Second Language Learner and Pronunciation Kerry Thomson Oviedo 1980

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K E R R Y T H O MS O N O V I E D O

T H E S E C O N D L N G U G E L E R N E R

N D P R O N U N C I T I O N

D ssertação para obtenção do Gr au deMest re, Área de Concent ração: Lí nguaI ngl esa, do Cur so de Pós- Graduação emLetras. Setor de Ci ênci as Humanas , Le-tras e Artes da Uni versi dade Federal doParaná.

C U R I T I B A19 80



PROFESSORA ORI ENTADORA

Dout or a OTÍ L I A ARNST i t ul ar de L í ngua eL i t er at ur a I ngl es a daUni v er s i da de F ede r a ldo Par aná .



CONTENTS

PageABSTRACT i v

RESUMO vi

I NTRODUCTI ON I

1. 1 The t heme and i t s i mpor t ance I

2 THE PROBLEM 2

2. 2 I mpl i cat i ons of t he r es ear c h pr o bl em . . . . 2

2. 3 Obj e c t i v es 3

3 METHODOL OGY 3

4 CRI T ERI A . . . . . 5

5 THE DI SCUSSI ON . . . . . 8

5. 1 The l anguage l ear ni ng model . . . . . . . . 8

5. 2 Language l ear ni ng s t r a t egi es 20

5. 3 Language Expos ur e 25

5. 4 App l i ca t i on o f t he mode l 29

5. 5 I ndi v i dual l ear ner c har ac t er i s t i c s 33

5. 6 An e xpe r i me nt a l s t udy of f ac t or s a f f ec t i ng

pr onunc i at i on ac cur ac y . . . . v . . . . . . 38

5. 7 Af f e c t i v e f a ct or s and pr o nunc i a t i o n ac c ur ac y 45

5- 8 A r at i onal e f or pr onunc i at i on t eac hi ng . . . 55

5*9 Conc l us i on 62

Bi bl i ogr aphy . 6 3

Not es 6 5



ABSTRACT

The pr es e nt s t udy i nv es t i gat es t he que s t i on of - di f f er -

ences i n accur acy of pr onunc i a t i on among s t udent s o f E ng l i sh

as a second l anguage. Thi s t heme i s cons i der ed i n t he cont ex t

of s ec ond l anguage l ear ni ng i n ge ne r a l . T he i nv es t i ga t i o n con-

s i s t s of a bi bl i o gr a phi c a l s t udy of a mo de l of s e cond l anguage

l ea r n i ng and of v a r i o us t he or e t i c a l and e xpe r i me nt a l s t udi e s

of f ac t or s whi c h i nf l uenc e pr onunc i a t i on l ear ni ng. The s t u dy

of t hes e s our c es i ndi c at es t hat :

1. Any l ear ner wi t h no r ma l phy s i o l o gi c a l e qui pme nt wi l l ha ve

an i nna t e abi l i t y t o l ear n t o p r onoun ce a second l anguage .2. Thi s abi l i t y i s l i kel y t o be modi f i ed by i ndi v i dual l ear n-

er v ar i abl es s uc h as age, c ogni t i ve s t y l e, l anguage l ear ni ng

exper i enc e, at t i t udes , mot i v at i on, i nnat e apt i t ude f or o r a l

m m c r y , per s onal i t y and s o on.

3. The ac qui s i t i on of i nt el l i gi bl e pr onunc i at i on r equi r es an

exposur e t o t he spoken l anguage wh i ch i s var i ed enough f o r t he

i nput of adequa t e i nf o r mat i on about t he p hono l ogi ca l and phon-

et i c f eat ur es of t he t ar ge t l anguage. Suc h i nf or mat i on i s r e-

qui r e d f or t he e f f i c i e nt o pe r a t i o n of t hos e pr o c es s e s c o mmo n

t o al l s ec ond l anguage, i nc l udi ng pr onunc i at i on, l ear ni ng.

4. P r o nunc i at i on l ear ni ng of a s ec ond l anguage i s f ac i l i t at ed

i f s t udent s ar e t r ai ned i n f or mal and f unc t i onal pr ac t i s i ng

dur i ng e xpo s ur e t o t he t ar get l angua ge , i n f or mal pr a c t i s i ng

and i nf e r e nc i ng f or t he pr o c es s i ng of t he i nf o r ma t i o n ga i ne d,

i v



and i n mo ni t o r i ng and i nf e r e nc i ng f or t he f or ma t i o n of l an-

guage r esponses .

5. The obj ec t i ve of nat i ve- l i k e pr onunc i at i on i s ac c es s i bl e

t o t hos e l ear ner s who ma ke an . ' empat hi c ' i de nt i f i c a t i o n wi t ht he t ar get c ul t ur e, ut i l i z i ng t he l ear ni ng s t r at egi es t o ac -

qui r e t hos e f eat ur es whi c h di s t i ngui s h t he pr o nunc i a t i o n of

t he di a l ec t whi ch has been sel ec t ed as a mode l .

6. Some l ear ne r s o f Engl i sh as a second l anguage wi l l have

mo r e a c cur a t e pr o nunc i a t i o n t ha n o t he r s be c aus e t he i r i ndi v -

i dual l ear ner c har ac t er i s t i c s hav e di s pos ed t hem t o mak egr eat er us e of t he l ear ni ng s t r at egi es .

v



RESUMO

O pr esent e es t udo i nv es t i ga a pr obl emát i ca das di f e r en-

ç as de pr e Gi s ã o da pr o núnc i a em e s t uda nt e s qu e e s t uda m i ngl ê s

como segunda l í ngua . Es t e t ema f oi cons i der ado no cont ex t o

ger a l da apr endi zagem de uma segunda l í ngua . A pesqui sa a -

br ange um e s t udo bi bl i o gr á f i c o de um mo de l o de a pr e ndi z a ge m de

uma segunda l í ngua e vár i os es t udos t eór i cos e exper i ment a i s

de f at or es que i nf l ue m na a pr e ndi z a ge m da pr o núnc i a . O e s t udo

das f ont es c i t a da s i ndi c a que :

1. T odo o a pr e ndi z a ndo em c o ndi ç õ es f i s i o l ógi c as no r ma i s t em

a hab i l i dade i na t a de apr ender a p r onúnc i a de uma segunda l i n-

gua ;

2. es t a habi l i da de poder á s of r er mo di f i c a çõ es por v ar i av ei s

i ndi v i duai s do apr endi z ando t ai s c omo i da de , e s t i l o c ogni t i v o,

ex per i ê nc i a de apr endi z agem de l í ngua, at i t ude s , mo t i v aç ã o,

apt i dão i nat a de ex pr es s ã o o r a l , per s o nal i dade e out r as .

3. A a qui s i ç ã o de uma pr o núnc i a i nt e l i gí v el r e que r c o nt a c t o

c om a l í ngua que c ont ém as v ar i adades s uf i c i ent es par a a ac -

qu i s i ção d e i nf o r mações adequadas sobr e o s asp ec t os f ono l ógi -

c os e f o nét i c os da l í ngua em que s t ã o. T ai s i nf o r ma ç õe s s ã o

exi gi das pa r a a e f i c i ent e ope r ação d e t a i s pr ocess os c omuns

a t o da a a pr e ndi z a ge m da s e gunda l í ngua , i nc l ui ndo a pr o núnc i a .

4. A a pr e ndi z a ge m da pr o núnc i a é f a c i l i t a da s e os e s t uda nt e s

s a o t r ei na dos na pr á t i c a f or mal e f unc i o na l dur a nt e o c ont a c t o

c om a l í ngua enf oc ada; e m pr ác t i c a f or mal e i nf er ênc i a par a

vi



o pr ocess ament o da i nf o r mação obt i d a, bem como em cont r o l a r

e i nf er i r par a a f or maç ão de r es pos t as l i ngüi s t i c as .

5. 0 o bj e t i v o de uma pr o núnc i a s i m l a r à do nat i v o ê a c cê s s í -

v el àquel es apr e ndi z a ndo s que r ea l i z a m uma i de nt i f i c a ç ão c oma c ul t ur a em ques t ão , u t i l i z ando as es t r at égi as de apr endi z a-

gem pa r a a dqui r i r a quel es a s pec t o s que di s t i ngue m a pr o núnc i a

do di a l e t o qu e f oi se l c i onado como mode l o .

6. Al guns apr endi z andos de i ngl ês , como segunda l í ngua , t em

uma pr onúnci a mai s acur ada do que out r os por que s uas car ac-

t er í s t i c as i ndi v i duai s de apr endi z ando o di s pus er am a f az er

ma i o r u so das es t r a t égi as de apr endi z agem

vii



I NTRODUCTI ON

THE THEME AND I TS I MPORTANCE

' The second l anguage l ear ne r and p r onu nc i a t i on1.

A c ons t a nt l y r ec ur r i ng o bs e r v at i o n abo ut pr o nunc i a t i o nl ear ni ng i s t hat des pi t e s i m l ar f or mal t r ai ni ng, s ec ond l an-

guage l ear ner s var y gr eat l y i n t hei r abi l i t y t o pr onounc e t he

second l anguage. Teacher s o f Eng l i sh as a second l anguage need

t o be abl e t o account f o r t hi s phenomenon.

An i nv es t i ga t i on of t he di f f er enc es i n a chi ev eme nt be t -

ween i ndi v i dual s when pr onounci ng a second l anguage has bot hi nher ent and pr ac t i c al i nt er es t . The i nher ent i nt er es t i s i n

det er m ni ng whi c h of t he pos s i bl e f ac t or s ar e mo s t s i gni f i c ant

i n ac c ount i ng f or t hes e di f f er enc es . The pr ac t i c al val ue of

s uc h a s t udy i s i n t he i ns i ght s t hat i t pr o vi des : t hes e may

b e a ppl i c a bl e i n t he c l a s s r o om t o i mpr o ve pe r f o r ma nc e i n pr o -

nunc i at i on l ear ni ng.

By me ans o f a bi bl i o gr a phi c a l s t udy , t he pr e s ent pa pe r

expl or es t hi s que s t i on, s ugges t i ng pos s i bl e appl i c at i ons o f t he

i ns i ght s gai ned. The f ac t t hat s k i l l i n pr onunc i at i on i s ac -

q ui r ed s i mul t aneous l y wi t h o t he r a sp ec t s o f a second l anguage

such as l i s t eni ng compr ehens i on , gr ammar and mor phol ogy makes

i t e s s ent i a l t hat p r o nunc i a t i on be c ons i der ed i n t he cont e xt

of s e cond l a ngua ge l ea r n i ng i n ge ne r a l . F or t hi s r e as o n, t he

mode l of second l anguage l ear ni ng deve l oped by El l en Ba i l y s t ok



2

wi l l pr ov i de a t heor et i c al bas i s f or t he pr es ent s t udy.

The r es ear c h pr obl e m der i v es f r om an obs e r v at i on whi c h

i s c ons i s t ent l y e vi dent r ega r d i ng s e cond l anguage l ea r n i ng:*

i t i s al wa ys t he c a s e t ha t s o me i n di v i du al s a r e mo r e s u c c e s s -

f ul t ha n o t he r s i n ma s t e r i n g t he l a ng ua ge , e ve n t h ough t h ei r

f or mal l anguage l ear ni ng e xper i enc es h av e b ee n s i m l a r . Ba i l y -

s t ok f o r mul a t e s t h at o bs e r v at i o n as a q ue s t i o n: Why do es l an-

guage l ear ni ng pr oc eed at di f f er ent r at es f or di f f er ent i n-

di v i dua l s ? T hi s que s t i o n pr ompt e d t he pr e s ent r e s ear c h p r o bl e m.

Whi l e Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l i s i nt ended t o ac c ount f or di f -

f er ent r at es of l anguage l ea r n i ng, t he r e s ear c h qu es t i o n adds

t he d i me ns i o n o f a c c ur a c y of p e r f o r ma nc e i n pr o nu nc i a t i o n.

T ha t i s , t he qu es t i o n r ec o gni z e s t hat at l ea s t wh er e pr o nun-

c i at i on i s conc er ned, i t i s not o nl y nec es s a r y t o ac c ount f or

r el at i v e r at es of learning b ut a l s o t o i nv es t i gat e t he r eas ons

f or qual i t at i ve di f f er enc es i n l ear ner s ' pr onunc i at i on.

2. 1 THE PROBLEM

The r es ear c h pr obl em c ent r a l t o t hi s b i bl i ogr aphi c al

s t udy - i s f or mul at ed i n t he f o l l owi ng q ues t i on:

Why do some learners of English as a second language

have more accurate -pronunciation than others 3 even

though their formal language experiences are similar?

2. 2 I MPL I CATI ONS OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Va r i o us a r eas of i nv es t i ga t i o n ar e s u gge s t ed by t he r e-

s e ar c h p r o b l e m. T h os e wh i c h wi l l b e p ur s u e d i n t h e p r e s e nt

s t udy ar e t he f o l l owi ng:

a) a c r i t er i on of a c cur ac y whi c h i s r e l ev ant f or s t udent sof E ngl i s h i n c ount r i es whe r e Engl i s h i s not s pok en nat i v el y .



3

b) t he pr o c es s e s and f ac t or s i nv ol v ed i n pr o nunc i a t i o n

l ear ni ng.

c ) t hos e i ndi v i dua l di f f e r e nc e s whi c h ma y a c c ount f or v ar -«

i at i ons i n abi l i t y t o pr o no unc e a s e c ond l a ngua ge.

d) gi v en an exp os i t i on o f t hose f ac t o r s su gges t ed by t he

l i t er at ur e t o be r el evant t o pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng, i mpl i c a-

t i ons can b e made conce r ni ng p r onunc i a t i on t each i ng. A r a t i on-

al e f or t eac hi ng pr onunc i at i on wi l l be out l i ned.

2. 3 OBJ ECT I VES.

a) To pr ov i de a per s pec t i v e f or t he pr obl em of pr onunc i a -

t i on l ear ni ng by de s c r i bi ng t he t he or e t i c a l mo de l of s e c ond

l a ngua ge l ear ni ng de ve l o pe d by El l e n Ba i l y s t o k.

b) T o pr e s ent a s y nt he s i s of v ar i o us t he or e t i c a l and e x-

pe r i me nt a l s t udi es of f ac t or s whi c h ma y a c c ount f or di f f e r e n-

ces i n ach i evement when l ear n i ng t o pr onounce a second l angauge.

c ) To pr ov i de a r at i onal e f or t he t eac hi ng of pr o nunc i a-

t i on t o t eenage and adul t l ear ne r s wh i ch t akes i nt o account t he

na t ur e of pr o nunc i a t i o n l ear ni ng and of t ho s e f ac t or s whi c h i n-

f l uenc e s uc h l ear ni ng.

3. METHODOL OGY.

A su rv ey was made o f t he l i t e r a t ur e r e l evant t o t hel e ar ni ng of t he pr o nunc i a t i o n of a s e c ond l a nga uge. T ak i ng t he

mode l deve l oped by Ba i l y s t ok as a b as i s , t he r esear ch qu es t i on

wa s f or mul at e d as a po i nt o f r e f er e nc e i n t he di s c u s s i o n of

v ar i ous o t h er t heo r e t i c al and ex per i ment a l s t udi es of t he f ac -

t or s i nvol ved i n s uc c es s f ul pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng.

The f i r s t s t ep i n t he i nves t i gat i on i s t o di s c us s ac r i t er i on of p r o nunc i at i on ac c ur ac y. Then i n t he f i r s t s ec t i on



of t he ma i n di s c u s s i o n ( 5. 1) , a t he or e t i c a l mo de l o f l anguage

l ear ni ng i s des c r i bed, wi t h par t i c ul ar at t ent i on t o t he r ol e«

of l ea r n i ng s t r a t e gi e s . I n s e c t i o n 5. 2 t he s e ar e c ompar e d wi t h

t he l ea r n i ng t e c hni ques whi c h J o an Rubi n ha s a t t r i but e d t o

good l anguage l ear ner s .

Ne xt , t he r el a t i v e i mpo r t a nc e o f f or mal and i nf o r ma l

l anguage ex po s ur e f or p r o nunc i a t i o n a cc ur a cy i s di s c us s e d i n

s e c t i on 5. 3. S ec t i on 5. 4 i l l us t r at es how t he pr o c es s e s and

s t r at egi es o f Bai l y s t ok ' s mo del m ght be expec t ed t o oper at e

f or s t udent s who ar e l i vi ng i n t hei r n at i v e c ul t ur e and l ear n-

i ng Engl i sh a s a second l anguage .

Sec t i on 5. 5 i s c onc er ned wi t h t hos e i ndi v i dual di f f er -

ences whi ch may i nf l uence t he e f f i c i ency o f t he pr ocess es and

t he us e of t he s t r at egi es f or pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng. Sec t i on

5. 6 de s c r i be s a s t udy of t went y v ar i a bl e s s us pec t ed of di s -

pl ayi ng a s i gni f i c ant r el at i ons hi p t o pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y.

The r ol e of mo t i v at i on and at t i t udes i s c ons i der ed i n s ec t i on

5. 7.

I n s ec t i on 5. 8 t he ma i n c onc l us i ons o f t he di s c u s s i o n,

t oget her wi t h r ecommendat i ons o f sever a l aut hor s on t he con-

di t i ons nec es s ar y f or s u cc es s f ul pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng, pr o-

v i de a r at i onal e f or t he t eac hi ng of pr onunc i at i on .



5

4. CRI TERI A OF ACCURACY.

A pr i mar y c ons i der at i on i n t he di s c us s i o n of f ac t or s

af f ec t i ng pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y i s t o es t abl i s h a c r i t er i on

of ac c ur ac y. R. E. B. . At k i ns o n1 has suggest ed t hat when t each i ng

Engl i s h pr o nunc i at i on, t he c r i t er i on f or t he t eac her s houl d be

' Does t he s t ude nt s o und l i k e a na t i v e s pe ak er of Engl i s h ? '

and not ' Has he conf or med t o my own r ender i ng of t h i s sound? '

Thi s c r i t er i on wi l l be ac c ept ed as a bas i s f or t he pr es e nt i n-

ves t i gat i on. Two ot her c r i t er i a of ac c ur ac y of pr onunc i at i on

wi l l be r ef e r r ed t o he r e and di s c u s s ed l at er i n t he pa pe r . They

wi l l be s hown t o be c ons i s t ent wi t h t he ba s i c c r i t er i on.

' Nat i ve- l i ke pr onunc i at i on' i s a ver y gener al , y et pr ac -

t i c al c r i t er i on of ac c ur ac y. Bot h l i ngui s t s and l ay men, ev en

peopl e wi t h no l i ngui s t i c t r ai ni ng wha t e ve r , o f t en obs e r v e t hat

some speaker s o f a second l anguage have a ' ver y t hi ck ' o r ' ver y

heav y' accent , wh i l e o t he r s have ' al mos t no accent ' , and so

f or t h. Thes e obs e r v at i ons woul d s eem t o i nv ol v e l ar gel y s ub-

j ect i ve: i mpr es s i ons of f l uenc y, c ons i s t enc y and i nt el l i gi bi l i t y ,

wh i l e some obse r v er s may gi v e mor e a t t ent i on t o o t he r f eat ur es

of t he s peak er ' s pr onunc i at i on. So, t he c r i t er i on of ' nat i ve-

l i kenes s ' i s nec es s ar i l y gener al . But i t i s al s o pr ac t i c al be-

c aus e i t r ec ogni z es t hat t he l ear ner wi l l be i nf l uenc ed by var -

i ous ac c ent s , i nc l udi ng t hos e of t eac her s . Ea ch of t hes e i nf l u-

enc es wi l l be r ef l ec t ed i n t he l ear ner ' s o wn- appr o xi ma t i o n t o

a nat i ve- l i ke ac c ent . 2



7

i n i nt o na t i o n whi c h c ar r y i mpo r t a nt di f f e r e nc e s i n me ani ng

3f or nat i v e s peak er s .

#

Of t hes e f e at ur e s , s t r e s s c o mbi ne d wi t h i nt o na t i o n

car r y pa t t e r ns o f meani n g wi t h i n t he sent ence and so a r e pa r -

t i c ul ar l y i mpor t ant i n pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng.

Beyond t he over al l c r i t er i on of n at i v e- l i k e ac c ur ac y,

i t h as b een po i nt ed out t ha t t he re a r e many accept abl e p r o -

nunc i a t i o ns i n Engl i s h and t hat a no n- na t i v e s pe ak er wo ul d

have t o know mor e t han a m ni mum amount about Eng l i sh t o know

i f h i s pr onunc i at i on f al l s wi t hi n t hi s r a nge of ac cept abi l i t y .4

Ba i l e y ha s s ugge s t e d t ha t t he pr o pe r t a r g et of pr o nunc i a t i o n

l ear ni ng s houl d be t o k no w t he pr i nc i pl e s t yl es o f Engl i s h

s peec h and whi c h pr o nunc i a t i o ns ar e t ol e r a t e d i n whi c h s t y l e s .

F ur t her r e f er e nc e wi l l be ma de t o Ba i l e y' s v i e ws o n pr o nun-

c i at i on l ear ni ng i n t he f i nal s ec t i on of t hi s paper .

Pr onunc i at i on, as a di s t i nc t l anguage s k i l l , oc cur s i n

t he ma ny f or ms o f s p ee c h, i nc l udi ng r e adi ng a l o ud. W t hi n

t hese f o r ms t her e i s a r ange f r om mor e spont aneous t o mor e

del i ber at e and c ont r ol l ed pr onunc i at i on. I ndi v i dual c har ac t -

er i s t i c s of pr o nunc i a t i o n ar e mo r e e vi de nt i n s p ont a ne ous c on-

v er s a t i on. I n f or mal s peak i ng s i t uat i o ns t h e pr o nunc i a t i on

s t yl e i s del i ber at el y adj us t ed t o t he r egi s t er bei ng us ed.Wh en r eadi ng a l oud an appr opr i a t e s t y l e wi l l b e used by t he

r eade r t o su i t t he su bj ec t ma t t e r and t he aud i ence . P r onun -

c i at i on, t hen, i s c l os el y l i nked t o ver bal f l uenc y. I n i n-

f or mal c o nv er s a t i o n t he o bj e c t i v e f or s e c o nd- l a ngua ge l ear n-

e r s s ho ul d be na t i v e- l i k e f l uenc y and s p ont a ne i t y . I n mo r e

f or mal s pe ak i ng and r e adi ng al oud t he l ea r n er ' s o bj e c t i v e«

s houl d b e a mo r e ar t i c ul a t e pr o nunc i a t i o n co upl e d wi t h a

measur ed f l uency .



8

5 THE L ANGUAGE LEARNI NG MODEL .

The mode l o f second l anguage l ear ni ng wh i ch wi l l be des -

c r i bed be l o w wa s de ve l o pe d by El l e n Ba i l y s t o k of t he Ont a r i o

I ns t i t ut e f or St udi es i n Educ a t i o n, t o r epr es e nt t he pr o ces s e s

and f ac t or s i nv ol v ed i n s e cond l anguage l e ar ni ng. I t pr o po s es

t o a cc o unt f or di f f e r e nc e s i n a c hi e ve me nt be t we en i ndi v i dua l s

as wel l as di f f er enc es i n s k i l l devel opment f or par t i c ul ar i n-

di v i dual s . Thi s s ec ond pur pos e, di f f er ent i a l s k i l l devel opment

f or i ndi vi dual l e ar ner s , i s bey ond t he s c ope of t he pr es e nt pap-

er and wi l l no t b e pur s u ed.

— — — — P r o c e s s e s

— — — S t r a t e g i e s

F i g ur e I . Mode l o f S econd Lang uage Lear ni ng. 5



9

Er vi n- Tr i pp( 19 70) not es t hat any l ear ni ng mode l wh i ch

pr e di c t s l anguage l e ar ni ng on t he ba s i s of i nput wi t h out r e-

gar d t o t he s el ec t i v e pr oc es s i ng by t he l ear ner , wi l l no t wor k

exc ept f or t r i v i al p r o bl ems . Bai l ys t ok ' s model i nc or por at es

f ac t or s s ugges t ed by t he l i t e r a t ur e t o ha ve r e l e va nc e f or s ec -

ond l anguage l ear ni ng; i t pos t ul at es pr oc e s s es , des c r i bi ng t he

nat ur e of t he ef f ec t o f t hes e f ac t or s and t he i nt er ac t i ons

bet ween t hem The mode l does not desc r i be d i f f e r ences bet ween

l anguage l ear ne r s . I t d esc r i bes t he way i n wh i ch hu mans , gi v en

bi ol ogi c al , s oc i al and ot her r es t r i c t i ons , l ear n a s ec ond l an-guage .

Di f f e r e nc e s i n a c hi e ve me nt be t we en i ndi v i dua l s a r e at -

t r i but ed t o di f f er enc es i n t he ef f i c i enc y wi t h whi c h t he mo de l

o pe r a t e s f or d i f f er e nt pe opl e . An unde r s t a ndi ng o f wh at f ac -

t or s det er m ne t hat ef f i c i enc y mo t i v at es r es e ar c h gener at ed

f r om t he mo del . Ex pe r i me nt al and t heo r e t i c al s t udi es of s uc hf ac t or s wi l l be di s c us s e d wi t h r ef e r e nc e t o t he mo de l i n t he

f ol l owi ng s ec t i ons of t hi s paper .

ORGANI ZATI ON AND CONTENT.

T he mo de l pr e s ent e d i n F i gur e I , i s or ga ni z e d on t hr e e

l eve l s - I np ut , Kn owl edg e, Out p ut . The l anguage mu s t b e ex pe r -

i enced o r encount e r ed ( I nput ) , t he i nf o r mat i on ga i ned mu s t b e

spor ed i n some way ( Knowl edge) and subsequent l y ut i l i zed f o r

e i t he r compr ehens i on o r pr oduc t i on o f t he l anguage ( Out put ) .

T wo k i nds of l i nes connec t t he v ar i ous c el l s of t he

mo del . The s ol i d l i nes ar e ' pr oc es s i ng l i nes ' and r ef er t o ob-

l i gat or y r el at i ons hi ps t hat hol d be t wee n as pec t s o f t he mo de l .

Pr oc es s i ng l i nes nec es s ar i l y t r ans f er i nf or mat i on i n t he wor l d

i nt o t he r epr es e nt at i onal s ys t em ( Knowl edge l evel ) and pr oc es -

s es ar e r e qui r ed t o us e t he i nf o r ma t i o n f or o ut put o r r e s po ns e .



10

T he dot t ed l i nes r e pr e s ent l angua ge l ea r n i ng s t r a t e gi es whi c h

ar e def i ned as o pt i o na l me ans f or e xpl o i t i ng a vai l a bl e i nf o r m-

at i on t o i mpr ove compet ence i n a second l anguage ( p. 71) . *

LANGUAGE I NPUT. Expos ur e t o t he l anguage occ ur s i n an

undi f f er ent i at ed c ont ex t and i s gi v en t he ge ner al t i t l e i n t he

mode l o f Language Exposur e . Spec i f i c exper i ences can be i den-

t i f i ed wi t hi n t hi s c onc ept and t hei r par t i c ul ar e f f ec t s pos -

t ul a t ed. T he l anguage c l a s s r o om f or e x ampl e , p r o vi de s s p ec -

i al i z ed e xpos u r e . Whi l e enc ount er i ng t he t a r g et l a ngua ge onl y

t hr ough b ooks o r t hr ough i mmer s i on i n t he t a r ge t cu l t ur e woul dagai n pr ov i de di f f er e nt ex per i enc es . T he s e di f f er enc es c an be

document ed i n t e r ms o f t he i r e f f ec t s on t he l anguage l ear ned.

KNOWLEDGE I N LANGUAGE USE. Thi s l evel as s umes t hat i n-

f o r mat i on about t he l anguage can be r epr esent ed i n t h r ee ways ,

de s c r i bed he r e as Ot he r Kno wl e dge , Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno w-

l edge and I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge . T he s e do no t r e pr e -

s e nt i n any phy s i o l o gi c a l s e ns e t he wa y i n whi c h i nf o r ma t i o n

i s s t or ed i n t he br a i n. Ra t h er t hey r ef er t o t hr ee t y pes of

i nf or mat i on t he l ear ner b r i ngs t o t he l ear ni ng t as k , and s i nc e

ea ch i s c ons i der e d t o c ont r i but e t o t he at t a i nme nt of l angua ge

pr of i c i enc y , t hey ha ve be en di s t i ngui s hed i n t he mo de l ( p. 72) .

The di f f er enc e bet ween Ex pl i c i t and I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c

Knowl edge i s def i ned oper at i onal l y . Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Know-

l edge c o nt a i ns a l l t he c o ns c i o us f a ct s t he l ea r n er h as a bo ut

t he l anguage and t he c r i t er i o n f or a dm s s i o n t o t hi s c a t egor y

i s t h e abi l i t y t o ar t i c ul at e t hos e f ac t s . Thes e may i nc l ude

s o me gr a mma r r ul e s , v oc a bul a r y i t e ms , pr o nunc i a t i o n r ul e s ,

and s o on. I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge i s t h e i nt ui t i ve i n-

f o r mat i on up on whi ch t he l anguage l ear ne r ope r a t es i n o r de r

t o p r odu ce r esponses ( compr ehens i on o r pr oduc t i on) i n t he



19

t a r ge t l anguage . Wh at eve r i nf o r mat i on i s aut omat i c and i s used

s pont a ne ous l y i n l a nguage t as k s i s i nc l ude d he r e . Ag ai n t he

cont ent may i nc l ude gr ammar and p r onun c i a t i on r u l es , v ocabu l -

ar y and so on. I t i s i n t hi s sense t ha t a l anguage l ear ne r mayc l ai m t hat a s ent enc e ' s ounds ' or ' f eel s ' r i ght , al t hough no

di r e c t e v i de nc e f or t he ac c ur ac y of t he s ent e nc e can be c i t e d.

Thr ee f unc t i ons ar e as s i gned t o Expl i c i t L i ngui s t i c

Kno wl edge. F i r s t , i t ac t s as a buf f er f or n ew i nf or mat i o n a -

bout t he l anguage. Fo r examp l e , new phonet i c and phonol ogi ca l

i nf or mat i on whi c h i s enc ount er ed i n any ex pl i c i t s i t uat i onwo ul d at f i r s t be r epr es e nt ed i n t hi s s our c e. Onl y af t er c on-

t i nued use woul d t he i n f o r mat i on become aut omat i c and be t r ans -

f er r ed t o I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge.

T he s e cond f unc t i on i s t o a c t as a s t or e f or i nf o r m-

a t i on about t he l anguage wh i ch i s a l ways r epr esent ed expl i -

c i t l y . Kr ashen( 1976) has a r gued t ha t some asp ec t s o f a second

l anguage a r e unconsc i ous l y acqui r ed and as such , a r e not con-

sc i ous l y known , wh i l e o t her s a r e l ear ned and r emai n i n some

consc i ous f o r m Ev en na t i v e sp eake r s s omet i mes r epo r t t he need

f or c ons c i ous a t t ent i on i n or der t o di s t i ngui s h c er t ai n wo r d

meani ngs , g r ammar r u l es and p r onunc i a t i ons . Such i t ems woul d

be r epr es ent ed i n Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge. T hi r dl y , i n-

f or mat i on whi c h i s r e pr es e nt e d i n I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno w-

l edge ma y be ma de ex pl i c i t i n t hi s s o ur c e ( p. 73) .

Onl y one f unc t i on i s as c r i bed t o t he I mpl i c i t L i ngui s -

t i c Knowl edge s our c e. I t i s a wor k i ng s ys t em c ont ai ni ng al l

t he i nf o r mat i on about t he t a r g et l angu age n ecessa r y f o r mos t

spont aneous compr ehens i on and p r oduct i on t asks .

The d i s t i n c t i on b et ween t he t wo k nowl edge sour ces i s de -

f i ned i n t er ms o f f unc t i on r a t he r . t han c ont ent . Any i nf o r mat i o n



12

may be r epr esent ed i n e i t he r sou r ce , and di f f e r ent second l an-

guage l ear ner s wi l l var y gr eat l y ac c or di ng t o t he t y pe of i n-

f or mat i on f ound i n eac h. A l ar ger I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c K now-

l edge s our c e i s as s oc i at ed wi t h an abi l i t y f or g r e at er f l uenc y.A l ar ger Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge s o ur c e i s as s o c i at ed

wi t h an ext ens i v e k nowl edg e o f f o r ma l a spec t s o f t he l anguage ,

but may not i mpl y an abi l i t y t o us e t h i s i nf or mat i on we l l .

Ot her Knowl edge r e f er s t o al l t he a ux i l i a r y , not s pec -

i f i c al l y l i ngui s t i c knowl edge t he l ear ner br i ngs t o t he l ear n-

i ng t as k . I t i nc l ude s k no wl e dge of o t he r l a ngua ge s , s uc h ast he na t i v e l a ngua ge , i nf o r ma t i o n a bo ut t he c ul t ur e a s s o c i a t e d

wi t h t he t a r g et l anguage , k nowl edge o f t he wo r l d , and so on.

Whe r e a s t he us e of a wo r d i n a ppr o pr i a t e c ont e xt s i s i mpl i c i t

t he s pec i f i c c ul t ur al as pec t s of t he mea ni ng and i t s o c c as i o ns

f or u s e may be a r t i c ul a t e d e xpl i c i t l y a nd wo ul d be r e pr e s ent e d

i n Ot he r Knowl edge . I n t hi s way• l i nk s ar e a ssu med t o exi s t

be t ween Ot he r K nowl edg e and I mpl i c i t L i ng ui s t i c Kn owl edg e. The

l ear ner ' s knowl edge of var i ous c ul t ur al s i t uat i ons whi c h r e -

qui r e t he s peak er t o c hange f r om o ne s t yl e of pr o nunc i a t i o n

t o a no t he r wo ul d be r e pr e s ent e d i n t hi s s o ur c e.

FORMI NG LANGUAGE RESPONSES. Out put i n t he model r ef er s

t o l anguage compr ehens i on o r pr odu c t i on. Two sp ec i f i c t y pes

of r es pons e s , T ype I and Ty pe I I , ar e a l s o i dent i f i e d. Whe r e a s

Type I r esponses a r e spont aneous and i mmedi a t e , Type I I r es -

po ns e s ar e de l i be r a t e and o c c ur a f t e r a de l a y, br i e f as i t ma y

be . Di f f e r e nt t y pe of l a ngua ge be ha vi o ur and di f f e r e nt de gr e es

o f p r o f i c i ency may be assoc i a t ed wi t h each t y pe o f r esponse .

Readi n g, f o r ex ampl e , may b e assoc i a t ed mor e c l o se l y wi t h Ty pe

I I r es pons es , s i nc e r evi ew of t he wr i t t en mat er i a l i s pos s i bl e

a nd t he r e ar e f ew t i me c o ns t r a i nt s ; whi l e s p ea ki ng,



13

wi t h i t s de ma nds f or f l ue nc y , ma y f o r c e t he pr o duc t i o n of onl y

T ype I r e s po ns e s .

T he qua l i t a t i v e di f f e r e nc e s be t we en T ype I and T ype I I

r esponses may hel p t o expl a i n why some t asks wh i ch r e l y pr i m-ar i l y on Type I r es pons es , s uc h as s peak i ng, ar e di f f i c ul t .

Responses of e i t he r t y pe wh i ch ar e i n cor r ec t may b e r edi r ec t ed

t o t he ge ne r a l r e s po ns e c el l t o b e mo di f i e d o r c o r r e c t e d. T he

r esponses t hen necess a r i l y becomes a Ty pe I I r e sponse s i nce a

c er t ai n- a mo unt of t i me ha s pa s s ed s i nc e i t wa s f i r s t f o r mul a t -

e d. ( p. 74)

The t hr ee l eve l s desc r i b e t he exp osu r e , s t o r age and u se

of l i ngui s t i c i nf o r ma t i on f or t he pur pos e of s ec ond l anguage

l ear ni ng. T he r e l at i ons hi ps b et we en t h es e l ev el s a r e des c r i bed

by t h e pr o c es s e s a nd s t r a t e gi e s o f l a nguage l e ar ni ng.

LANGUAGE LEARNI NG PROCESSES. The pr oc es s es whi c h r el at e

t he t hr ee l evel s ar e I nput p r o c es s e s , t hos e r el at i ng I nput t o

Kn owl edge , and Ou t p ut p r ocesses , t hose r e l a t i ng Kn owl edge t o

Out put . T he s e pr o c es s e s o bt a i n i r r e s pe c t i v e of any c o ns c i o us

i nt er v ent i on of t he l anguage l ear ner .

T he I nput pr o c es s r e l a t es I nput t o e ac h of t he t hr e e

k nowl edg e sour ces . The na t u r e o f t he l anguage ex posu r e wi l l

de t e r m ne t he ext ent t o whi ch each o f t hese k nowl edge sou r ces

i s af f ec t e d. A l anguage cl as s r o om i n a t r adi t i onal f or mal pr o-

gr a m, f or e xa mpl e , wo ul d pr o babl y ac c e nt ua t e t he l i ne f r om

L angua ge Ex po s ur e t o Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge . I n t hi s

s et t i ng f or mal r ul es a r e t a ught and t he s ubj ec t of gr e at e s t

c onc er n i s t he l anguage c ode i t s el f . I n r el a t i on t o pr o nunc i a -

t i on l ear ni ng t hi s woul d pr obabl y t ak e t he f or m of l ear ni ng

t he i s ol at ed s ounds of t he or a l c ode and c er t ai n r ul es . ( p. 75)

An i mmer s i on c l ass , however , - may have i t s max i mum



14

e f f e ct s on I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge and Ot he r Kno wl e dge .

T he i nf o r ma t i o n a cqui r e d dur i ng e xpo s ur e t o t he t a r g et l an-

guage i s r epr es e nt ed i n t he s e t wo s o ur c e s . T he v ehi c l e f or

t hi s i nf o r mat i o n i s t h e t a r g et l a ngua ge and t hi s e xpos ur e, ,par t i c ul ar l y i n c ommuni c at i v e s i t ua t i ons , i nc r eas e s t he i m-

p l i c i t k n owl edg e t he l ear ne r h as of t he l anguage . Commu ni ca t -

i ve e xpo s ur e i s an i mpo r t a nt wa y of i mpr o vi ng pr o f i c i e nc y i n,

f or e x ampl e , l i s t eni ng c o mpr e he ns i o n and pr o nunc i a t i o n. As t he

exper i ence wi t h meani ngs and f o r ms i s i nc r eased, t hese can be

i nc o r p or a t ed i nt o t he l ea r n er ' s own us e of t he l a ngua ge . I ti s onl y t hr ough s uc h c ommuni c a t i v e ex po s ur e , ei t her - di r e c t l y

wi t h nat i ve s peak er s or i ndi r ec t l y t h r o ugh r ec or di ngs , f i l ms ,

e t c . , t ha t t he l e ar ne r o f Engl i s h as a s e c ond l angua ge c an ac -

qui r e i mpor t ant o r al f or ms whi c h c har ac t e r i z e na t i v e- l i k e pr o-

nunc i at i on. S i m l ar l y , i mmer s i on exper i enc es i n t he t ar get

c ul t ur e wo ul d pr obabl y ha ve t hei r ma xi mum ef f e ct o n I mpl i c i t

L i ngu i s t i c Knowl edge and Ot h er Kn owl edg e. Onl y wh en ex pl i c i t

r ul e s or wo r d me ani ngs a r e s o ught by r e f e r e nc e t o di c t i o na r -

i es or by as k i ng na t i v e s peak er s o r t eac her s wo ul d Ex pl i c i t

L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge be par t i c ul ar l y a f f ec t ed. ( p. 75)

THE OUTPUT PROCESS ( p. 75) desc r i bes t he way i n whi c h

l anguage i s used f o r compr ehens i on o r p r oduct i on. The ass ump-

t i on i s t hat l anguage us e pr oc ee ds a s a f unc t i on of I mpl i c i t

L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge. I t i s onl y i n par t i c ul ar c i r c ums t anc es

of ' moni t or i ng' t hat Expl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge i s us ed

f or compr ehens i on o r p r oduc t i on. The l engt h o f t he Ou t p ut p r o -

cess l i ne co r r esponds t o a t i me d i mens i on. Langu ag e behav i our

s houl d c hange under d i f f er ent t i me c ons t r ai nt s i f onl y i n t ha t

l onger t i me s al l o ws f or g r e at e r a c c ur a c y. Se c ond, a f e edbac k

l oop f r om bo t h T ype I and T ype I I r e s po ns e s a l l o ws f o r



15

c ont i nual modi f i c a t i on or c or r ec t i on of a r es pons e . The onl y

r es t r i c t i on i s t ha t onl y one sp ont aneous Ty pe I r e sponse may

o cc ur ; i f t hi s ha s be en c o r r e c t e d and f ed ba ck i nt o t he Out -

pu t pr ocess l i ne , t hen al l . su bsequent r esponses mu s t n ecess -ar i l y be Type I I .

L ANGUAGE LEARNI NG STRATEGI ES.

T he s e a r e de f i ne d as opt i o na l me t ho ds f or e xpl o i t i ng

av ai l abl e i nf or mat i on t o i nc r eas e t he pr o f i c i e nc y of s ec ond

l anguage l ear ni ng. I n t hi s way t hey ar e s i m l ar t o s t r at eg-

i es di s c us s e d by St e r n ( l 975) , Rubi n( l 975) and ot he r s , whi c hr ef er t o t he c ons c i o us e nt e r p r i s e s i n whi c h t he l a ngua ge

l ear ner e nga ge s . F our l anguage l e ar ni ng s t r a t e gi e s ar e i den-

t i f i ed i n t he mo de l , oper at i ng t o br i ng r e l ev ant k no wl e dge t o

t he l anguage t ask t ha t has t he e f f ec t o f i mpr ovi ng pe r f o r mance .

FORMAL AND FUNCTI ONAL PRACTI SI NG.

The f i r s t s t r at egy s pec i f i es t wo k i nds of pr ac t i c e

whi c h r e f e r t o a l angua ge l e ar ner ' s a t t e mpt s t o i nc r e as e hi s

ex po s ur e t o t he t a r g et l a ngua ge . T he di s t i nc t i o n i s ba s ed on

a c l as s i f i c at i on po s t ul at e d by St er n( 1974) i n whi c h l anguage

may be c ons i der ed ' f or mal ' or ' f unc t i onal ' . I n f unc t i onal l an-

guage use i t i s t he mean i ng of t he messag e t ha t i s o f p r i mar y

conce r n. Wh i l e f o r ma l l anguage f ocuses on t he sy s t emat i c f eat -

ur es o f t he code used t o r epr esent t h at meani ng ( p. 76) .

Two pos s i bi l i t i es ex i s t f or f or mal pr ac t i c e. The l ear n-

er ma y av ai l hi ms e l f of e xpl i c i t k no wl e dge of t he c o de . An ex -

amp l e woul d be t he l ear ner who s t udi es f r om a g r ammar book i n

o r de r t o comp l ement c l a s s l e s sons , o r wh o ask s o t he r s f o r i n-

f pr mat i on about g r ammar r u l es , mor phemes , p r onunc i a t i ons and

s o o n. Onl y t ho s e t hi ngs t he l ea r n er d oes o pt i o na l l y and i n



16

addi t i on t o any f or mal t r ai ni ng qual i f y as i ns t anc es of t hi s

t ype of f or mal pr ac t i c e.

F or ma l pr a c t i c e i s a l s o us e d wh en t he l e ar ner o pe r a t e s

on i nf or mat i on al r eady i n Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edae,

t r ans f er r i ng i t t o I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge. Ac c or di ng

t o Ba i l y s t o k' s mo de l , t he pur po s e of t he l a ngua ge l ea r n i ng

ent er pr i s e i s t o i nc r e as e t he i nf or mat i on i n I mpl i c i t L i ngui s -

t i c Kn owl edg e, s i nce l anguage f l uency ope r a t es as a f unc t i on

of t hi s - i nf or mat i on. Thi s t ype of f or mal pr ac t i c e i s es s ent i a l

t o t hi s pur pos e .F unc t i o nal pr ac t i c e r ef er s t o i nc r eas e d ex pos ur e t o t he

t a r ge t l anguage f or communi ca t i on. The r e l a t i onsh i p sh own by

f unc t i ona l pr ac t i s i ng wh i ch connec t s Lang uage E xposu r e t o I m-

pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge i s s i m l ar t o t he pr oc es s pos t ul -

at ed by Kr a s he n( 1976) c al l ed l anguage ' ac qui s i t i on1 as opposed

t o l anguage ' l ear ni ng' . The l anguage i s i nt er nal i z ed t hr ough

communi cat i ve exposur e r a t her t han t h r ough f o r ma l exposur e t o

t he s y s t e m( p. 77) .

MONI TORI NG AND . I NFERENCI NG

Mo ni t or i ng i s a f or mal s t r at egy whi c h e xpl oi t s i nf or m-

at i on whi c h i s r epr es e nt ed i n Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge

f or t he pur pos e of i mpr ov i ng Ty pe I I r es po ns e s , es pec i al l y

t hos e c onc er ne d wi t h pr o duc t i o n of t he l anguage . I t i s e s s e n-

t i al l y a pr oduc t i on s t r at egy , ef f ec t i ve f or s hapi ng up t he

f o r ma l a spec t s of p r oduc t i v e r esponses . I t may a l so b e used

t o br i ng expl i c i t k nowl edge of wo r d mean i ng s and s t r uc t u r es

t o a compr ehens i on t ask t o i mpr ove under s t and i ng of t he mes-

s age. A f ur t her us e of moni t or i ng i nvol v i ng i nf er enc i ng wi l l

be de s c r i be d be l o w. '

I nf er e nc i ng i s a s t r at e gy whe r e by a l e ar ner ma y a r r i v e



at par t i c ul ar l i ngui s t i c i nf or mat i on whi c h was pr evi ous l y un-

k no wn. I n t he mo de l i nf e r e nc i ng i s r e pr e s ent e d by t he ex pl o i t -

at i on of i nf or mat i on f r o m s ever al pos s i bl e sour c es t o ar r i ve

a t some exp l i c i t i nf o r mat i on about t he second l anguage ( r epr e-

s ent ed i n Expl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge) . The mode l i dent i f i es

t hr ee s our c es f or t hi s i nf or mat i on: Ot her Kno wl e dge , I mpl i c i t

L i ngi i s t i c Kno wl e dge and t he unde r s t a ndi ng a l e ar ne r h as o f a

message ( r epr esent b y t he r esponse cel l ) . These t h r ee f o rms o f

i nf er er i ci ng wi l l be di s c us s e d wi t h r ef e r e nc e t o pr o nunc i a t i o n

l ear ni ng i n t he next s ec t i on.Bot h moni t o r i ng and i n f e r enc i ng may be i nvo l ved when

i nf o r ma t i o n f r om Ot he r Kno wl e dge i s br o ught i nt o t he pr o duc t -

i on t as k t o as s i s t i n t he r epr e s ent a t i on of par t i c ul ar me an-

i ngs . Fo r examp l e , when t he p r onunc i a t i on o f a mor pheme or

s t r uc t ur e r e qui r ed by t he s peaker ' i s not av ai l abl e i n hi s I m-

pl i c i t o r Ex pl i c i t Kno wl e dge s o ur c e s , he ma y ma k e an i nf e r e nc ebased on h i s knowl edge of anot her l anguage ( Ot her Knowl edge)

t o ar r i v e at a new pr onunc i at i on f or m i n t he t ar get l a nguage.

Thi s i t e m, t he pr o duc t of i nf er e nc i ng, wo ul d be r e pr es e nt ed i n

Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl edge . As a r e s ul t , i t may be us e d t o

moni t or a pr oduc t i on r es pons e. I n t hi s wa y, Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s -

t i c Kno wl e dge i s i nc r e as e d by i nf e r e nc i ng and t he i nf o r ma t i o n

i s us ed t o mo ni t o r a r e s pons e . ( pp. 79- 80) .

PERF ORMI NG L ANGUAGE TASKS.

Ba i l y s t ok cons i de r s h ow t he mode l coul d accoun t f or a

s i t ua t i on i n whi c h a s e c ond- l a ngua ge l ear ner i s enga ge d i n c o n-

v er sa t i on wi t h a n at i v e sp eak e r . The l anguage t ask r epr esent ed

by t hi s s i t ua t i o n i s c ons i de r e d as a who l e . But t he s a me s i t -

ua t i on c an be c o ns i de r e d f r om t he po i nt o f vi e w o f t he pr o -

nunc i at i on t as k i nvol ved. I n f ac t , i nt el l i gi bl e pr onunc i at i on



I S •

woul d be a v i t al obj ec t i ve of t he l anguage l ear ner , par al l e l

t o t ho s e of f l uenc y and a c c ept a bl e e xpr e s s i o n of i nf o r ma t i o n.

The model can be used t o he l p t o exp l a i n how t he l ' earn-

er goes about r eachi ng t hese obj ec t i v es . Langu age E xp osu r ewhi c h f eeds i nt o I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge wi l l gi ve t he

l ear ner a ' f eel 1 f or t he way na t i v e sp eake r s modi f y ce r t a i n

f eat ur es of p r o nunc i at i on. St r i c t a dher enc e t o r ul es i s l es s

i mpor t ant i n t hi s s i t uat i on t han i s a c apac i t y t o pr o nounc e

t he t ar get l anguage i n a wa y whi c h i s i nt el l i gi bl e t o t he nat -

i ve l i s t ener .

I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge wo ul d pr ov i de t he ba s i c

s t r uc t ur e s , v oc a bul a r y and pr o nunc i a t i o n f or ms t h e l e ar ne r r e -

q ui r es t o b eg i n a conv er sa t i on. He can i mpr ove h i s commun i ca t -

i v e compet ence t hr ough t he use o f t he i n f e r enc i n g- moni t o r i n g

combi na t i on. The Ot he r Knowl edge sour ce i s l i k el y t o be i m-

por t ant f or i nf e r e nc i ng, gene r a t i ng hy po t h es e s c o nc er ni ng t he

r e pr e s ent a t i o n of p r e vi o us l y unk no wn wo r d s , p hr a s es , s t r uc t -

ur e s , pr o nunc i a t i o ns , and s o on. ( p. 81)

Ac c o r d i ng t o t he mo de l , i ndi v i dua l di f f er enc es i n ac h-

i evement when l ear n i ng a second l anguage may be at t r i but ed t o

t he e xt e nt t o whi c h v ar i o us s t udent s us e t he l e ar ni ng s t r a t e g-

i e s . Ca n t he di f f e r e nc e s i n ac c ur ac y o f pr o nunc i a t i o n c o mmo nl y

obser ved among l ear ner s who have had compar abl e amount s of

f or mal l anguage t r ai ni ng, be at t r i but ed t o di f f er enc es i n i n-

di v i dual us e of l ear ni ng s t r at egi es ?

I n t he t e r ms of Ba i l y s t o k' s mo de l , i f pho ne t i c a nd pho n-

ol ogi c al i nf or mat i o n, pr es e nt ed dur i ng f or mal t r ai ni ng and

s t or ed i n Expl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge, i s not pr ac t i s ed t her e

f *

xs no benef i t t o I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge, f r om whi c h al l

r es pons es emanat e. T ha t i s , f or mal and f unc t i onal pr a c t i c e ,



19

be caus e t hey i nc r ea s e t he I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge s t or e,

a r e t he key t o i mpr ovi ng p r onunc i a t i on per f o r mance . Mor e mon-

i t or i ng woul d be r equi r ed i f t he i nf or ma t i o n r emai ns i n Ex pl i -

c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge , and f or c o mmuni c a t i v e t as k s s u c h aspr onunc i at i on s uc h ov er - us e i s not nec es s a r i l y de s i r a bl e . Ac c -

ur a t e pr o nunc i a t i o n r equi r e s l ar gel y T ype I r e s po ns e s , wh er e as

i f moni t or i ng i s r equi r ed t he i mmedi at e t i m ng es s e nt i al t o

pr onunc i at i on i s i nt er r upt ed and Ty pel l r es pons e s r es ul t i n

hes i t at i ng, s t i l t ed pr onunc i at i on. ( p. 82)

Bai l ys t ok al s o s ugges t s t hat ot her abi l i t y di f f er enc esb et ween i ndi v i dua l s may de t e r m ne t he ease wi t h wh i ch t he l ear -

ni ng pr o c es s e s o c c ur , t he a mo unt of i nf o r ma t i o n t he l e ar ne r i s

abl e t o ext r ac t f r om a gi ven s i t uat i on, t he ext ent t o whi c h

he ma y oper a t e on av ai l abl e i nf or ma t i o n, et c . The i mpl i c at i o ns

of t hi s v i ew f or t he r es ear c h pr obl em wi l l be i nves t i gat ed i n

Par t I I .

The mode l may be used t o i n t e r p r e t ex i s t i n g r esear ch

by de t e r m ni ng whi c h as pe c t s of t he mo de l a r e i nv ol v ed i n va r -

i ous r esear ch ap pr oach es . Acco r d i n gl y , evi dence wh i ch may h av e

a ppe ar e d c o nt r a di c t o r y , may b e f ound t o be de al i ng wi t h d i f f -

e r ent a spec t s o f t he gene r a l mode l . Two f eat ur es o f t he mode l

whi c h r equi r e f ur t her i nves t i gat i on ar e t he r ol e of t he s t r at -

e gi e s i n l a nguage l e ar ni ng and t he e f f e c t s o f t he t i me e l e me nt

i n t he Out put pr o c es s l i ne o n pr o f i c i e nc y . Amo ng t he t e nt a t i v e

pedagogi ca l i mpl i ca t i ons su gges t ed b y t he mode l a re t he need

t o t eac h c er t ai n l ear ni ng s t r at egi es and t o pr ov i de par t i c ul ar

k i nds of l a ngua ge e xpe r i e nc e .



20

5. 2 LANGUAGE LEARNI NG STRATEGI ES

I n t hi s sec t i on a compar i son wi l l be made be t -

ween t he f our l ear ni ng s t r a t egi es desc r i bed by Ba i l y s t ok and

t hose s t r a t egi es desc r i bed by J oan Rubi n t o account f or good

l anguage l ear ni ng. Thi s aut hor has su gges t ed t ha t t he r e ar et hr ee aspect s t o be i nves t i gat ed t o account f or good l anguage

l ear ni ng. T he s e ar e:

i ) t he l ear ner ' s u s e of s t r at egi es t o ac qui r e k no wl e dge and

i mpr ove hi s per f o r mance;

i i ) t he l ear ner ' s mot i v at i o n t o c ommuni c at e i n t he s ec ond l an-

guage ; and

i i i ) t he l ear ner ' s e xpos ur e t o t he t ar get l anguage and oppor -

t uni t i es t o us e i t . 7

The f i r s t of t hes e as pec t s i s c ons i der ed i n t hi s s ec t i on, t he

s ec ond wi l l be di s c us s e d i n s ec t i on 5. 7 and t he t hi r d as pec t

' i s t he s ubj ec t of 5 3

The most i mpor t ant t echni que of good l anguage l ear n i na,

Qac c or di ng t o Rubi n, i s a good gues s i ng abi l i t y . T he i mpor t -

ance of guess i ng i s due t o t he f ac t t ha t , as i n na t i v e l anguage

i nt e r ac t i ons , we never compr ehend a l l t ha t t he speaker • i nt end-

ed and must use what ever c l ues t he env i r onment and d i sc our se

may gi ve. The second aspect o f t he guess i ng s t r a t egy i s t hat

t he good guesser makes i nf er ences as t o t he pur pose , i n t ent

and poi nt o f v i ew of a communi cat i on. 9

Gues s i ng, t hen, i s vi t al t o l i s t eni ng and r eadi ng



21

c ompr ehens i on. Ac c ur a t e l i s t eni ng c ompr ehens i o n i s , i n t ur n,

es s e nt i al t o ac c ur at e pr onunc i at i o n be c aus e , i n or der t o us e

t he i nt onat i on and s t r es s pat t er ns appr opr i at e t o hi s wi l l

and emot i on a t t he moment o f sp eak i ng, t he l ear ne r h as f i r s t

t o r ec ogni z e s uc h pat t er ns i n t he s peec h of o t he r s , es pe ci a l l y

nat i v e s peak er s .

Rubi n' s de s c r i pt i on of t he gues s i ng t e c hni que s uppo r t s

t he t heor et i c al des c r i pt i on of i nf er enc i ng i n Bai l y s t ok ' s mo-

de l . T he i nf e r e nc i ng s t r at e gy l i nes o f t he mo del l ead i nt o Ex -

pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge f r om Ot her Knowl edge, I mpl i c i t

L i ng ui s t i c Kn owl edg e and t he Response ce l l . The t wo aspec t s

o f t he guess i ng t echni q ue desc r i bed b y Rubi n co r r espond t o

t he f i r s t a nd t hi r d t ype of i nf er enc i ng i n t he mo de l .

I nf er enc i ng f r om Ot her Knowl edge, t he f i r s t as pec t of

t he guess i ng t echni qu e, woul d mak e u se of t he l ear ne r ' s k now-

l edge of t he s u bj e c t ma t t e r , c ue s i n t he e nv i r o nme nt , gue s t ur -

es , knowl edge o f o t her l anguages , and so onï °For examp l e , know-

l edge of how a wor d i s pr onounced i n anot her l anguage may be

us ed t o i nf er t he pr onunc i at i on of a s i m l ar wor d i n t he t ar -

ge t l a ngua ge . T he o ve r - us e of t hi s t y pe of i nf e r e nc i ng ac -

c o unt s f or t he phe no me no n of i nt e r f e r e nc e f r om t he na t i v e l an-

guage when l ear n i ng t o pr onounce a second one.A second t y pe of i n f e r enc i n g, n ot ment i oned by Ru bi n ,

i s t hat i n whi c h i nf or mat i on whi c h i s i mpl i c i t l y kno wn abo ut

t he t a r get l anguage may be b r ought t o consc i ousness . Fo r exam-

pl e, l ear ner s , l i ke nat i v e s peak er s , may not c ons c i ous l y di s -

t i ngui s h be t we en t he t wo ' 1' s o unds i n bi l l and l i k e be c au s e

t he di s t i nc t i on i s not phonem c al l y s i gni f i c ant i n Engl i s h.But o nc e t he di s t i nc t i on i s poi nt ed out t o t hem, t he i mpl i c i t



22

I Ik nowl edg e b ecomes ex pl i c i t .

A t hi r d t ype of i nf er enc i ng i dent i f i ed i n t he mo del ,

and r e f er r ed ; t o by Rubi n as t he second aspect o f t he guess i ng

s t r at egy , i s pr i mar i l y r el at ed t o dev el o pi ng c o mpr e he ns i o n.The un der s t andi n g t he l ear ne r h as o f a messag e i s r epr esent ed

by t h e Re s po ns e c el l . T he i nf o r ma t i o n i n t hi s c e l l ma y be br -

o ught i nt o c o ns c i o us n es s t o a r r i v e a t s o me e xpl i c i t unde r s t a nd-12

mg of di f f i c ul t mat er i al . The l ear ner ' s abi l i t y t o us e app-

r opr i at e i nt o nat i on and s t r es s pa t t e r n s , as we l l as t o mo di f y

ot her as pec t s of hi s pr onunc i at i on ac c or di ng t o a s pe ci f i c mo -

del , r equi r es t he us e of t hi s t y pe of i nf er enc i ng.

Anot her t echn i que of t he good l ear ner not ed by Rubi n

i s t ha t h e moni t o r s h i s own sp eech and t he speech of o t h er s .

He i s al wa ys pr o c es s i ng i nf o r ma t i o n and c an l ear n f r om hi s o wn

• 13

m s t a ke s . i n Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l mo ni t o r i ng i s s hown t o oper -

at e by br i ngi ng i nf or mat i on f r om Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge

t o t he l angua ge t as k f or t he pur po s e of e xa m ni ng o r c o r r e c t -

i ng a r es pons e . Thus ' l ear ni ng f r om m s t a ke s ' c an be a cc ount e d

f or f r om t he mo de l as f ol l ows : af t er an i ni t i a l r es pons e ( Type

I ) , consc i ous k n owl edg e o f t he l anguage may ent e r t he Ou t p ut14

pr oc es s l i ne t o pr o duc e a c or r ec t ed ( TypeI I ) r e s po ns e .

A t hi r d t e c hni que or s t r a t egy di s c u s s e d by Rubi n i s t ha t

ac t i v i t y i n whi c h l ear ner s t ake oppor t uni t i es t o pr ac t i c e t h e

t a r g et l a ngua ge and ar e wi l l i ng t o ma k e m s t a ke s ( f or e x ampl e ,

i n t he pr o nunc i a t i o n of ne w v oc a bul a r y i t e ms ) i n o r de r t o l e ar n

and c ommuni c at e. Spec i f i c al l y r el at ed t o pr or i uc i at i on l e ar ni ng,

Rubi n c o nc l ude s t ha t t he goo d l e ar ner ma y t r y t o i s o l a t e t ho s e

f eat ur es whi c h gi ve hi m maxi mum i nt el l i gi bi l i t y . He may de-

v el o p a f e el i ng f or t he pho no l o gi c a l c l ue s whi c h be s t e nha nc e

i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y. I n Engl i s h , t hi s m g ht me an t ha t he e mpha s i s e s



i s •

ac c ur at e pr oduc t i o n of i nt onat i on pa t t er ns o ver t hat o f i ndi v -

i dual s ounds be caus e of t he i nt i mat e r el a t i ons hi p of t hes e

pat t er ns wi t h

s ynt ax. I n Engl i s h, s ome m s pr onunc i at i on of i n-di v i dual s ounds wi l l be t ol er at ed i f i nt onat i onal pat t er ns a r e

15ac c ur at e.

Thi s t ec hni que c or r es ponds t o f unc t i onal pr a c t i c e i n

Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l , s i nc e t he l ear ner ' s pur pos e i s t o under -

s t and ( f or examp l e , when wat ch i ng a mov i e o r r ead i ng a book )

and communi ca t e ( when t a l k i ng wi t h na t i v e sp eak er s ) . Acco r d i n g

t o t he model , most o f t he knowl edge acqui r ed i n such encoun-

t er s wi l l be di r ec t l y av ai l abl e f or l anguage r e s po ns e . A n ex-

ampl e of t he us e of t hi s s t r at egy i s t he s i t uat i on i n whi c h

t he l ear ner pr ac t i s e s pr o nunc i at i o n and ot her s k i l l s whe n con-

v er s i ng wi t h a nat i v e s peak er , as des c r i bed by B ai l y s t o k . 1 6

J o an Rubi n al s o hy po t he s i s e s t ha t t he good l e ar ner f i nds

ways t o make t he t h i ngs he must memor i ze mor e meani ngf u l . Car -

r o l l ( 1966) sugges t s t ha t ' t he mor e meang i ng f ul t he mat e r i a l t o

be l ear ned, t he gr eat er f ac i l i t y i n l ear ni ng and r et ent i on. 1 ^

Thi s abi l i t y i s es s ent i al t o t he f or mal pr ac t i s i ng s t r at egy

as desc r i bed i n t he mode l . When t he l ear ner obt a i ns new i n-

f o r mat i on conce r n i ng pr onunc i a t i on and o t h er second l anguage

s k i l l s , he may f or m as s o c i at i ons be t we en t he i nf or mat i o n and

t he cont ext i n wh i ch i t i s ga i ned o r s ome o t h er e l ement o f t he

c ode t o whi c h i t be l o ngs .

F or t hi s r e as o n, t he s emant i c c ont ex t i n whi c h l i ngui s -

t i c i nf o r mat i on i s c onvey ed i n f or mal pr ac t i c e i t ems s houl d

f ac i l i t at e r a t her t han di s t r ac t f r om t he des i r ed l ear ni ng. I n

t he f i r s t t y pe of f or mal p r a c t i s i ng t he l ear ner i s pr ov i ded

wi t h ex pl i c i t i nf or mat i on about t he c ode, f or e xampl e , c e r t a i n

phonol ogi c al r ul es and s t r es s pat t er ns . I f t he i nf or mat i on



24

gai ned i s me ani ngf ul t o t he l ear ner i t wi l l be mo r e eas i l y e s-

t a bl i s he d i n I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge t hr o ugh t he s e cond

t ype of f or mal pr ac t i s i ng.

18As not ed by Char l es Par i sh , t her e a r e many t h i ngs go-

i ng on i n t he speech cha i n , and t he s t udent a t any gi ven t i me

i s capabl e of pr oc es s i ng onl y a c er t ai n pr o po r t i o n of t hat i n-

f or mat i on. As hi s bas i c s ki l l s devel op hi s c apac i t y f or

pr oc es s i ng appar ent l y i nc r eas es , al l owi ng hi m t o f oc us not

onl y on sy nt ax but a l so on o t he r f eat ur es o f s t r uc t ur es s uch

as how t hey a re pr onounced. An i mpl i ca t i on o f t hi s r a t e of

deve l opment i s t ha t t he s t udent i s b et t e r p r epa r ed, t he mor e

advanced he i s i n exposur e t o t he l anguage, t o ana l yse a par -

t i c ul ar mo di f i c at i on i n pr onunc i at i on and t o a t t empt t o adopt

a r equi r ed change.

T hi s , and t he f i ve ot her m et hodol ogi c al pr i nc i pl es out -

l i ned by P ar i s h, woul d s eem t o be r el evant as gui del i nes f or

t he i nt r oduc t i o n and us e of t he s t r a t egi e s di s c u s s ed abo ve

f or pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng. The ef f ec t i ve us e of t hes e s t r at -

egi es r equi r es t hat t hey f or m an i nt egr al par t of t he l ear ni ng

ac t i v i t i es and t hat t hey c or r es pond t o t he s t udent s ' l evel of

l i ngui s t i c r eadi nes s at a ny par t i c ul ar t i me.



25

5. 3. • LANGUAGE EXPOSURE

Wha t i s t he r e l a t i v e i mpo r t a nc e of f or mal and i nf o r ma l

l anguage e xpos u r e f or pr o nunc i a t i o n l e ar ni ng? On t hi s que s t i o n

t he r esul t s o f a s t udy car r i ed out by S t ephen Kr ashen and Her -

ber t S el i nge r1 9

wi l l be c ompar ed wi t h t he r e l e va nt f i ndi ngs i n20

a s t udy ma de by Ri c ha r d Sut e r . T he r e s ul t s of t hi s l at t er

s t udy a r e c ons i de r e d i n s e c t i on 5. 6. Bot h s t udi e s c o nc e r n

l ear ner s l i vi ng i n an e nv i r o nme nt wh er e Engl i s h i s t he na t i v e

l angua ge . Kr a s he n and Se l i nge r s t udi ed t he r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s

of f or mal and i nf o r ma l e nv i r o nme nt s o n o r a l s k i l l s . T he t wo

s t udi es have r at her d i f f er ent c r i t er i a and c onc l us i ons . But i t

wi l l be seen t hat t hey p r ov i de comp l ement ar y ev i dence on t he

pr es e nt ques t i on.

I n Kr ashen and Se l i nge r ' s s t ud y, 36 adu l t s t udent s wer e

r anked f or or al s ki l l s ( es pec i al l y gr ammat i c al ac c ur ac y, f l u-

ency and o r a l compr ehens i on) . Accu r acy of pr onun c i a t i on was

no t i nc l ude d, but c e r t a i n i nf e r e nc e s c an b e ma de f r om t he s t udy

despi t e t hi s ex c l us i on. The s t udent s ' p er f o r mance was measu r ed

by a t eac her r ank i ng on t he bas i s of gener al c l as s r oom per -

f o r mance i n t he spoken l anguage. The r ank i ngs o f t he s t udent s

we r e c or r el at ed wi t h t hei r ' t al ki ng s c or es ' ( det er m ned f r om

a quest i onnai r e wh i ch measur ed how much Engl i sh t hey had s pok-

en i n i n f o r ma l env i r onment s and t he number o f year s o f f o r ma li ns t r uc t i on t hey had had i n Engl i s h) .

I n t he s t u dy , an i nf o r ma l env i r onment was cons i de r ed



26

t o be s i m l ar t o t he pr i mar y l i ngui s t i c dat a t he c hi l d i s ex-

posed t o ( Chomsk y, 1964) , t ha t i s , uno r gani z ed wi t h r espec t21

t o s equent i al pr es ent at i on of i s ol at ed s t r uc t ur es . A s i g-

ni f i c ant c o r r el at i on wa s f ound bet we en f or mal c l as s r oom t r ai n-

i ng and o r a l s k i l l s , but t he r e wa s a l ow c o r r e l a t i o n be t we en

or al pr of i c i enc y and amount of c onv er s a t i onal pr a ct i c e i n i n-

f o rma l env i r onment s .

These f i ndi ngs i mpl y t ha t some l ear ne r s a re abl e t o

ut i l i z e nat ur al c ommuni c at i on s i t uat i ons t o i mpr ov e t hei r or al

pr of i c i enc y onl y up t o a c er t ai n poi nt . Bey ond t hi s poi nt t he

l ear ner i s pr i ma r i l y de pe nda nt on t he s t r uc t ur e d f eedbac k of22

f or mal l anguage i ns t r uc t i on f or f ur t her pr o gr e s s . But t he

f ac t t ha t pr onunc i a t i on accur acy was no t i nc l uded i n t he as -

s es s ment of o r a l s k i l l s i mpl i es t hat t he i nves t i gat or s s us -

pest ed t hat i t may not be acqui r e^ i n t he same way as t he

ot her s ki l l s . I t i s f eas i bl e t o s ugges t t hat t hos e as pec t s o f

pronunciation whi c h ar e mo s t i mpo r t a nt f or n at i v e- l i k e ac c ur -

ac y ar e a cc e s s i bl e t o t he l ear ner onl y i n na t ur a l l a nguage

s i t uat i ons .

The v al ue o f t he s t udy i s al so r educed by t he f ac t t ha t

t he v ar i ous s k i l l s we r e no t measu r ed sepa r a t e l y b ut l umped

t oget her . I t c an be ar gued t hat f l uenc y, be ca us e i t i s c l os e-l y r el at ed t o r hyt hm and i nt onat i on i n t he pr onunc i at i on s k i l l ,

may have sh own di f f e r ent co r r e l a t i ons wi t h f o r ma l and i n-

f o rma l l anguage exposur e i f i t had been assessed sepa r a t e l y .

I n Ri c har d Sut er ' s s t udy a negl i gi bl e c or r el at i on wa s

f ound be t ween amount o f f o rma l c l a s s r oom t r a i ni ng and pr onun-

c i at i on a cc ur ac y .23

But t he v ar i a bl e of i nf or mal l a nguage ex -posur e was f ound t o b e s t r ongl y r e l a t ed t o pr onu nc i a t i on ac -

cu racy .



27

F or t he l ear ner of Engl i s h l i v i ng i n a c ount r y whe r e i t

i s no t t he na t i v e l anguage , access t o na t u r a l communi ca t i on

s i t uat i ons i s us ual l y ver y l i m t ed. The l ear ner d epends on oc -

c a s i o nal c hanc es f or c o nv er s a t i on wi t h na t i v e and no n- na t i v e

s peak er s . I n t hes e c i r c ums t anc es , l ear ner s a r e unl i k el y e ver

t o r eac h t he po i nt whe r e t h ey c an no l onger b e ne f i t f r om i n-

f o rma l l anguage exp osu r e . I n t hi s cont ext , t he c l a i ms made by

Kr ashen and - Sel i nger f or t he gr eat e r i mpo r t ance of f o r ma l t r -

ai ni ng over i nf or mal pr ac t i c e f or devel opi ng or al s k i l l s s e em

t o be o ver r i dde n.Bailystok's model does not set up a cont r as t b et ween

f or mal and i nf o r ma l l anguage e xpo s ur e . Ra t he r , i t p r o vi de s f or

t he i dent i f i c at i on of many s pec i f i c ex per i e nc es wi t hi n t he un-

di f f e r e nt i a t e d c o nt e xt i n whi c h e xpo s ur e t o a l a ngua ge oc c ur s .

The des c r i pt i on of pr ac t i c e s t r at egi es i n t he mo de l i s bas e d

on a c l as s i f i c at i on pos t ul at ed by St er n( 19 74) i n whi c h l an-

guage use may be consi der ed ' f or mal 1 or ' f unc t i onal ' ?4 Thi s

c l as s i f i c at i on cut s ac r os s t he bounda r i e s bet we en t he ' f or mal 1

and ' i nf o r ma l 1 l anguage exposur e cons i der ed by Sut er , Kr ashen

and Se l i nge r and o t he r s . For ex amp l e , wh en a l ear ne r a sk s o t h-

er s f or i nf or mat i on about p r onunc i at i on f or ms out s i de t he f or -

mal c l as s r oom s i t uat i on, he i s s eeki ng f or mal i nf or mat i on i n

a f unc t i onal s i t uat i on. Al s o , i n t he c l as s r oom t he f oc us may

be s hi f t ed f r om t he f or mal c ode t o pr ac t i s e f unc t i onal l an-

guage . Th i s occur s wh en s t udent s l i s t en t o r ecor di ng s of Eng-

l i s h us ed i n ' r e al l i f e' s i t uat i ons i n or der t o under s t and t h e

gi s t o f t he s i t uat i on, but n ot t o anal y s e t he l anguage.

Na t ur a l c ommuni c at i on s i t uat i ons i ns i de t he c l as s r oom

i n whi c h l ear ner s ar e abl e t o pr ac t i s e t hei r pr onunc i a t i on

s k i l l , a r e l es s c ommo n. Cl a s s r o om di a l o gue be t we en t e ac he r and



s t udent o r s t udent and s t ude nt , al t ho ugh v i t a l f or i mpr o vi ng

pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y, i s us ual l y mo r e c ont r ol l ed and s el ec t -

i ve t han t he i nhi bi t ed l anguage of d ai l y us e . Thi s pr ac t i c e

wi l l a l way s be f o rmal t o a l a rg e ext ent . Bu t , dependi ng on t he

t eac her ' s a bi l i t y t o c r eat e an o bj ec t i v e, non- j udgment al at mos -

pher e i n t he c l as s r oom v al uabl e f unc t i onal pr ac t i c e may o c c ur

t oget her wi t h f or mal pr a ct i c e.

Ba i l y s t o k' s mo de l , t he n, s ugge s t s t he i mpo r t a nc e of

t ea c hi ng l ear ner s f or mal and f unc t i ona l pr a c t i s i ng, among ot h-

er s t r at egi es , f or ef f ec t i ve pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng. The ques t -i on of whi c h t ype of e xpo s ur e , f or mal or i nf o r ma l , i s mo r e i m-

por t ant f or a cqui r i ng pr onunc i at i on and ot her or al s k i l l s , be-

c omes i r r el evant . T hi s poi nt i s ex empl i f i ed c l ear l y by t he mo -

del i t s el f . Thr ough t he s ec ond f or mal pr ac t i c e s t r at egy , expl i -

c i t i nf o r mat i on wh i ch t he l ear ne r h as about t he l anguage code

be c ome s mo r e f am l i ar a nd av ai l a bl e f or f or m ng, l a ngua ge r e-s pons e s . Sec ondl y , t h r o ugh f unc t i onal p r a c t i c e , t he l ear ner

adds t o h i s i mp l i c i t knowl edge o f how t o convey meani ng i n t he

t ar ge t l a ngua ge . 2^ Thi s poi nt wi l l be i l l us t r at ed i n var i ous

way s i n t he sec t i on^ whi ch f o l l ows and i n t he r a t i ona l e f or

pr onunc i at i on t eac hi ng i n t he f i nal s ec t i on.



29

5. 4 ' APPLI CATI ON OF THE MODEL

W t h t he per s pec t i v e pr ovi ded by Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l ,

t he di s c us s i o n of l ea r n i ng s t r a t e gi es a nd of l angua ge ex po s -

ur e , t he r esea r c h pr obl em can now be cons i de r ed mor e c l o se l y .

The quest i on of why some l ear ner s pr onounce Engl i sh mor e ac-

c ur at el y t han ot her s wi l l b e appl i ed t o t hos e s t udent s i n

c ount r i es wher e Engl i s h i s not t he na t i v e l anguage. I n t hi s

case , l anguage l ear ni ng expe r i ences occu r ma i n l y t hr ough f or -

ma l c l a s s r o om e xpos u r e . T hi s ex po s ur e i s f or mal i n t he s ens e

t hat i t i s or gani z ed and s el ec t ed t o a gr eat er or l es s er ex-

t e nt , i n c ont r as t t o t he t ot al l y r andom ex pos ur e whi c h oc c ur s

2 6

wi t h i mmer s i on i n t he nat i v e c ul t ur e. So t he pr obl em i s t o

ac c ount f or v ar i at i o ns i n pr o nunc i a t i o n ac c ur ac y amo ng l ea r n -

er s of Engl i s h as a second l anguage who have had a s i m l ar

amount of f or mal c l as s r oom i ns t r uc t i on but l i t t l e or no i n-

f or mal c ont ac t wi t h nat i v e s peak er s o ut s i de t he c l as s r oom

A pa r t i c ul a r gr o up of t he s e s t udent s wi l l ha ve had

s i m l a r e xpo s ur e t o t he pho ne t i c and pho no l o gi c a l as pe ct s o f

Engl i s h. Thr ough f or mal t r ai ni ng, s ome of t hi s i nf or ma t i on

wo ul d be r epr es e nt e d i n Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge as f or -

ma l pr onunc i a t i on r ul es . The l ear ne r may use t he f o r ma l p r ac -

t i c e s t r a t e gy , s t udyi ng book s or a s ki ng ot her s f or i nf or mat i on

about t he pr onunc i at i on of Engl i s h, i n or der t o i nc r eas e hi s

e xpl i c i t k no wl e dge . But t he s t ude nt i s a l s o ex po s ed t o a c on-

s i de r abl e amount of phono l ogi ca l and ph one t i c i nf o r mat i on



i nf or mal l y whe n he l i s t ens t o t he Engl i s h us e d by t e ac he r s , by

ot her s or i n r ec or di ngs , f or any pur po s e, bo t h i n t he c l as s -

r oom and e l sewher e . I n t he t er ms o f t he mode l , some o f t hi s

l at t er i nf or mat i on woul d pas s di r ec t l y i nt o I mpl i c i t L i ngui s -

t i c Kno wl e dge . The l ear ner ma y us e t he f unc t i ona l pr a c t i c e

s t r at egy , del i ber at el y ar r angi ng f or s uc h ex pos ur e t o oc c ur

so t ha t hi s i mpl i c i t k n owl edge of E ngl i sh may be i nc r eased 27

As t he l ear ni ng pr oc es s c ont i nues , t he expl i c i t l y l ear n-

ed i nf or mat i on may al s o be r epr es ent ed i n I mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c

Knowl edge t hr ough t he second t y pe of f o r ma l p r ac t i s i n g, us i ng

exer c i s e s and dr i l l s . The l ear ner wo ul d t hen us e t h i s i nf or m-

at i on i mpl i c i t l y i n hi s pr onunc i at i on of Engl i s h. Sec ondl y,

t hr ough t he s t r at egy of i nf er enc i ng, i mpl i c i t l y known i nf or m-

a t i on can b e b r ough t i nt o consc i ousn ess and r epr esent ed i n Ex -

pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge , pr ov i di ng t he me ans f or der i v i ng

t he co r r ec t pr onunc i a t i on o f new wo r d s and p h r as es . ^

The i nput of l i ngui s t i c k nowl e dge, a cc or di ng t o t he

mode l , i nvol ves a t hi r d s our c e - Ot her Kno wl edge . I t i s t hi s

sour ce wh i ch may be dec i s i ve f o r l ear ni ng t o p r onounce a sec -

ond l anguage accur a t e l y , s i nce i t woul d i nc l ude k nowl edge of

whi c h pr o nunc i a t i ons ar e t ol er at e d i n whi c h s t y l es of s peec h

i n t he t ar get l anguage. Thr ough i nf er e nc i ng, t hi s i nf or mat i o n

wo ul d be r epr es ent ed i n Ex pl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Kno wl e dge , al l ow-

i ng t he l ear ne r t o empl oy t he v ar i ant s o f t he l anguage i n t he

same pa t t e r n and t o pr ogr ess f r om one s t y l e t o ano t he r as

near l y l i k e a na t i v e s pea ke r a s po s s i bl e . T he l ear ner wo ul d

ac qui r e s uc h i nf or mat i on f r om t he v ar i et y of pr onunc i at i ons

and s t yl es a va i l abl e t o hi m bot h i n t he s e c ond l a ngua ge c l a s s -

r oom and el s e whe r e .

As not ed i n t he di s c us s i on of Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l , t he



pr oc es s e s and s t r at egi es i nv ol v ed i n pr onunc i a t i on l ear ni ng

c a n b e e xa mp l i f i e d wi t h a s i t u at i o n i n wh i c h a s e c ond l a ng ua ge29

l ear ner i s engaged i n c o nv er s a t i o n wi t h a na t i v e s p ea ke r .

T he l e ar ne r ma y b eg i n hi s c o nv er s a t i o n o n t h e b as i s of I mpl i -

c i t L i n gu i s t i c Kn owl e dge a nd i mpr o v e h i s c o mmu ni c a t i v e c o mpet -

e nc e by t he us e o f t he i n f e r e nc i n g- mo ni t o r i n g c omb i na t i o n. An

i mp or t a nt s o ur c e o f i n f o r ma t i o n f or i nf e r e nc i n g wo ul d b e k n ow-

l edge of t he t a r g et c ul t ur e and of t he s u bj e c t ma t t e r .30

As not ed by Ba i l e y , an e s s e nt i a l e l eme nt o f a c qui r i ng

a native - l i k e a cc ent i s t o l ear n t o c o nt r o l t ho s e phe no me na

c al l ed ' m s t akes ' by l ay men and ' l at e as s i m l at or y and ot her

r ul es ' by l i ngui s t s . I n Engl i s h, f or ex ampl e, pr onunc i at i ons

wi t h b sound non - s t andar d i n s l ow, pr ec i s e pr onunc i at i ons of

g ov er n me nt , s e v en and h av e t h em. Bu t b i s n at i v e- l i k e i n t h es e

e x amp l e s i n a l l e gr o s pe ec h . Ot h er we l l - kn o wn e x amp l e s a r e

l emme , g i mme , mo nt s ( f o r mo nt hs ) and i dn' t ( f or i s n ' t i t ) .

The abi l i t y t o us e s uc h f or ms i n t hei r pr ope r i mpl i c at i onal

pat t e r n s and t he a ppr o pr i a t e s t y l es of s p eec h i s a s t r ong c l u et o a nat i v e- l i k e ac c ent .

T he l ear ner wi l l ge ne r a t e hy po t he s es c onc e r n i ng t he

appr opr i at e us e o f s uc h f or ms f r om t he t o pi c of c onv er s a t i o n,

s t y l e of s peec h and t he par t i c ul ar s t y l e of t he na t i v e s peak er

wi t h wh om h e i s c o nv er s i n g. T he s e h yp ot h es e s ma y b e i n c or p or -

at e d i nt o h i s own p r o nu nc i a t i o n t h r o u gh mo ni t o r i n g. De pe nd i n g

o n t h e pr o f i c i e nc y o f t h e l e ar ne r a nd t h e e xt e nt t o wh i c h h e

engages i n t hes e s t r at egi es , h i s pr onunc i at i on r e s pons e s wi l l

be a combination o f T yp e I and T y pe I I . T he d eg r e e o f a c c ur a c y

obt a i ned by t he l ear ner wi l l i ndi c at e t he ex t ent t o whi c h t he

r e s po ns e s ar e T yp e I and h en c e a r e i ni t i a t e d s o l el y o n t h e

bas i s of i mpl i c i t L i ngui s t i c Knowl edge.



32

5. 5 I NDI VI DUAL LEARNER CHARACTERI STI CS

I n t hi s s e c t i on a s ur v ey wi l l be ma de of s e ver al t he or -

et i c al ac count s of t hos e i ndi v i dual l ear ner c har ac t er i s t i c s

cons i der ed t o i n f l uence per f o r mance when p r onounc i ng a second

l anguage.

As i ndi c at ed i n t he di s c us s i on of Bai l y s t ok ' s mo de l ,

i ndi v i dual di f f e r e nc es i n pe r f o r ma nc e may be at t r i but ed t o t he

ex t e nt t o whi c h v ar i ous l ear ner s us e t he l ear ni ng s t r at egi es .

The i ndi vi dual ' s c har ac t er i s t i c s as a l ear ner and hi s l ear ni ng

backgr ound may , i n t ur n, d et e r m ne t he ease wi t h whi ch t he

s t r a t e gi e s and l ear ni ng pr o c es s e s f unc t i o n. T hus , an o pt i ma l

s et o f i ndi v i dual c har ac t er i s t i c s wo ul d ma xi m z e t he amount of

i nf or mat i on t he par t i c ul ar l ear ner i s abl e t o ext r ac t f r o m a

gi v en s i t ua t i o n, t he e xt e nt t o whi c h he ma y ope r a t e on av ai l -31

abl e i nf or mat i on, and s o on. I n t he f ol l owi ng di s c us s i on

t hes e c ons i der at i ons wi l l be appl i ed s pec i f i c al l y t o pr onun-

c i at i on l ear n i ng.I t i s appar ent t hat i ndi v i dual s v ar y i n s ev er al wa ys

when l ear n i ng t o pr onounce a second l anguage wi t h accur acy ac-

32

c or di ng t o a pa r t i c ul a r mo de l . Va r i o us aut hor s ha ve r e f e r r e d

t o t hes e i ndi v i dual di f f er enc es . They wi l l be c ons i der ed f r om

t he poi nt of vi ew of ho w t hey i nf l ue nc e t he l e ar ne r ' s us e

of - s t r a t egi es t o i mpr ove hi s accur acy wh en l ear ni ng t o pr o -

nounce a second l anguage . Seve r a l t heor e t i ca l a ccount s o f t h ese

di f f e r e nc e s wi l l be c ons i der e d be f o r e r e vi e wi ng a s t udy by



33

Sut er o f t went y var i abl es , i nc l udi ng c er t ai n i ndi v i dual di f -

f er enc es , s us pec t e d of di s pl ayi ng s i gni f i c ant r el at i ons hi ps

t o pr onunc i at i on a c c ur ac y.

T he f i r s t and mo s t o bv i o us of t hes e di f f e r e nc e s i s t he33

l ear ner ' s nat i v e l anguage. The f ac t t h at a l ear ner ' s na t i v e

l anguage c an of t en be i dent i f i ed f r om hi s c har ac t er i s t i c a c-

cent wh en sp eaki ng a second l anguage , i ndi ca t es t he gr eat i n-

f l uenc e of t he ex pe r i e nc e o f l ear ni ng t he f i r s t l a ngua ge on

hi s ef f or t s t o pr onounc e t he s ec ond. Cul t ur a l di f f er enc es i n

c ogni t i v e l ear ni ng s t y l es may al s o a f f ec t t he us e of s t r at eg-

i es . I n s ome s oc i et i es , l i s t eni ng unt i l t he ent i r e code i s

abs o r b ed and one c an s peak pe r f e c t l y i s a r e po r t ed f or m o f

l ear ni ng. I n o t h er s , s uc c es s i v e appr ox i mat i on t o nat i v e s peec h

i s us ed as a l ear ni ng s t r at egy. Whi l e i n s t i l l ot her s , r ot e3

l ear ni ng i s t he mos t common l ear ni ng s t r a t egy . So a s t udent ' s

c hoi c e of and abi l i t y t o us e c er t ai n s t r at egi es may be i nf l u-

e nc e d by hi s c u l t ur a l ba c kgr o und.

Strevens * 5, not es t hat ' anot her di f f er enc e bet we en l ear n-

er s wi l l be t hei r pr ev i ous ex pe r i enc e of f or ei gn l anguages ,

whe t he r o f h ea r i ng t he m onl y or o f l e ar ni ng one or mo r e . I t

m ght be e xpec t e d t ha t bo t h t he t y pe of l ea r n i ng e xpe r i e nc e

and t he l eve l of a chi evement woul d i nf l uence t he l ear ne r ' s ab-

i l i t y t o us e t he l ear ni ng s t r at egi es i n or der t o i mpr ove hi spr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y.

Di f f er enc es i n audi t or y di s c r i m nat i on and al er t nes s of

hear i ng as wel l as i n t he i ns t i nc t i ve abi l i t y t o m m c new

s o unds , undoubt edl y a c c ount f or t he gr e at e r f ac i l i t y of s o me

l ear ner s i n c ont r ol l i ng t he s peec h me c ha ni s m and i n mo ni t or i ng

t hei r own per f o r mance . Rub i n not es t hat some s t udent s l ear n37

be t t e r by v i su al means , o t he r s by audi t o r y means . Lear ne r s



wh o h av e l es s i nna t e a pt i t ude f or o r a l m m c r y ma y be ne f i t

f r o m f or mal t r ai ni ng i n t hi s s k i l l and mor e f u nc t i onal pr ac -

t i c e t o i nc r eas e t h ei r e xpo s ur e t o t he s o unds of t he t a r ge t

l a ngua ge .Differences i n s peed of l ear ni ng ar e l i k el y t o b e par -

t i c ul ar l y i mpor t ant f or pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng. T hi s i s be-

c a us e i n p r o nu nc i a t i o n, t he o r g an i z a t i o n o f s y nt a x and s e ma n-

t i c s , ha vi ng f i r s t b ee n gener at ed i n t he br a i n as a s er i es

of s ol el y me nt a l pr o c es s e s , i s c onv er t ed i nt o p s yc ho - mo t o r a c-

t i v i t y . 3^ Be i n g p s y c ho - mo t o r r a t he r t ha n s o l e l y me nt a l , p r o -

nunc i at i on l ear ni ng, l i ke al l mus c ul ar t r a i ni ng, wi l l r equi r e

mo r e t i me and ef f or t f or s o me i ndi v i dua l s t han f or o t he r s .

Rubi n not es t hat c er t ai n per s onal i t y t r ai t s ( per f ec t -

i o ni s m, self - c onf i denc e, ex t r ov er s i on) ar e a l s o r epor t ed t o39

af f ec t t he c hoi c e and us e of l ear ni ng s t r at egi es . L ea r n er s

al s o v ar y i n t hei r wi l l i ng ne s s t o l ear n t o p r o n oun c e a s e c ond

language.'W illingness' involves the learner's confidence in

hi s own abi l i t y t o l ear n t he new s o unds as we l l as hi s at t i -40

t ude t o t he t ar get c ul t ur e. Thi s v ar i abl e wi l l be di s c us s ed

i n 5. 7 b el o w, wh en mo t i v at i o n and a t t i t udes ar e c o ns i d er e d.

St r ev ens ( p. 184) gi v es par t i c ul ar at t ent i on t o t he

c h an ge s br o ug ht o n b y age . He c o ns i d er s t h at i n g en er a l , a d-ul t s ha ve r educ ed pl as t i c i t y f or l anguage ac qui s i t i on. Com-

pa r e d wi t h c hi l dr en, mo s t a dul t s h av e r educ ed a udi t or y di s -

c r i m nat i on, per haps bec aus e t he audi t or y f ac i l i t y of t he

y oung c hi l d i s l es s es s ent i a l a f t er t he ac qui s i t i on of t he

s o und pa t t e r n s of h i s o wn f i r s t l anguage . Ad ul t s a r e al s o c on-

s i de r e d t o ha ve r educ ed p owe r s o f m m c r y , par t l y b ec a us e m m-i c r y i s a k i n d of g ame b eh av i o ur l es s c o mmo n a f t e r c h i l d ho od .

Ot he r di s a dv ant a ge s not e d ar e gr e at e r r e l i anc e o n wr i t i n g at



t he expense of sp eech and unwi l l i ngness t o mak e unf am l i a r

noi s es or t o c omm t er r or s , es pec i al l y i n publ i c .

Ne ve r t he l e s s , no t e s St r ev ens ( p. 185) , t her e ar e t hr e e

mai n r easons why adu l t s may be abl e t o l ear n t o pr onounce a

second l anguage as we l l as young chi l dr en. F i r s t , because some

adul t s r e t a i n t hei r pr onunc i at i on- l ear ni ng abi l i t y uni mpai r ed,

f or a l l pr ac t i c al pur po s es , af t er c hi l dhood. Sec ondl y> be c aus e

t he maj or i t y of s ound f eat ur es ar e i m t at e d wi t h r e as o nabl e

accur acy by t he ma j o r i t y of l ear ne r s wi t h ou t a need f or sp ec -

i al t r ai ni ng. And t hi r dl y , b ec aus e adul t s al s o pos es s c er t ai n

advant ages whi ch count er bal ance t he d i sadvant ages a l r eady men-

t i oned.

The adu l t has l ear ned how t o l ear n so he can t ake mor e

l ear ni ng pr of i t f r om eac h hour o f t eac hi ng t han t he c hi l d c an.

He has gr eat e r power s o f de l i be r a t e concent r a t i on and l e s s

need f or i nher ent i nt er es t i n t he t eac hi ng ma t e r i al s . The adul t

c an f ol l ow det ai l ed i ns t r uc t i ons and c an i nt el l ec t ual i z e hi s

l ear ni ng. Once an adul t has l ear ned, f or ex ampl e , about t he

na t ur e and t he f unc t i on of t he s o f t p al a t e and i t s c o nne c t i o n

wi t h nas al i t y , he i s t hen abl e t o del i ber at el y c ont r ol t he

na s al - o r a l di s t i nc t i on i n hi s own s peec h. Ac c o r d i ng t o St r ev ens

t hen, ( p. 186) a dul t s hav e di f f er ent but no t nec es s a r i l y i nf er -

i or l anguage- l ear ni ng c apac i t i es t han c hi l dr en. Me anwhi l e ,

Rubi n c ons i der s t hat adul t s pr o ba bl y do be t t e r at gue s s i ng,

hav i ng at t hei r di s pos a l mul t i pl e hi e r a r c hi e s of r edunda nt

c l ues . Chi l dr en may be f r eer i n adapt i ng t o new s i t ua t i ons and

41t o ac t ou t a c ommuni cat i on.

Newmar k and Rei bel ar gue t hat t he same l anguage l ear n-

i ng c apac i t y exi s t s i n adul t s and c hi l dr en, qui t e pos s i bl y

i n di f f er ent degr ees . They mai nt ai n t hat neur ophy s i ol ogi c al



e vi d en c e ma y b e u s ed t o a r g ue t ha t a dul t s a r e q ua nt i t a t i v el y

i nf er i or t o c hi l dr en as l anguage l ear ner s . But i t c annot be

us ed t o ar gue t hat t hey ar e qual i t at i v el y di f f er ent k i nds of

l ear ner s . Ra t h er , t hes e aut hor s a r g ue, adul t s and c hi l dr en

s har e a l anguage- l ear ni ng c apabi l i t y whi c h enabl es t hem t o

a c qu i r e t h e gen er a l u s e o f a s e c o nd l a ngua ge by o bs e r v a t i o n

42

and e xe r c i s e of p ar t i c u l a r e x amp l e s of t h e l a ng ua ge i n u s e .

T he f a c t t h at mo s t a du l t s s pea k a s e c on d l a ngua ge wi t h

an a cc ent i s us ua l l y t ak en as ev i de nc e of t he di f f e r e n t and

i nf er i or abi l i t y of adul t s c ompar ed wi t h chi l dr en. But New-

ma r k and Re i b el p r o vi d e an a c c ount o f ' f or ei gn a c c ent ' wh i c h

i ndi c at es not t hat t he adul t l ear ner i s s ubj ec t t o i nf er enc e

f r om hi s nat i v e l anguage, b ut t hat h e ac t i v el y dr aws o n hi s

p r i o r l i ngui s t i c k no wl e dg e t o me et t h e d ema nds t o p r o du c e r e -

s p on s es i n t he ne w l a ngua ge . T he f o l l o wi ng ac c o un t o f ' f or -

ei gn ac c ent ' does no t c ha l l enge t he v al ue of i nf e r e nc i ng f or

l anguage l ear ni ng. Rat he r , i t i ndi c at es t hat . f or p r o nunc i a-

t i on l ear ni ng i n par t i c ul ar , and f or ot her s ki l l s t o a l es s er

e xt e nt , i nf e r e nc i ng f r om Ot he r Kno wl e dge i s an i na de qua t e

b as i s f or f or m ng l anguage r e s po ns e s :

In the early stages of learning a new language there

are many things the student has not yet learned to do. But

he is induced to perform (understand 3 speak3 read or write)

in the new language by a teacher or by his own desire to say

something. To an observer who knows the target language s the

learner will seem to be stubbornly substituting the native

habits for target habits. But from the learner s point of

view, all he is doing is the best he can: to fill in gaps in

training he refers for help to what he already knows. Viewed

from this angle, the problem reduces to that of ignorance and



the solution to the problem is simply more and better train-

ing in the target language3 rather than systematic drill at

the points of contrast between the two languages in order to

43

combat interference.

I n t h e t e r ms o f t h e i aodel , t h e l e ar n er n ee ds mo r e a nd

b et t e r e x po s ur e t o t he t a r g et l a ngu ag e i n o r de r t o de ve l o p

hi s I mpl i c i t and Ex pl i c i t Knowl e dge s o ur c es . He al s o ne eds

ex t e ns i v e t r ai ni ng i n t he s t r at egi es of f or mal and f unc t i onal

pr ac t i s i ng, moni t or i ng and i nf er enc i ng t o ma xi m z e t he ef f ec t sof h i s l i m t ed c ont a ct wi t h t he l a ngua ge and t o i mpr ov e t he

ac c ur ac y of h i s pr o nunc i a t i o n r e s po ns e s .

I n s e c t i o n 5. 6 a r e vi e w wi l l b e ma de of an e x pe r i me nt a l

s t udy of t went y v ar i abl es ( i nc l udi ng v ar i ous of t he i ndi v i dual

di f f e r e nc es whi c h ha ve be en c ons i der ed i n t hi s s e c t i on) s us -

pec t e d of di s pl ay i ng a s i gni f i c ant r e l at i ons hi p t o pr onunc i a-

t i on ac c ur ac y.



38

AN EXP ERI MENTAL STUDY OF F ACTORS

AFF ECTI NG PRONUNCI ATI ON ACCURACY.

I n a s t udy c onduc t ed at t he Ca l i f o r ni a St at e P ol y t e c h-

ni c Uni v er s i t y , Ri c har d Sut er mea s ur ed s i x t y - one n on- nat i v e

s p ea ker s on t went y v ar i a bl e s s u s pe ct ed of d i s p l ay i ng s i gni f -

c ant r el at i ons hi ps t o pr o nunc i a t i o n ac c ur a c y. T he s t udy wa sdes i gned t o deve l op ev i dence on why speaker s o f a second l an-

g ua ge v ar y s o mu c h i n t he ac c ur a c y o f t h ei r p r o nu nc i a t i o n,

( p. 233) . A s t he s t udy c o nc e r ne d n on - n at i v e s p ea ke r s r e s i d en t

wh e r e t h e t a r get language i s s p ok e n, t he f i ndi ngs ma y n ot b e

f ul l y appl i c abl e t o l ear ner s r es i dent i n t hei r o wn c ount r y

wh o a r e s t u dy i n g t h e p r o nu nc i a t i o n o f a s e c o nd l a ngua ge . Bu tt hi s di f f er enc e i s not l i kel y t o al t er t h e s i gni f i c anc e of

mo s t of t he f i ndi ngs f or t he q ue s t i o n of a cc ur a c y of En gl i s h

p r o nu nc i a t i o n a mo ng s u ch l e ar ne r s .

The English pr o nunc i a t i o n of t he no n- na t i v e s pea ke r s

wa s r at ed under c ont r ol l ed c ondi t i o ns by a pa ne l of f our t ee n

nat i ve English - s p ea k i ng j ud ge s . Of t h e t we nt y variables, t h e

thirteen concerning biographical f ac t s and the l ear ner's con-

t ac t wi t h English we r e me as u r e d u s i n g t he i n t e r v i e w t e c hn i q ue .

Sut e r ma i nt a i n s t ha t i n a f or mal o ne - t o - o ne i nt e r v i e w a s pea k-

e r c a n be t a k en s t e p by s t e p bac k t h r o ugh h i s e x pe r i e nc e s i n

E ng l i s h wi t h an a c c ur a c y wh i c h i s no t possible wi t h a wr i t t en

ques t i onnai r e( p. 237) . The f i ve mot i v at i ona l variables wer e

me as u r e d us i ng a s c al e d o bj e c t i v e f o r m( que s t i o nna i r e ) . T hi s

wa s c o ns i der e d a l e s s t h r e at e ni n g and t h us mo r e v a l i d me t h o d



39

t ha n t he i nt e r v i e w, f or t he s pea ke r t o pr o vi de s uc h i nf or m-

at i on. The t wo var i abl es c onc er ni ng apt i t ude f or o r a l m m c r y

and ' i nt r o ver s i on- ex t r o ver s i on' we r e me as u r e d us i ng a ppr o -

pr i at e t es t s .

F r o m a c ons i der at i on of j us t h ow we l l eac h of t he pr e-

di c t or v ar i abl es c or r el at ed wi t h pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y i n Eng-

l i s h, e mpi r i c a l e vi de nc e wa s obt a i ne d f or whi c h f ac t o r s ha ve

a s i gni f i c ant i nf l uenc e on pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y. T he v ar i -

abl e whi c h c or r el at ed mo s t s t r ongl y wi t h pr o nunc i a t i o n ac c ur -

ac y wa s nat i v e l anguage. The s i gni f i c anc e of t hi s hi gh c or r el -

a t i on i s enhanced by t he f ac t t ha t o f t he f our n at i v e l anguage

gr oups r epr esent ed i n t he s t udy , t he J apanese and Tha i speak -

er s wer e al most a l l r anked l ow by t he j udges on Eng l i sh p r onun-

i a t i on accur acy. The Per s i an and Ar abi c sp eake r s wer e a l mos t

a l l r ank ed hi ghe r on t he same sca l e . These r esul t s p r ovi d e em-

pi r i c al ev i denc e t hat nat i ve l anguage i s a s i gni f i c ant pr edi c -

t or of pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y( p. 244) .

Tab l e 3( pp. 245- 6) i n t he r epo r t of t he s t udy sh ows

t ho s e o t h er v ar i abl es whi c h pr ov ed t o s how a s i gni f i c a nt c o r -

r e l a t i on wi t h pr onunc i a t i on accur acy. Two of t hese wer e sh own

t o be , l i ke nat i ve l anguage, par t i c ul ar l y i mpor t ant f or pr o-

nunc i a t i o n a cc ur a cy : ' s t r engt h of t he s p ea ke r ' s c onc e r n a bo ut

hi s pr o nunc i a t i o n of E ngl i s h ' and ' amount o f c o nv er s a t i o n a t

wo r k and a t s ch oo l wh i ch was ca r r i ed out i n Engl i sh wi t h na t -

i ve s peak er s ' . Thes e wi l l be di s c us s e d f ur t her . Of t he ot her

ei ght s i gni f i c ant p r edi c t o r s , t wo we r e f ound ( c ont r ar y t o ex-

pec t at i on) t o be negat i vel y r el at ed t o pr onunc i at i o n ac c ur ac y .

The s e we r e ' t ot al amount of f or mal c l a s s r oom t r ai ni ng i n Eng-

l i s h' and ' i nt egr at i ve or i ent at i on' . Ei ght v ar i abl es pr oved

t o be non-significant i n t he s t udy . These ar e sh own i n Tab l e



4( p. 247) .

Of c our s e, not al l of t hes e f i ndi ngs a r e l i kel y t o hav e

equal s i gni f i c anc e f o r l ear ner s of Engl i s h pr onunc i at i on i n

ot her s i t uat i ons . L ear ner s i n t hei r n at i v e env i r onme nt ar e

l i k el y t o ha ve ma ny f ewer o ppo r t uni t i e s t o pr a c t i s e t he t a r -

get l anguage t han t hose who ar e l i v i ng i n an env i r onment wher e

i t i s spok en. Thi s di f f er enc e woul d l i m t t he val ue of t he

- f i ndi ngs on t he v ar i a bl es o f f or mal and f unc t i onal c o nt a c t

wi t h t he t ar get l anguage wi t h r ef er enc e t o l ear ner s i n t h ei r

na t i v e env i r o nme nt .

The pr edi c t o r v ar i abl es i n t he s t udy made by Sut e r can

now be cons i de r ed i ndi v i dua l l y . The f ac t o r whi ch was f ound t o

be mos t s i gni f i cant woul d seem t o b e equa l l y i mpo r t ant among

l ear ner s who ar e i n t hei r na t i v e e nv i r o nme nt . Of t he f our di f -

f er ent l anguages r epr e s ent e d i n t he s t udy , i t wa s f ound t ha t

t hose speaker s whose l anguage was i ndo - Eur opean - Ar abi c o rP er s i an - we r e c ons i s t ent l y be t t er at p r onunc i ng Engl i s h t han

t hose whose nat i ve l anguage was not I ndo - Eur opean - t he Tha i

and J apanese speak er s . I t can b e su gges t ed t ha t t he p hono l ogi -

c al s t r uc t ur e s of o t h er I ndo - Eur o pe an l a ngua ge s pr o ba bl y f ac -

i l i t at e t he pr onunc i at i on of Engl i s h t o a gr eat er ext ent t han

t he s t r uc t ur es of l angua ge s o ut s i de t hi s gr o up.

Thes e f i ndi ngs s e em t o be r el evant t o Br az i l i an s t ud-

ent s of Engl i s h. The phonol ogi c al s t r uc t ur es o f P or t ugue s e

ar e l i kel y t o facilitate t he pr onunc i at i on of Engl i s h f or

t hes e l ear ner s . But i n or der t o es t abl i s h how t hi s m ght be

so , i t woul d b e necess a r y t o compar e t he p hono l ogi ca l s t r uc -

t u r es of t he t wo l anguages . One woul d have t o cons i der no t on-

l y t he phonemes and a l l ophones o f t he t wo l anguages , but a l so

s uc h t hi ngs as t h e pl ac ement of s t r es s , i nt o nat i on pa t t e r n s ,



41

t e mpo ( i . e . t he s peed at whi c h s y l l abl es s uc c ee d one a no t he r ) ,

and any c har ac t er i s t i c pat t er ns of l oudnes s , c ont i nui t y ( t he

i nc i denc e of paus e s ) , t es s i t ur a ( t he r ange of pi t c h t hat i .s

used whi l e. s peak i ng) and r egi s t er ( t he qual i t y of voi c i ng) .

I n such a compar i son of t he t wo l anguages, some det er m-

i na t i on wo ul d be ne eded as t o whi c h pho no l o gi c a l qua l i t i e s

a re gi v en mos t cons i de r a t i on i n j udgment s o f t he accur acy

wi t h whi c h P or t ugue s e s p eak er s pr o no unc e Engl i s h . Di s t o r t i o ns

o f some t hi ngs p r esumabl y i n f l uence j udges mor e t han d i s t o r -

t i ons of ot her s . I t i s us ual l y c ons i der ed t hat t he mos t s i g-

ni f i cant f eat ur es ar e t he sounds ( phonemes and a l l ophones ) and

t he pat t er ns of r hy t h m s t r es s and i nt ona t i on. I t wo ul d s eem

t hat v ar i at i ons i n l oudnes s , t es s i t ur a and r egi s t er ar e l es s

l i k el y t o i nf l ue nc e j udgment s of a cc ur a cy of Engl i s h pr o nun-

c i a t i on wh en t he sp eake r ' s na t i v e l anguage i s Por t u gu ese or

s o me o t her I ndo - Eur o pe an l a ngua ge , t han i f i t we r e f r om an-

o t he r l anguage gr oup( p. 248) .

Whe n a s s es s i ng t he Engl i s h pr o nunc i a t i o n s k i l l s of any

gr oup of Br az i l i an l ear ner s , a pr i mar y c o ns i der at i on wo ul d be

t he l ànguages sp ok en i n t he l ear ne r ' s h ome . I f an As i an o r

s ome Eur opean l anguage ot her t han Por t uguese was s poken at

home when t he l ear ner was young, t hi s m ght be expect ed t o i n-

f l uenc e t he r el at i ve ac c ur ac y of hi s Engl i s h p r o nunc i at i on,

compar ed wi t h t hat o f l ear ner s who have not been i n cont act

wi t h o t he r languages. The r e i s no s ubs t ant i al ev i denc e av ai l -

abl e t o expl a i n why t hi s sh oul d be so . Bu t , as no t ed by S ut e r ,

phonol ogi c al i nt er f er enc e i s one pos s i bi l i t y ( p. 249) .

Anot he r s t r ong pr e di c t or of pr onunc i at i o n ac c ur ac y i n

Sut e r ' s s t udy wa s i ndi v i dua l mo t i v at i o n, me as u r e d as ' s peak -

er ' s s t r engt h of c onc er n about h i s pr onunc i at i on' ( p. 249- 50) .



T hi s var i a bl e me as u r e d t he s t r engt h but no t t he na t ur e of t he

c onc er n. I n t he s t udy , ec onom c , i nt egr at i ve and s oc i al pr es -

t i ge mo t i vat i o n we r e s ho wn t o be r e l a t i vel y un i mpo r t a nt as

pr e di c t o r s o f pr o nunc i a t i o n accur a cy , s o pr es uma bl y s o me ot he r

k i nd of i nf or mat i on wa s at wo r k . Sut er s ugges t s t hat ' s t r engt h

of c onc er n' may r e f l ec t an ov er al l c ons c i ent i ous nes s . He s ur -

m ses t ha t f ut ur e r esear ch may pr ovi de evi dence t ha t t hose who

ar e mo s t concer ned about do i ng we l l at t he di f f e r e nt t a s ks i n

t hei r l i v es a r e t he ones wh o do bes t i n t he pr onunc i at i on o f

t he i r second l anguage . I t a l so seems r easonabl e t o sugges tt hat t he var i a bl e ' s t r engt h of co ncer n' i n t he s t udy ma y r e-

f l ec t a des i r e t o ac hi eve nat i v e- l i k e ac c ur ac y i n or der t o

r es pond appr opr i at el y t o nat i v e s peak er s of t he t ar get l an-

guage .

The v ar i abl e ' i nt egr at i ve or i ent at i on' pr oved t o be

negat i v el y r el at ed t o ac c ur ac y of pr o nunc i at i on i n t he s t udy .

Thi s v ar i abl e i s def i ned i n t he s t udy as ' t he des i r e t o be

a member o f t he gr oup whi ch s peaks t he t ar get l anguage nat i ve-

l y. But t he t hr ee i t ems wh i ch wer e des i gned t o assess t h i s

var i a bl e i mpl y a v i e w o f p r o nunc i a t i o n l e ar ni ng as a me ans t o

r eady accept ance by member s o f t he t ar get cu l t ur e . These i t ems

woul d s eem t o be mor e r el ev ant t o t he obj ec t i v e of i nt el l i gi -

bi l i t y t han t o nat i ve- l i ke ac cur ac y.

T he t hi r d be s t pr e di c t o r i n t he s t udy wa s ' t he amo unt

o f Eng l i sh conver sa t i on a t wor k and at school wh i ch was ca r -

r i ed on wi t h nat i v e s peak er s ' . As Sut er not es , t hi s i s t he

onl y i mpor t ant pr edi c t or of pr onunc i at i o n ac c ur ac y t hat c an

be i nf l uenced by t ea che rs . A s t ude nt ' s na t i ve l a nguage ca n-«

no t be changed and hi s ' c oncer n' a bo ut h i s p r o nunc i a t i o n i s



l ar gel y a pe r sona l ma t t e r , a l t hough t eache r s may be abl e t o

s t r engt hen i t . Yet t eache r s can mak e some pr ovi s i ons f or ge t -

t i ng no n- na t i v e s t udent s t o us e Engl i s h mo r e wi t h na t i v e

s pe ak er s ( p. 250) . •

One o f t he mos t su r pr i s i ng f i ndi ngs was t ha t t he v ar -

i abl es r e l at i ng t o c l as s r o om t r ai ni ng demons t r at ed ver y l i t t l e

r e l a t i onsh i p t o pr onunc i a t i on accur acy. The sp eake r s wh o had

mo r e f or mal t r ai ni ng dedi c at ed s pec i f i c al l y t o t he pr onunc i a -

t i on o f Engl i s h wer e not s i gni f i c ant l y bet t er pr onounc er s .

Si nc e t hi s v ar i a bl e me as u r e d t he r e l at i ons hi p of muc h v er s u sl i t t l e t r a i ni ng i n pr onunc i at i on, i t i s c onc ei vabl e t hat a

l i t t l e f or mal t r ai ni ng i s es s ent i al f or pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y,

but t hat t r ai ni ng bey ond t h at poi nt i s s i mpl y unpr oduc t i v e.

Secondl y , t he v ar i abl e a s sessed t he amount r a t he r t han t he

qual i t y of t he t r ai ni ng r ec ei ved. I t i s pos s i bl e t hat t he

qual i t y of t r ai ni ng i n pr onunc i at i on, i f i t c oul d be me as ur e d,

wo ul d demons t r at e a s i gni f i c ant r el at i ons hi p t o pr onunc i at i on

ac c ur ac y( p. 251) .

The f i ndi ngs of Sut e r ' s s t udy gi v e some su ppo r t t o t he

be l i e f t hat i nf or mal e xpo s ur e i s mo r e i mpo r t a nt t ha n f o r mal

c l as s r oom t r ai ni ng i n t he dev el opment of pr o nunc i a t i on ac c ur -

a c y. T he v ar i a bl e s whi c h m ght be i nt e r p r e t e d as me as u r i ng

i nf o r ma l exposur e t o Engl i sh wer e i ) t he amount o f conv er sa t -

i on at wo r k and at s c ho ol whi c h i s c a r r i ed on i n Engl i s h wi t h

na t i v e s peak er s of Engl i s h , i i ) t he numbe r o f y ea r s t he s pe ak -

er has l i ved i n Engl i s h - s pea ki ng c ount r i e s , i i i ) t he amo unt

of conv er sa t i on at h ome whi ch was ca r r i ed on i n Engl i sh wi t h

na t i v e s pe ak er s of E ngl i s h , and i v ) t he l engt h o f t i me s pe nt«

r e s i di ng wi t h na t i v e s pe ak er s o f Engl i s h . Thf ese v ar i a bl e s s how

a s t r o nge r r e l a t i o ns hi p t o pr o nunc i a t i o n ac c ur ac y t ha n t he



r el at i ons hi ps di s pl ayed by t h os e v ar i abl es c o nc er ned wi t h f or

mal i ns t r uc t i on ( p. 251) .

Al t hough t her e i s a per s i s t ent b el i ef t hat f emal es a r e

s uper i or t o ma l e s whe r e v er bal s k i l l s a r e c o nc e r n ed, f emal es

wer e not s i gni f i c ant l y bet t er pr onounc er s t han ma l e s i n t h i s

s t udy( p. 252) . Al s o , ext r over s i on was not a s i gni f i c ant pr edi c

t or of pr onunc i at i on ac c ur ac y( p. 252) . I n gener al , t her e wa s

l i t t l e i n t he s t udy t o c ont r adi c t t he ex t r eme pos i t i on whi c h

ar gues t hat a per son who l ear ns a second l anguage af t e r t he

onse t of pube r t y wi l l neve r p r onoun ce i t we l l enough t o pass

as a na t i v e s p ea ker ( p. 251- 2) .



45

5. 7. AFFECTI VE FACTORS AND

PRONUNCI ATI ON ACCURACY

I t ha s be en s ugges t e d t hat af f e c t i v e v ar i a bl e s may

pl ay a mo r e i mpo r t ant r o l e t h an does bi o l o gi c a l ma t ur a t i o n i n

pr obl e ms a s s oc i at ed wi t h adul t s ec ond l anguage a c qui s i t i o n.

Sc human n44 obser ves t hat apt i t ude seems t o be mor e i mpor t ant

f or l anguage l ear ni ng t hr ough f o r ma l i ns t r uc t i o n r a t h er t han

t h r ough d i r ec t exposur e t o t he second• l anguage envi r onment .

He no t e s t hat i nt e l l i ge nc e and a pt i t ude ar e f i x ed c ha r a c t er -

i s t i c s whi c h appea r t o ha ve gr e at e s t i nf l uenc e i n t he ac qui s -

i t i on of ac adem c s ki l l s ( gr ammar , t r ans l at i on, r ot e memor -

i z at i on of voc abul ar y, et c . ) . Al s o , apt i t ude s eems t o oper at e

i ndependent l y of ma ny of t he a f f e c t i v e v ar i a bl es i nv ol v ed i n

second l anguage l ear n i ng .

I n t hei r s t udi es o f s econd l anguage l ear ni ng among sec -

ondar y schoo l s t udent s , Gar dner and Lamber t ( Gardner , I 960 ,

Gar dner and Lamber t 1959, 1965, 1972) have demonst r at ed t he

var i abl e effects on second l anguage l ear ni ng o f i ns t r ument a l

or i ent at i on ( t he des i r e t o l ear n t he s ec ond l anguage f or ut i l -

i t a r i an r easons such as t o g et a b et t e r j ob o r t o adv ance soc -

i al l y) and i nt egr at i v e or i ent at i on ( t he des i r e t o ' be' a me m-

b er of a gr oup whi ch speak s t he t a r ge t l angu age n at i v el y ) .

These investigators h av e pr ovi ded exp er i ment a l evi dence t ha t

s t udent s wh o have an i nt egr a t i v e o r i ent a t i on t owar ds t he sec -

ond l anguage are mor e success f ul t han t hose wh o ar e i ns t r u-

me n t a l ^ mo t i v at e d. I n par t i c ul a r , t hey mor e eas i l y ac qui r e



46

i nt el l i gi bl e pr onunc i at i on. An i nt er es t i ng ques t i on i s whet h-

er t hes e f i ndi ngs ar e r el evant f or a dul t s l i v i ng i n t hei r nat -

i v e cul t ur e and l ear ni ng Engl i sh as a second l anguage .

Anot her obser vat i on wh i ch has been subst ant i a t ed by t he

f i ndi ngs of Gar dner e t al . ( l 9 76) i s t hat mo t i v at i o n i n s e c ond

l anguage l ear ni ng i s s haped by t he l e ar ne r ' s a t t i t ude t owa r d s

t he f o re i gn cu l t ur e , t owar ds l ear ni ng a second l anguage and

t owar ds t he c l as s r oom s i t uat i on. The f ol l owi ng di s c us s i on ma i n-

t ai ns t hat af f ec t i ve f ac t o r s h ave a c ent r al r ol e i n t he ac qui s -

i t i on of pr onunc i at i on a cc ur ac y.

Wh at can be sai d f or econom c and soc i a l p r es t i ge mot -

i v at i on ( exampl es of i ns t r ument al or i ent at i on) i n ac c ount i ng

f or a c c ur ac y of Engl i s h pr o nunc i a t i o n among l ear ner s l i vi ng

i n t hei r nat i v e c ul t ur e? Any s uc h l ear ner i s l i kel y t o agr ee

t ha t one o r bo t h of t hese t y pes o f mo t i v a t i on he l p t o account

f or h i s e f f o r t s t o l ear n t o pr o no unc e t he s ec ond l anguage . But

e f f o r t canno t necessa r i l y be equa t ed wi t h achi evement . Al t h oug h

i ns t r ume nt a l o r i e nt a t i o n pr obabl y mo t i v at e s mo s t s e c ond l an-

guage l ear ner s , i t i s ques t i onabl e whe t he r i t c an he l p t o ac -

c ount f or di f f er ent l evel s of ac hi ev ement , par t i c ul ar l y wi t h

s ki l l s s uc h as pr onunc i at i on. I n f ac t , bet ween t he i ni t i al

mo t i v at i on and t he achi evement a re t he l ear ni ng ex pe r i ences .

45As Newmar k and Re i bel a f f i r m i nadequat e t each i ng met hods

wi l l i ne vi t abl y ha ve an adv er s e ef f e c t o n o ngo i ng l ear ne r mo t -

i v at i on and ach i evement .

Newmar k and Re i bel ques t i on t he i mpor t ance of i ns t r u -

ment al mot i vat i on as a f ac t or d i s t i ngui s hi ng adul t s i n t hei r

l a ngua ge l ear ni ng abi l i t y . They obs e r v e t ha t t he y oung c hi l d

i s f l uent i n hi s l anguage ver y ear l y , i nc r eas i ng hi s f l uenc y

i n di r e c t p r o po r t i o n t o hi s kno wl e dge of t he l a nguage. Whi l e



47

t he c l as s r oom s t udent ' s k nowl edge of t en a l l ows hi m t o do ev -

er y t hi ng wi t h t he l anguage e xc e pt us e i t . I n a r g ui ng f or t he

r el ev anc e of mot i v at i o n i n ac c ount i ng f or o bs e r v a bl e di f f er -

enc es i n s uc c es s i n l anguage l ea r n i ng, s t r ong mo t i v at i o n ha s

b ee n po s i t e d i n s u c c es s f ul c a s es and i t s p r e s e nc e de ni e d i n

u ns u c c e s s f u l c a s e s . Wh er e as f o r Ne wma r k a nd Re i bel , o ngoi n g

mot i v at i on i s a r es ul t r at her t han a c aus e of s uc c es s f ul l an-

guage t r a i ni ng.46

McDonal d and Sager have d i s t i ngu i shed be t ween t he t wo

f or ms of mo t i v at i o n i n t er ms o f t he s t age of l ea r n i ng. They

at t r i but e an i ni t i a l i nt er es t i n l ear ni ng a s ec ond l anguage

t o i ns t r ument al or i ent at i on, whi l e c ont i nui ng i nt er es t and

ef f or t wi t h s ki l l s s uc h as pr onunc i a t i on ar e at t r i but ed t o

c ul t ur al and i nt e l l ec t u al mot i v at i on. Thi s di s t i nc t i on hel ps

t o c l a r i f y t h e v i e w o f Ne wma r k a nd Re i bel . Wh et h er or n ot

l ear ner s dev el op an i nt egr at i v e or i ent at i on( as i mpl i ed by c ul -

t ur al and i nt el l ec t ual mot i v at i on) t owar ds t he t ar get c ul t ur e

ma y depen d l a r ge l y o n t h e i ma ge o f t h e t a r get c u l t u r e c o nv e ye di n t he c l a s s r o om.

Whe r e pr o nunc i a t i o n l ear ni ng i s c onc e r ne d, i t h as b ee n

claimed (Stevick , I 978) that the learner ' s attitude towards the

t ar get c ul t ur e may be t he mos t s i gni f i c ant f ac t or i n t he l ev el47

of a c cur ac y r e ac he d. I n St e vi c k ' s v i e w, p r o n unc i a t i o n c an b e

s e e n a s t he p r i ma r y me di u m t h r o ugh wh i c h we b r i n g o ur u s e of

l anguage t o t he at t ent i on of ot her s . Ther e f or e i t i s p ot en-

t i al l y us ef ul and i n many s i t uat i ons i ndi s pens abl e. But i t

a l s o ma k es t he s p ea ke r vu l n er a bl e t o h i s h ea r e r s ei t h er o n

a c c oun t o f t he s o c i a l i n f e r e nc e s t ha t t he y ma y d r a w c o nc e r n -

i ng h i m or o n ac c ount of t he o pi ni o ns t hat t hey ma y f or m c on-

c er ni ng hi s pr of i c i enc y as a l ear ner , or bot h.



48

So t he pot ent i a l l y good st udent whose r ef er ence gr oup

does not appr ove of t he f or e i gn cu l t ur e or whose c l assmat es

achi eve l ess t han he can, wi l l have t o choose bet ween t wo un-

pl eas ant al t er nat i ves : s ubm t t o t he pr es s ur e of t he r e f er enc egr oup or def y t hat pr essur e and at t empt t o acqui r e a nat i ve-

l i ke pr onunc i at i on of t he t ar get l anguage. W t h r e f er enc e t o

such l ear ners St evi ck comment s t hat :

The subtle subphonemic and suprasegmental aspects

of pronunciationj precisely because they are less nec-

cessary for intelligibility or for academic correct-

ness are the parts of pronunciation which carry the

greatest amount of information about. the student s

loyalty to his native group or his openness to the

48target culture.

St ev i ck i mpl i es t hat t hose l earner s who go beyond t he obj ect -

i ves of i nt el l i gi bi l i t y and ' academ c c or r ec t nes s 1 must l ear n

t o cont r o l t he subphonem c and supr asegment al aspect s of pr o-

nunc i at i on i n or der t o ac hi eve t he obj ec t i ve of nat i ve- l i k e

accur acy.

Accor di ng t o St evi ck , t hen, when t he obj ec t i ves o f pr o-

nunc i at i on l ear ni ng ar e i nt el l i gi bi l i t y and ' academ c c or r ec t -

ness , t he subphonem c and supr asegment al aspect s of pr onun-

c i at i on do not r equi r e par t i c ul ar at t ent i on i n t he t eac hi ng

pr ogr am These obj ect i ves can be r eached by syst emat i c t each-

i ng s t e ps t o war ds a def i ned s t a ndar d of i nt el l i gi bi l i t y. I t i s

assumed t hat once a l ear ner mast er s t he desi r ed st andar d he

wi l l be i n t e l l i g i b l e t o nat i ve speaker s .

The l ear ner mot i vat i on whi ch cor r esponds t o t hi s ob-

j ec t i ve t hen, i s t he des i r e t o l ear n t he l anguage f or ut i l -

i t ar i an r eas ons - i ns t r ument al or i ent at i on. T hi s f or m - of



49

mot i vat i on seems t o be based on a pr act i ca l need t o be under -

s t ood by speakers of t he t a r get l anguage, and t he pr onunc i a -

t i on sk i l l s acqui r ed become means t o t hat end. The l ea r n er ' s

need can be met i n t he f or mal env i r onment of t he c l assr oom

Si nce he does not need t o seek oppo r t uni t i e s f or f unc t i ona l

pr ac t i s i ng wi t h nat i ve s peak er s , hi s l oyal t y t o hi s own cul -

t ur al gr oup i s not c hal l enged.

St evi c k' s s t at ement a l s o i mpl i es t hat l ear ner ' s who

ar e ' open1 t o t he t ar get c ul t ur e may s uc c eed i n c ont r ol l i ng

t he ' subphonem c' and ' sur pasegment a l ' aspect s o f p r onunc i a -

t i on ei t her t hr ough t hei r own ef f or t s or wi t h t h e he l p of an

ext ended t eachi ng pr ogr am The bas i s f or such ' openness ' woul d

s eem t o be a per s onal i t y t r ai t s i m l ar t o what has been de-49

s c r i bed by Tayl or et al . as ' empat hi c c apac i t y ' , whi c h i s

hel d t o i nc l ude t he abi l i t y t o under s t and ot her peopl e' s f eel -

i ngs , t o appr ec i at e t he det ai l s of t hei r b ehav i our and t o r es -

pond appr opr i at el y .

Gardner( 1966) and Lamber t ( 1963) suggest t hat t hi s bas -

i c per s onal i t y di s pos i t i on i s l i nked wi t h i nt egr at i ve or i en-

t at i on. Ther e i s evi denc e t hat t he c ont r ar y di s pos i t i on, a

t endency t o self- s uf f i c i enc y and pr ej udi c e agai ns t out s i der s ,

i s of t en r ef l ec t ed i n poo r second- l anguage achi evement . A pe r -

son wh o makes l i t t l e pr ogr ess wi t h t he pr onunc i a t i on of a sec -

ond l anguage may be r es i s t i ng what seems t o h i m t o be an en-

c r oac hment on hi s pe r s o n al i t y . 50

The ques t i on ar i ses whet he r an ' empat hi c capac i t y ' i s

r el at ed onl y t o t he phono l ogi ca l a spec t s o f second l anguage

l ear ni ng or i f i t i s al s o r el at ed t o t he ac qui s i t i on of mor -

phol ogy , synt ax and vocabul ar y . Al exander Z. Gui o r a and ass oc -

i a t es , wh o have been at t empt i ng t o s t udy t he r e l a t i onsh i p



bet ween empat hy and t he abi l i t y t o p r onounce a second l an-

g ua ge , s u gg es t t ha t t he r e i s a s p ec i a l l i nk be t we en e mpa t h y

and pr o nu nc i a t i o n. Gu i o r a ( l 972) de f i n es e mpa t h y a s :

a process of comprehending in which a temporary fusion

of self-object boundaries, as in the earliest pattern

of object relation 3 permits an immediate emotional ap-

prehension of the affective experience of another 3 this

sensing being used by the cognitive functions to gain

understanding of the other.

Gui o r a 5 a ppe ar s t o e qu at e empat h i c c a pac i t y wi t h t h e c on c e pt

of per me abi l i t y o f ego bo unda r i e s . Thus he f ur t he r hy po t h es -

i s es t hat i ndi v i dual v ar i at i ons i n t he abi l i t y t o appr ox i mat e

nat i v e- l i k e pr onunc i a t i on i n a s ec ond l anguage ar e, i n pa r t ,

de t e r m ne d by c er t a i n ps y c ho l o gi c a l v ar i a bl e s be s t s u bs u me d

u nde r t he c o ns t r uc t e mp at h y, or mp r e br o ad l y s p ea k i n g, t he

c onc ept of pe r me abi l i t y of e go b oun da r i e s . ( 1972- 14)

Gui or a ar t i c ul at es a t heor et i c al mo de l i n whi c h he pr o-

pos e s ( 1972) a p s y c h ol o gi c a l c o n s t r u c t l a ngua ge e go wh i c h

he s ees as s i m l ar t o t he. F r e ud i a n no t i o n of bo dy e go. I n t he

c o ur s e of de ve l o pme nt of t hi s l a ngua ge e go , t he l e xi s , s y nt a x,

mo r p ho l o gy and ph ono l o gy of t he i n di v i d ua l ' s l a ng ua ge a c qu i r e

phy s i c al out l i nes and f i r m boundar i es . I n t he ear l y f or mat i v e

s t ages of e go de ve l o pme nt t he l a ngua ge b ar r i e r s f l uc t ua t e.

Bu t o n c e e go dev e l o pme nt i s c o mp l e t e d t h e per me ab i l i t y o f t h e

boundar i es i s shar pl y r e s t r i c t ed. F or Gui or a:

Pronunciation is the most salient aspect of the lan-

ego3 the hardest to penetrate(to acquire in a new lan-

52guage) 3 the most difficult to losedn one s own).

Thes e t heor et i c al s pec ul at i ons l ac k ex per i ment al v er i f i c at i onbut t hey do c ar r y i nt ui t i v e appeal . Chi l dr en do gener al l y



l ear n a s e cond l anguage wi t ho ut an a c c ent , be c om ng b i l i ngua l

do es s eem t o i nv ol v e t a ki ng on a ne w i de nt i t y , ' f or ei gn ac -

c ent s ' ar e di f f i c ul t f or a dul t s t o ov er c ome and t he des i r e t o

t ak e on a new i dent i t y i s of t e n as s o c i a t e d wi t h s u c c es s f uls e cond- l anguage ac qui s i t i on.

Gui or a et al . ( 19 72b) i n an exper i ment wh i ch i nvol ved

a s s es s i ng s ubj e ct s ' pr o nunc i a t i o n of a s e c ond l anguage af t er

t he i nges t i on of sma l l amount s o f a l coho l , pr ovi ded some ev -

i denc e t hat p r o nunc i a t i o n a bi l i t y i s de pe nde nt o n pe r me abi l -

i t y of ego boundar i e s .Gui o r a ( 1972) a l so suggest ed hypnos i s as an exper i ment -

a l p r ocedur e whi ch coul d bo t h l ower i nhi bi t i ons and mak e a

per s on wi l l i ng t o modi f y a bas i c s el f - i dent i f i c at i on( t he way

he sounds) . The r esu l t s o f an exper i ment under t aken by Schu-

mann e t a l . ^3 i ndi c at e t hat deepl y hy pno t i z e d s u bj e c t s ( a s de -

f i ned by self - r epor t ed dept h) per f or med s i gni f i c ant l y be t t e r

t ha n l es s we l l hy pno t i z e d s u bj e c t s . T he s e r e s ul t s gi v e s o me

exper i ment al s uppor t t o Gui or a' s hy pot he s i s .

Schumann ma i n t a i ns t hat empat h i c capac i t y o r ego f l ex-

i bi l i t y , par t i c ul ar l y as oper at i onal i z ed under t he c onc ept of

l ower i ng of i nhi bi t i ons , i s bes t r egar ded as an es s ent i al f ac -

t or i n t he ov er al l abi l i t y t o ac qui r e a s ec ond l anguage, r at h-

er t han s i mpl y i n t he abi l i t y t o ac qui r e nat i v e- l i k e pr onun-

c i at i on. I f i t i s ac cept ed t hat ' l ower i ng i nhi bi t i ons ' i s nec -

es s a r y f or t he a c qui s i t i o n of a s e cond l anguage i n ge ne r a l ,

t hen Gui or a' s exper i ment ( 1972b) i s par t i c ul ar l y i mpor t ant . I f

ar t i f i c al agent s s uc h as al c ohol c an f os t er p er meabi l i t y of

ego boun da r i es and r educe i nhi bi t i ons t hen i t woul d no t b e u n-

r easonabl e t o a s sume t ha t gi v en f avour abl e n at ur a l psy ch ol og-

i c al f ac t or s , per meabi l i t y of ego boundar i es m ght be pos s i bl e



f or ev er y one.

54

St evi c k ac c ount s f or l ear ner r e l uc t anc e t o i m t at e

t he s o und p at t e r ns of a s e c ond l a ng ua ge i n l e s s t h eo r e t i c a l

t e r ms :

For a person whose upbringing and previous social dev-

elopment have left him uncomfortable with the people

of a certain culture3 any success at mimicry of the

language of that people will set up conflicts with the

•self-image he has come to depend on.

But dee p af f e ct i v e f ac t or s may pr o mo t e as we l l as i nhi bi t m -

m c r y . S t ev i c k s ugges t s t hat f or s ome pe opl e t he e xpe r i e nc e

of s oundi ng f or ei gn may be s at i s f y i ng and pos i t i v e, es pec i a l l y

i f , d ur i ng an i ndi v i dual ' s a dol es enc e, hi s f am l y was or i ent -

at ed t o wa r ds g r o u ps o ut s i d e t he d i a l e c t a r e a t o wh i c h h i s

pe er s be l o ng ed . T hi s t he s i s i s de ve l o pe d by St e vi c k i n Me m-

o r y , Me an i n g and Me t h od , p ar t i c u l a r l y i n c h ap t e r 4 wh er e hea f f i r ms t ha t ' t he v er y ut t e r a nc e of wo r d s de pe nd s on s o ur c e s

55f ar beyond t he l i ngui s t i c l evel . '

P e r ma ne nt p r o nu nc i a t i o n c h an ge s c o me abou t , t h en , t o

an ex t e nt whi c h i s c ons i s t ent wi t h t h e s t udent ' s s e l f - i mage

t h r o ugh wo r k wh i c h i s don e by t h e s t u de nt , a nd a s par t o f h i s

dev el opi ng r el at i ons hi p ( r eal or i magi nar y ) wi t h s peak er s o f

t he t a r g et l anguage. T he s t udent ' s o wn s e l f - i ma ge d et e r m ne s

ho w muc h e f f o r t he i s wi l l i n g t o ma ke . But t he l i m t whi c h

t he se l f - i mage i mposes may be changed by an i mpr ovement i n

t he l ear ne r ' s f eel i ngs t owar ds s p eak er s of t he l a ngua ge . A

s k i l l f ul , pe r s i s t e nt t ea c her ma y a chi ev e s o me t e mpor ar y c han-

ges beyond t hi s l i m t . But t he l ear ner wi l l r es i s t , o f t en un-

c o ns c i o us l y , p r ac t i s i ng t hes e c ha nges i n hi s s peec h out s i de

of t he cl as s r oom 5* *



Whet her a psychol ogi ca l account such as t hat of Gui or a

or a soc i ol ogi cal one such as St ev i ck ' s i s used t o desc r i be*

t he i nf l uenc e of af f ec t i ve f ac t o r s i n pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng,

i t i s evi dent t hat c er t ai n as pec t s of Engl i s h ar e l i kel y t o

be under st ood and cont r ol l ed onl y by t hose l ear ner s who have

a s t r ong wi sh t o ' sound l i ke1 a nat i ve speaker . I n or der t o

r espond t o nat i ve speaker s appr opr i a t e l y , communi cat i ng hi s

own i nt ent i ons , opi ni ons , and emot i ons , t he l earner must dev-

el op t he abi l i t y t o expr ess wi l l and emot i on t hr ough t he cor -

r ec t i nt onat i onal pat t er ns . I t i s al s o appar ent t hat nat i ve

speaker s pr ogr ess f r om one pr onunc i at i on s t y l e t o ano t her , de-

pendi ng on t he audi ence, t he medi um and t he mood of t he speak-

er . So t he l ear ner must al so be abl e t o di s t i ngui sh and con-

t r ol t he v ar i ous s t yl es wi t hi n t he pr onunc i at i on of t he gr oup

whi ch has been sel ect ed as a model .

I n or der t o be abl e t o us e t h es e var i ant s i n t hei r pr o-per i mpl i c at i onal pat t er ns , a l ear ner needs t o appr ec i at e t hat

c er t ai n f or ms of ex pr es s i ng i nt ent i on and f eel i ng i n t he t ar -

get l anguage wi l l have a di f f er ent emot i ve f or ce t han i n hi s

own l anguage. An exampl e i s t he use of i nt onat i ona l pat t er ns

t oget her wi t h f ac i al expr ess i ons t o i ndi cat e unders t at ement

i n Engl i sh . When a l ear ner acknowl edges t he val i di t y o f suchdi s t i nc t i ve f or ms i n t he t ar get l anguage , he conf i r ms hi s op-

enness t o t hat cul t ur e and hi s wi l l i ngness t o l ear n how t o ex -

pr es s hi s own i nt ent i ons , opi ni ons a nd f eel i ngs i n t hat l an-

guage .

Onl y t hose s tudent s who ar e pos i t i vel y o r i ent at ed t o-

war ds t he t ar get c ul t ur e ar e l i kel y t o us e t he l ear ni ng s t r at -

egi es t o pr act i se t hese f eat ur es . They may dec i de t o seek ex-

t r a knowl edge about t he f eat ur es of pr onunc i at i on , espec i al l y



54

subphonem c vowe l r educt i on and supr asegment a l i n t onat i on pat -

t er ns , whi c h c har ac t er i s e nat i v e s peak er s . They wi l l t ak e op-

por t uni t i es t o l i s t en and s peak i n c ommuni c at i v e s i t uat i ons ,

mo ni t o r i ng t h ei r o wn s peec h and t hat o f o t he r s . I n a ddi t i o n,

t hey wi l l ex pand t hei r o pe r a t i v e k no wl e dge of pr o nunc i a t i o n

f or ms by i nf er enc i ng f r om t hei r k nowl edge of t he t ar get c ul -

t ur e, f r om t hei r i mpl i c i t k nowl edge of pr onunc i at i on f or ms

and f r om t hei r o wn r es pons e s and t ho s e of ot he r s i n f unc t i o n-

al s i t uat i ons .

The c ent r al r ol e of at t i t udi nal f ac t or s i n pr onunc i a-

t i on l ear ni ng has c l ear i mpl i c at i ons f or pr o nunc i at i o n t eac h-

i ng. T he s e ar e c ons i der ed i n t he f i nal s e c t i o n whe r e a r at i on-

al e f or pr onunc i at i on t eac hi ng i s di s c us s e d.



55

5. 8. A RATI ONALE FOR PRONUNCI ATI ON TEACHI NG.

Thi s f i nal s ec t i on wi l l be c onc er ned wi t h pr ov i di ng a

s et of pr i nc i pl ed r e as ons f or s el ec t i ng an appr opr i at e c our s e

of ac t i on, t hat i s , a r at i onal e f or t eac hi ng t he pr onunc i at i on

of a s ec ond l anguage. I t wi l l dr aw on t he v i e ws o f v ar i o us of

t he aut hor s r ef er r ed t o i n t hi s paper , i n par t i c ul ar , St ev i c k,

S t r evens , Ba i l ey and Newmar k and Re i bel .

Strevens^ c l a i ms t hat f or t he pur pos e s of es t abl i s hi ng

t he most appr opr i a t e met hods and t echn i ques f o r t each i ng pr o -

nunc i at i on t o a given g r o up of l ear ner s , i t i s not a t heor y

t hat i s r e qui r ed but a r at i onal e. Suc h a r at i onal e s houl d be

open t o pho ne t i c t he or y , p ho no l o gi c a l t heo r y and t he or e t i c a l

s t a t ement s about t he r e l a t i onsh i p bet ween phono l ogy and syn-

t ax , but not at t empt t o t r ans f er s c i ent i f i c t h eor y di r ec t l y

t o t eac hi ng pr ac t i c e.

Ther e i s some d i f f e r ence of opi n i on among t he au t hor s

ment i oned above about t he most e f f ec t i ve t each i ng appr oach t o

f ac i l i t at e pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng, es pec i al l y of t hos e f eat ur -

es o f t he second l anguage whi ch t he l ear ne r ' s n at i v e l anguage

di s pos es hi m t o over l ook . But i t wi l l be s een t hat t hes e di f -

f er enc es a r e of emphas i s r at he r t han of o r i e nt a t i o n. T he vi e ws

of eac h of t hes e aut hor s a r e c ons i s t ent wi t h t h e pos i t i on of

Newmar k and Rei be l 5 8 who c hal l enge t he c l ai m t hat 19 t he l an-

guage cour se wr i t e r and t he t eacher must o r der pedagog i ca l

mat er i al t o r ef l ec t a t heor et i c al l y s ound des c r i pt i on of t he



56

nat i ve and t a r get l anguages , and 29 t hat l anguage i s most e f -

f i c i ent l y t aught when s t r uc t ur e i s t aught s e par at el y f r om us e

( as i mpl i ed by s t r uc t ur al dr i l l s ) . Thes e c l ai ms s how l i t t l e

c o ns i de r a t i o n f or t he r ol e of t he l e ar ner ( exc ept as a ge ne r -at or of i nt er f er enc e) , and l i t t l e c onc er n wi t h l ear ni ng t o us e

a l anguage. The aut hor s ment i oned above acknowl edge t he pr i m-

ar y r ol e of t he l ear ner , es pec i al l y i n ac qui r i ng sk i l l s s uc h

as t hos e i nv ol v ed i n ac c ur a t e p r o nunc i a t i o n.

These aut hor s agr ee t hat any l ear ner wi t h nor ma l phys -

i ol ogi c al equi pment wi l l have a pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng a bi l -i t y whi c h i s i ndepe nde nt of any need f or i ns t r uc t i o n or o t her

ext e r na l i nt e r f e r ence . They ack nowl edge t ha t adul t s do h av e

some di sadvant ages compar ed wi t h chi l d r en when l ear ni ng t o

pr onounce a second l anguage . Bu t t he l ear ni ng sk i l l s t hey de -

v el op can compensa t e f or t he abi l i t i e s wh i ch have been r educ -

ed, so t ha t adul t s a r e a t no r eal d i sadv ant age wh en l ear ni ng

t o m m c new s ounds i f pr ov i ded wi t h a s ui t abl e mo de l . A s ui t -

abl e mo de l f or p r o nunc i a t i o n . l ear ni ng wo ul d i nc l ude t he f ul l

r ange. of v er bal pat t er ns wi t hi n t he s e l ec t ed s t yl es of t he

t a r g et l a nguage .

59

Newmar k and Re i be l a r gue t ha t i f t he l ear ne r i s pr o -

v i ded wi t h enough i ns t ances o f t he l anguage i n use he wi l l n ot

need t o h av e ana l y s i s and gene r a l i z a t i on about t hose wh ol es

made f or h i m. The t eache r ' s r o l e i s t o ensu r e t ha t t he mat e r -

i al s a r e gr a s pa bl e as us a bl e i t ems by t he l e ar ne r . T he s t ud-

ent can ana l y se and di s cov er t he r es t .

Thi s c l ai m s eems t o be mos t r el evant f or l ear ner s l i v-

i ng i n an env i r onment wher e t he t a r get l anguage i s s poken nat -

i v el y . T he r e ar e i nnume r a bl e c as e s of s uc h l ear ner s a c qui r i ng

go od pr o nunc i a t i o n t hr o ugh t he i r own a na l y s i s , pr a c t i c e and



di s c ov er y , mak i ng pr ogr es s i ve appr oxi mat i ons t o nat i v e- l i k e

ac c ur ac y, and wi t h l i t t l e or no f or mal pr ac t i c e i n t he s ounds

of t he t ar get l anguage. F or t hes e l ear ner s i t i s r eas o nabl e

t o ma i nt a i n t ha t any di f f i cu l t i e s encount e r ed can be ov er come

s i mpl y wi t h mor e and bet t er exposur e t o t he t a r get l anguage

i n us e.

F or l ear ner s l i v i ng i n t hei r nat i v e env i r o nment wi t h

ver y l i m t ed oppor t uni t i es f or f unc t i onal pr ac t i c e i n t he t ar -

ge t l angua ge, St ev i c k ' s c l ai ms a bo ut t he r ol e of l ea r n er at -

t i t udes i n pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng have di r ec t r el evanc e. W t h-

out adequa t e oppo r t uni t i e s f or deve l opi ng good l i s t eni ng com-

pr ehens i on o f t he sounds of t he t a r ge t l anguage , t hese l ear n-

er s a r e depend ant on t he c l a s s r oom exper i ences p l anned by t he

t eache r f or deve l opi ng l i s t eni ng compr ehens i on and f or p r ac -

t i s i ng t he s ound pat t er ns .

S t e v i c k ^ has s uc c es s f ul l y ar gued t h at t he t eac her of

p r onunc i a t i on needs t o c r eat e a non - j udgment a l a t mospher e i n

t he c l a s s r o om s o t ha t s t ude nt s a r e f r ee t o m m c ne w s o unds

wi t hout bei ng made t o f eel t hat t hey sound st r ange when t hey

m m c we l l , and wi t ho ut be c om ng a nx i ous a bo ut t he pr o c es s of

mak i ng t he sound. The t eacher shoul d make i t easy f or t he s t u-

dent s t o f i nd out f or t hemse l v es how t he i r e f f o r t s compar e

wi t h t he pr o nunc i at i o n s t andar d f or t he c our s e .

So a su i t abl e mode l must do mor e t han conf o r m t o and

exempl i f y t he phonet i c s t andar d wh i ch has been chosen f o r t he

c our s e , and be t i mel y wi t h r e s pec t t o t he l i ngui s t i c as pec t s

o f t h e student ' s r ea di nes s . I t s houl d al s o be s po ken i n a wa y

whi c h wi l l r educ e t he s t udent ' s bar r i er s a gai ns t s oundi ng l i k e

a f or e i gne r . Thi s me ans t hat t he t e ac he r i s enga ge d i n bui l d-

i ng a r el at i ons hi p t hat wi l l pe r m t t he s t udent t o c hange



58

e i t he r t he way he sees hi mse l f o r t he way he sees f o r e i g ne r s ,

or b ot h.

St evi c k 6 ma i nt a i ns t hat i n s uc h an i nf o r ma t i v e, no n-

eval uat i ve at mospher e s t udent s l ear n most o f what t hey need

t o k now. Any necessa r y i nf o r mat i on wh i ch i s no t acqui r ed i n

t hi s l ear ni ng pr o ce s s c an be pr ov i ded by t he t e ac he r i n br i e f ,

mat t er - o f - f ac t s t a t ement s addr essed t o t he whol e g r oup . When

pr onunc i at i on i s t aught i n t hi s way , i nf or mat i on f r om ar t i c -

ul at or y pho ne t i c s i s s el do m ne ede d, but i t c a n be pr o vi de d

wh en t he s t udent s a re r eady f or i t .

5 2

St evi c k c hal l enges t he ' appl i ed l i ngui s t i c s v i ew' of

pr o nunc i a t i o n l ear ni ng be c aus e of i t s al mo s t e xc l us i v e pr e-

oc c upat i on wi t h t he l i ngui s t i c s i de of t he pr oc es s . St udent s

f i nd out e mpi r i c al l y t hat t hey can gener al l y i gnor e c er t ai n

vowel di s t i nc t i ons ( f or exampl e, b eat - bi t ) and s t i l l be eas -

i l y unde r s t oo d i n no n- a c ade m c s e t t i ngs . On t he o t h er ha nd ,

c er t a i n wo r d endi ngs ar e v i t a l ( under s t andi ng i s r educ ed i f

t he gl ot t al s t op i s s ubs t i t ut ed f or f i nal p, t >. k. }. So St evi c k

def ends i nt el l i gi bi l i t y as a pr ac t i c al obj ec t i ve of s ec ond-

l anguage l ear ni ng.

F ur t he r , t he l ar gel y i nt e r n al wo r k do ne by t he s t ude nt

i s mo r e i mpor t ant t han t he t eac her ' s ex pl anat i ons . St ev i c k' sphi l os ophy has a pl ac e f or m m c r y and f or p honet i c de s c r i p-

t i on. But i t s ees t he l ear ni ng of pr onunc i at i on as onl y one

as pec t of a t ot al pr oc es s , s oc i al i n nat ur e, whi c h i nvol ves

t he whol e l ear ner and not j us t t he speech appar at us and cog-

ni t i ve f acul t i es .

Eac h of t he a ut ho r s c ons i der ed i n t hi s s e c t i o n a dv oc -

at es t h e l ear ni ng of p r o nunc i a t i o n t hr o ugh r egul a r c o nt a c t

wi t h t he t a r g et l anguage i n us e . T he ma i n di f f e r e nc e i n



emphas i s i s bet ween t he obj ec t i ves of i nt el l i gi bi l i t y and

nat i ve- l i ke accur acy. Whi l e St evi ck and Newmar k and Re i be l

ar e concer ned wi t h how t he l ear ne r can mos t ef f i c i ent l y a t t a i n

i nt el l i gi bl e pr onunc i at i on, Bai l ey and St r evens , t he t wo ot her

aut hor s t o be cons i de r ed, ar e concer ned t o i dent i f y t hose

l ear ni ng ex per i enc es nec es s a r y t o ac qui r e nat i v e- l i k e ac c ur -

acy i n a second l anguage.

These' aut hor s agr ee t hat most peopl e l ear n most o f t he

e l ement s o f p r onunc i a t i on eas i l y any way, but t hey di v er ge f r om

St evi ck and Newmar k and Rei bel on how r esi dual pr obl ems shoul d

6 3

be t r eat ed. Bai l ey f oc us es on t wo as pec t s of n at i v e- l i k e pr o-

nunc i at i on i n Engl i s h. He not es t hat d i al ec t i c al di f f er enc es

i n Engl i sh ar e no t so much di f f e r ences i n pr onunc i a t i on as

di f f er enc es i n whi c h pr onunc i at i ons a r e t ol er at ed i n whi c h

s t yl es . Thus , ac c or di ng t o Bai l ey , t hr ee s t yl es ar e nec es s ar y

when l ear ni ng t he pr onunci at i on of t he wor ds mont hs and gov-

er nment : a di s a mbi gua t i ng, a pl at f or m and a c as ual s t y l e.

Sec ondl y , t o ac qui r e a nat i v e- l i k e ac c ent i n a s ec ond

64

l anguage, Ba i l ey not es t hat one must l ear n t he use o f t hose

phenomena cal l ed ' m s t ak es ' by l ay men and ' l at e ass i m l at o r y

and ot her r ul es ' by l i ngui s t s . I n or der t o eval uat e s t yl i s -

t i c v ar i at i on and t o di s t i ngui s h whi c h er r or s ar e and ar e no t

nat i ve- l i k e, pr onunc i at i on l ear ner s need r egul ar c ont ac t wi t h

s uc h s t yl es and ' er r or s ' . L ear ner s wi l l r ec ogni z e var i ous s t y-

l es and i di omat i c p r onunc i a t i ons i f t hese ar e pr esent ed r ecr —

ul ar l y . They al s o need gui ded ex er c i s e s t o pr ac t i s e t he v ar -

i ous s t y l es and nat i ve- l i ke ' m s t akes ' .

Meanwhi l e , St r evens t akes up t he chal l enge of t hose

pr obl ems wh i ch , accor di ng t o Newmar k and Re i be l , can be l e f t

t o t he s t udent , and, ac c or di ng t o St e vi c k , c an be r e s ol v ed wi t h



60

ma t t e r - o f - f a c t s t at e me nt s by t h e t e ac he r . He ma i nt a i n s t ha t a

l ar ge pa r t of t he pr o nunc i a t i o n- l e ar ni ng t as k c an be ac hi ev ed

t hr ough ex pos ur e t o a s ui t abl e mo de l , us i ng ex pl anat i on, i m t -

at i on and m m c r y . But f or t hos e as pec t s of pr onunc i at i on6 5

wh i c h t he adul t l ear ner d oe s not r ea di l y ac qu i r e , St r ev ens

adv oc at e s t he us e of s peec h t r ai ni ng and pr a c t i c a l ph one t i c s .

Hi s ar gument i s t hat l i ngui s t i c al l y s ophi s t i c at ed adul t s c an

benef i t f r o m t he del i ber at e us e of dr i l l s and exer c i s es i n

pr ac t i c al ear - t r ai ni ng and pho ne t i c s . Whe r e a s yo ung l ea r n er s

wi l l l ear n bes t t hr ough m m c r y wi t h s peec h- t r a i ni ng games

f or i nt er es t and f or s pec i al po i nt s of d i f f i c ul t y , b ut wi t h

no us e of phone t i c s . 6 6

Mor e s pec i f i c al l y , St r evens s ugges t s t hr ee di s t i nc t

t eac hi ng t ec hni ques t o f ac i l i t at e pr onunc i at i on l ear ni ng:

19 i ns t r uc t i ons t o i m t at e and m m c c er t a i n s ounds , wi t h-

out f ur t her ex pl anat i on.

29 s p eec h t r a i n i n g, t he c o ns t r u c t i o n of s p ec i a l ga me s and

ex er c i s es t o pr ac t i s e par t i c ul ar s o unds , s equenc es of s o unds ,

s t r es s pat t er ns , r hy t h m, i nt onat i on, et c .

39 pr ac t i c al phonet i c s i nc l udi ng a) d es c r i pt i ons o f t he or -

gans of s peec h, b ) des c r i pt i on of t he ar t i c ul at i on of s o unds ,

c ) des c r i pt i ons of s t r es s and r hy t hm, and d) e ar t r a i ni ng,

t hat i s , pr ac t i c e i n audi t or y di s c r i m nat i on.

An e s s e nt i a l a s pe c t of S t r e ve n' s r e c omme nd at i o ns i s

t hat t e ac her s s houl d r ec ei v e s uf f i c i ent s p ec i a l i z ed t r a i ni ng

t o enabl e t h em t o appl y t he ma xi mum s o phi s t i c at i on of pr o-

nunc i at i on - t eac hi ng t ec hni que t hat i s s ui t abl e f or t he r ead-6 7

i ne s s of t he l e ar ne r s . S t r e ve ns c o nc l u de s t ha t p eo pl e wh o

l e ar n a s e c o nd l a ngua ge c an l e ar n goo d p r o nu nc i a t i o n at a ny

age . T hey wi l l ac t ual l y do s o i f t he t e ac hi ng t o wh i c h t hey



are exposed t akes account o f t he f o r ego i ng r ecommendat i ons .

The c r i t er i on of nat i v e- l i k e ac c ur ac y has pr ov i ded a

r ef er enc e poi nt f or t he di s c us s i on of t he v ar i ous f ac t or s

whi ch t oge t he r account f or di f f e r ences i n p er f o r mance among

l ear ner s when p r onounc i ng a second l anguage such as Eng l i sh .

Y et i t i s al s o r ec ogni z ed t hat s e cond- l anguage l ear ner s , par -

t i cul a r l y t hose wh o do no t l i v e i n count r y wh er e t ha t l anguage

i s s pok en nat i v el y , us ual l y hav e l i t t l e oppor t uni t y or need

t o ac qui r e t he f i ner det ai l s whi c h di s t i ngui s h nat i ve pr o-

nunc i at i on. A mor e r eal i s t i c obj ec t i ve f or t hes e l ear ner s i s

t o a cqui r e t h e gener al us e of t he s ec ond l a nguage , t hat i s ,

intelligibility. T he r at i onal e pr ovi ded i n t hi s s ec t i on i s

c onc er ned wi t h bot h of t hes e obj ec t i v es : i t p r o vi des f or t he

l i m t ed t i me and oppor t uni t i es av ai l abl e t o mo s t l ear ner s f or

f unc t i o nal pr a c t i s i ng, whi l e pr o po s i ng ho w l ear ner s c an be

pr ov i ded wi t h t he me ans t o a c qui r e na t i v e- l i k e pr o nunc i a t i o n.



62

5. 9. CONCLUSI ON.

When assess i ng t he pr onunc i a t i on o f non- na t i v e sp eak-

er s of Engl i s h, native - l i k e ac c ur ac y s ho ul d be t he unde r l y i ng

c r i t er i on of j udgment . But f or s t udent s who ha ve l i t t l e c on-

t ac t wi t h nat i ve s peaker s i n f unc t i onal s i t uat i ons , i nt el l i gi -bi l i t y s houl d be t he i mmedi at e obj ec t i v e of pr onunc i at i on

l ear ni ng.

Acco r di ng t o t he t heor e t i ca l mode l o f second l anguage

l ear ni ng developed by Bai l ys t ok , i ndi v i dual di f f er enc es i n

ac hi ev ement c an be at t r i but ed t o di f f er enc es i n t he ef f i c i enc y

wi t h whi c h t he mo de l oper at es f or d i f f e r e nt peopl e. T ha t i s ,i n or der t o devel op i nt el l i gi bl e pr onunc i at i on, s t udent s need

t o ut i l i z e t he l ear ni ng s t r at egi es , maxi m z i ng t he ef f i c i enc y

of t he l ear ni ng pr oc es s e s .

A c ons i der at i on of t he r ol e of af f ec t i ve f ac t o r s i n

pr o nunc i a t i o n l ear ni ng s ugges t s t ha t a n e mpa t h i c c a pac i t y i s

c har ac t er i s t i c o f t hos e l ear ner s who ar e mo s t s uc c es s f ul i n

pr o no unc i ng a s e co nd l anguage: t hat i s , a s t r ong o r i e nt a t i o n

t owar ds t he t ar get c ul t ur e f ac i l i t at es t he ac qui s i t i on of

t hos e f eat ur es whi c h c har a c t e r i z e na t i v e- s p ee c h. No do ubt t he

t eac her , ha s a v i t al r ol e i n t he c l a s s r o om, c r e at i ng a non-

j udgment al atmosphere i n o r d er t o r educ e the s t udent ' s bar -

r i er s agai ns t s o undi ng l i ke a f or ei gner . I n t hi s wa y, t he ob-

j ec t i ve of native- l i k e a cc ur a cy can be pr o vi de d f or i n a ddi -

t i on t o t hat of i nt e l l i gi bi l i t y .



63

BI BLI OGRAPHY

ABE RCROMBI E , Da vi d . E l e me nt s of Ge ne r a l P ho ne t i c s . E di n bu r gh,

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AT KI NSON, R. E . B. R. P . a nd E ng l i s h as a Wo r l d L a ngua ge . I RAL ,

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BAI L EY , Ch. - J . N. Nat i v e Ac c e nt and L ea r n i ng Engl i s h as a F or -

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19 3- 20 4.

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gu age L e ar ni ng . I RAL , 6, No . 3( 196 8) , 145- 64.

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SCHUMANN, J . A. ' Affective F ac t o r s a nd t he P r o bl e m of Ag e i n

Se c on d L a ng ua ge Ac q ui s i t i o n. L a ng ua ge L e ar n i n g, 25, No . 2



64

( 1975) , 209- 75.

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i ng Under Hypnos i s . A Pr e l i m nar y St udy . Language Lear n-

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STEVI CK, E. W Towar ds a P r a c t i c al Phi l os ophy of P r o nunc i at i o n.

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65

NOTES

I R. E . B. A t k i ns o n, R. P. and Engl i s h as a F or e i gn L angua ge

I RAL , 13, No. I ( 1975) , 71.

2

At k i ns o n, p. 71.

3Da vi d Abercrornbie, El e me nt s of . Ge ne r a l P ho ne t i c s . ( Edi n-

bur gh, Uni v er s i t y Pr e s s , 1967) , pp. 95- 102.

4Ch . - J . N. Bai l ey , Nat i ve Ac c ent and L ear ni ng Engl i s h as

a F or e i g n L a ngu age . I RAL , 1 6, No . 3 ( 1 97 8) , 233.

5E l l e n Ba i l y s t o k, A T he or e t i c a l Mo de l o f S ec ond L a ngu ag e

L ear ni ng. L angua ge L e ar n i ng , 28, No . 1( 1978) , 71.

6E r v i n - T r i pp i n J o a n Ru bi n , ' - ' what t h e ' Good L an gu age

L ear ner ' Ca n Te ac h Us . T es o l Qu ar t e r l y , 9, No . 1( 1975) , 44.nRubi n, pp. 44- 5.

Q

Rubi n, p. 45.

R̂u bi n , p . 46.

l 0Ba i l y s t o k , p. 79.

I I Ba i l y s t o k , p. 79.

l 2Ba i l y s t o k , p . 79.I 3 Ru bi n , p . 47.

l 4Ba i l y s t ok , p . 76.

I 5Ru bi n , p . 49.

l 6Ba i l y s t o k , p. 81.

l 7C a r r o l l ( l 9 66 ) i n Rub i n , p . 44 .I 8 C. A. Par i s h, A Pr ac t i c al Phi l os ophy of P r onunc i at i on.

T es o l Quar t er l y , 13, No.3( 1977) , pp. 312- 3.I 9 S . D. Kr a s he n and H. W. S el i n ge r , The Ro l e o f F or ma l and



66

I nf o rmal Env i r onment s i n Second Language Lear ni ng. L i ngui s -

t i c s , 172( 1976) , pp. 15- 21.

20

Ri c har d W S ut er , Pr edi c t or s of Pr onunc i at i on Ac c ur ac y

i n Second Language Lear ni ng. Language Lear n i ng, 26, No. 2( 1976)

233- 52.

21Kr ashen and Se l i nge r , p. 15.22

Kr ashen and Se l i nge r , p. 19.

2 3Sut e r , p. 246.

24Bai l ys t ok , p. 71.

25Bi al ys t ok, p. 79.

26Kr ashen and Se l i nge r , p. 20.27

Bai l ys t ok, p. 77.

Bai l ys t ok, p. 79.

29Bai l ys t ok, p. 81.

30Bai l ey , p. 239.

31Bai l ys t ok, p. 82.

32

Pet er St r ev ens , A Rat i onal e f or Teac hi ng Pr onunc i at i on.EL T J o ur nal , 28, No . 3( 1974) , 183.

3 3Sut e r , p. 244.

34Rubi n, p. 49.

35St r ev ens , p. 184.

36St r ev ens , p. 184.

37Rubi n, p. 49.

38St r ev ens , p. 182.

39Rubi n, p. 49.

40St r ev ens , p. 184.

41Rubi n, p. 49.

4 2 L . Newmar k and D. Rei bel , Necess i t y and Suf f i c i ency i n

Language Lea r n i ng. I RAL , 6 , No . 3( 1968) , 155.

43Newmar k änd Rei bel , p . 159.44J ohn H. Schumann, Af f ec t i v e Fac t o r s and t he P r obl em of



67

Ag e i n Second Language Acq ui s i t i on. Language Lear ni n g, 25,

No . 2( 1978) , 209.

45Newmar k and Rei bel , p . 157.

4 6

P . F . McDona l d and J . C. Sager , Beyond Cont ex t ual St ud-

i es . I RAL , 16, No . 3( 1975) , 22.

47

Ear l W. St ev i c k , Towar ds a P r a c t i c al P hi l os o phy of

P r o nunc i at i on: Anot her Vi ew. T es o l Qua r t e r l y , 12, No . 2( 1978)

145.

4 8 St evi c k, p. 146.4 9T ay l o r et al . ( 1969) i n Sc humann, Af f ec t i ve F ac t or s . . .

p. 221.50

Gar dner and Lamber t i n Pau l Chr i s t opher sen , Second Lan-

guage Lear ni ng. ( Ha rmondswor t h, Pengu i n, 1973 ) , p. 66.

51Gui or a i n Sc humann, Af f ec t i ve F ac t or s . . . , p . 221.52

Gui or a i n J ohn Schumann et a l . I mpr ovement s of For -

e i gn Language Lear ni ng Under Hypnos i s . Language Lear n i ng, 28,

No. I ( 1978) , 143.

53Schumann e t al . I mpr ovement s . . . , pp. 146- 7.54St evi c k, p. 146.

5 5St e vi c k , p. 147.

56St evi c k, p. 147. .

57St r e vens , p. 186.r o

Newmar k and Rei bel , p . 149.

59

Newmar k and Re i bel , p . 150 .6 CSt e vi c k , p. 148.

6 I St e vi c k , p. 148.

Second Language Learner and Pronunciation Kerry Thomson Oviedo 1980

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