance.
Polygenic Inheritance in Humans
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•In the early 1900s, the idea that polygenic
inheritance occurs in humans was first tested
using data collected on skin color.•
Scientists found that when light-skinned people mate
with dark-skinned people, their offspring have
intermediate skin colors.
Skin color: A polygenic trait
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•This graph shows
the expected
distribution of
human skin color
if controlled by
one, three, or
four genes.
•Number of Genes Involved in Skin Color
•Observed
distribution of
skin color
•Expected
distribution- 1 gene
•Expected
distribution- 4 genes
•Expected
distribution- 3 genes
•Range of skin color
•Light
•Right
•N
umbe
r of
indi
vidu
als
Skin color: A polygenic trait
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Punnett Square-Dihybrid
RrYy x RrYy
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F1 cross: RrYy ´ RrYy
round
yellow
round
green
wrinkled
yellow
wrinkled
green
Punnett Square of Dihybrid Cross
Gametes from RrYy parent
RY Ry rY ry
Gam
etes
from
RrY
y pa
rent
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RRYy RRYy RrYy Rryy
RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
Dihybrid crosses
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A family tree traces a family name and various family
members through successive generations.
Through a family tree, you can identify the
relationships among your cousins, aunts, uncles,
grandparents, and great-grandparents.
Making a Pedigree
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A pedigree is a graphic representation of genetic
inheritance.It is a diagram made up of a set of symbols that
identify males and females, individuals affected by
the trait being studied, and family relationships.
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•Male
•Female
•Affected male
•Affected female
•Mating
•Parents
•Siblings
•Known heterozygotes for recessive
allele
•Death
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•In a pedigree, a
circle represents a
female; a square
represents a male.
•Female
•Male
•?
•I
•II
•III
•IV
•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•Highlighted circles
and squares represent
individuals showing
the trait being
studied.
•?
•I
•II
•III
•IV
•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•Circles and squares
that are not
highlighted designate
individuals that do
not show the trait.
•?
•I
•II
•III
•IV
•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•A half-shaded
circle or square
represents a
carrier, a
heterozygous
individual.
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
•?
•I
•II
•III
•IV
•A horizontal line
connecting a circle and
a square indicates that
the individuals are
parents, and a vertical
line connects parents
with their offspring.
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•Each horizontal row
of circles and squares
in a pedigree
designates a
generation, with the
most recent
generation shown at
the bottom.
•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
•?
•I
•II
•III
•IV
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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•1 •
2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•2
•4
•3
•3
•5
•4
•4
•5
•?
•The generations are
identified in
sequence by Roman
numerals, and each
individual is given
an Arabic number.
•I
•II
•III
•IV
Pedigrees illustrate inheritance
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Simple Recessive Heredity
Most genetic disorders are caused by recessive alleles.
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a fairly common genetic
disorder among white Americans.
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•Approximately one in 28 white Americans carries
the recessive allele, and one in 2500 children born
to white Americans inherits the disorder.•Due to a defective protein in the plasma membrane,
cystic fibrosis results in the formation and
accumulation of thick mucus in the lungs and
digestive tract.
Cystic fibrosis
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Tay-Sachs disease
Tay-Sachs (tay saks) disease is a recessive disorder
of the central nervous system.
In this disorder, a recessive allele results in the
absence of an enzyme that normally breaks down a
lipid produced and stored in tissues of the central
nervous system. Because this lipid fails to break down properly, it
accumulates in the cells.
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•I
•II
•III
•IV
•1
•2
•1
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•4
•3
Tay-Sachs Pedigree
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Phenylketonuria (fen ul kee tun YOO ree uh), also called
(PKU), is a recessive disorder that results from the
absence of an enzyme that converts one amino acid,
phenylalanine, to a different amino acid, tyrosine.Because phenylalanine cannot be broken down, it and
its by-products accumulate in the body and result in
severe damage to the central nervous system.
Phenylketonuria
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A PKU test is normally performed on all infants a few
days after birth.Infants affected by PKU are given a diet that is low in
phenylalanine until their brains are fully developed.
Ironically, the success of treating
phenylketonuria infants has resulted in a
new problem.
Phenylketonuria
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If a female who is homozygous recessive for PKU
becomes pregnant, the high phenylalanine levels in
her blood can damage her fetus—the developing
baby.This problem occurs even if the fetus is heterozygous
and would be phenotypically normal.
Phenylketonuria
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•Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine
Phenylketonuria
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Simple Dominant Heredity
Remember that in Mendelian inheritance, a single
dominant allele inherited from one parent is all that
is needed for a person to show the dominant trait.
Many traits are inherited just as the rule of dominance
predicts.
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Simple dominant traits
A cleft chin, widow’s
peak hairline,
hitchhiker’s thumb,
almond shaped eyes,
thick lips, and the
presence of hair on the
middle section of your
fingers all are examples
of dominant traits.
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Huntington’s disease
Huntington’s disease is a lethal genetic disorder
caused by a rare dominant allele.
It results in a breakdown of certain areas of the
brain.
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Ordinarily, a dominant allele with such severe effects
would result in death before the affected individual
could have children and pass the allele on to the
next generation.But because the onset of Huntington’s disease usually
occurs between the ages of 30 and 50, an individual
may already have had children before knowing
whether he or she is affected.
Huntington’s disease
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•I
•1
•II
•III
•2
•1
•1
•3
•2
•2
•4
•3
•4
•5
•5
Huntington’s disease
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Question 1
Which of the following diseases is the result of a
dominant allele?
D. phenylketonuria
C. cystic fibrosis
B. Tay-Sachs disease
A. Huntington’s disease
The answer is A.