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SEAPOWER - 1865 Above: USS Galena 1862 Right: USS Onadoga (Double Turret Monitor) 1864 By the end of the Civil War, the U.S. Navy was second only to the Royal Navy in size and by far the most modern navy in the world. Its expansion and technology played a role in keeping Europe out. By 1863, it was too dangerous to challenge.

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SEAPOWER - 1865 In 1860, the U.S. had the largest merchant fleet in the world with over 2,500,000 tons. It was largely as a result of the American built Tea Clippers (left) which dominated the trade with India and the Far East. The Civil War gutted the U.S. Merchant Fleet. Tonnage dropped by over 50% by the end of the war. Some was due to Confederate Commerce Raiders, the most successful being CSS Shenandoah (right). Most, however, was simply sold off to foreign companies.

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SEAPOWER - 1890 The U.S. Merchant Marine never recovered. The Suez Canal made the Clippers obsolete and owners and financiers moved to other industries to make their fortunes. By 1890, the U.S. Merchant fleet was down to around 600,000 tons. This was during a time when trade was booming. RMS Belgic (White Star Line) 1885. Built in New Jersey for British passenger service. The demise of the U.S. Shipping industry led to a corresponding lack of serious interest in building canals in Central America. While the interest remained in some circles, the Maritime Industry no longer exerted pressure.

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SEAPOWER - 1890 The last half of the 19 th Century saw massive leaps in naval technology, the most rapid progression in destructive capability at sea in history. Above: HMS Collingswood, Admiral Class Battleship 1897. Right: Marceau Battleship (France) 1897.

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SEAPOWER - 1890 By 1880, the U.S. Navy was not even first rate as compared to the navies of South America. It had not built any significant warships since the Civil War and had endured a 90% reduction in manpower and >96% reduction in warships. Convinced it had to do something as even a third-rate power was better, Congress authorized new ships. These ships were obsolete when they were laid down. Above: USS Chicago 1897. Right: USS Puritan 1890.

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SEAPOWER - 1890 The Influence of Sea Power on History: 1640 - 1783 Published 1890. Was one of the two great works of Military Philosophy of the 19 th Century. It was the first treatise on naval power written. The book would influence naval and national leaders, trigger massive naval buildups in Japan and the U.S., be the inspiration for two arms races (Britain and Germany, Chile and Argentina), and seen as a justification for Imperialism. This was not the intent. The intent was to influence Congress to fix the embarrassment that the U.S. Navy became. Alfred Thayer Mahan CAPT USN 1840-1914

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SEAPOWER 1890s Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 1893-1897 SAMOAN CRISIS: A civil war raged in Samoa. The U.S. backed one faction, Germany the other. Cleveland sent a squadron to the Island to protect U.S. interests. Germany sent a squadron to back the rebels. War was averted when a Typhoon wrecked both Squadrons. HAWAII: He approved a coaling station at Pearl Harbor, but rejected annexation. VENEZUELA: Border dispute between Venezuela and British Colony. U.S. threaten military intervention against British. U.S. will not tolerate European trouble making in the Americas. Britain backs down.

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SEAPOWER - 1898 THEODORE ROOSEVELT Assistant Secretary of the Navy 1897-1898 Wrote a highly regarded history of the U.S. Navy in the War of 1812 while still at Harvard. An avid reader, he was a huge fan of Mahans work and corresponded with the author. Far smarter and better read than any gave him credit for at the time (and much of his life), he accepted the position and became an advocate for naval expansion and modernization and war. He also believed the U.S. had to assert itself and a canal was vital.

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A WAR THAT NEVER WAS The debate in Clausewitz was whether war was an abandonment of diplomacy or merely a tool. These men added a new idea: war as a marketing device. The truth is only useful if it sells newspapers. And if it sells newspapers, then it is right. William Randolph Hurst Joseph Pulitzer

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A WAR THAT NEVER WAS Joseph Pulitzer owned the New York World and St. Louis Post- Dispatch. William Randolph Hurst owned the New York Journal and San Francisco Examiner. Both had significant influence over separate newspaper empires and being men of this age, both wanted to put the other out of business. Circulation was the key. And sensational stories meant greater circulation. And the truth was only interesting if it sold newspapers. They would create a crisis where none existed, create a scandal from thin air, create a cause for no reason other than it sold papers. And in the end, they would start a war that was unnecessary.

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A WAR THAT NEVER WAS 1895: Disgruntled tenant farmers in Cuba riot and burn farms and crops. Cuba is a Spanish Colony and Spain reinforces its garrisons. There is indeed a rebellion, but it lacks weapons, money, support and its leadership is divided. There are no glorious battles, just hit and run attacks. Hurst sends Remington to provide pictures of the glorious rebels and their great victories. Remington reports theres nothing happening. He allegedly is told: You provide the pictures, Ill provide the war. 1896:Inspired by the glorious triumphs, Filipinos rise up against the Spanish colonial. They are more successful. 1897:Spanish forces outnumber the rebels about 10:1. Most of the government force is Cuban. To starve out the rebels, mass evacuations are ordered. This, at least, was reported.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR 1897: McKinley does not want a war, but the papers and their readers scream for it. More importantly, the situation now threatens the interests of U.S. tobacco and sugar companies. February 1898: A riot in Havana initiated by angry displaced persons from the countryside. U.S business feel threatened and beg the U.S. for help. Until now, U.S. has prevented arms and funds from entering Cuba. USS MAINE (Armored Cruiser) Commissioned in 1895, it took ten years to build due to funding. The design was obsolete when the ship began construction. It is sent to Havana to remind Spain the U.S. is interested.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR February 15, 1898: The USS Maine blows up in Havana harbor. Surviving crew members blame a coal bunker fire near a main powder magazine. The Hurst and Pulitzer papers find that droll. They immediately make up experts who are certain it is the result of a Spanish torpedo (we now call them mines). Remember the Maine! The papers demand war. USS Maine the day after the explosion. McKinley and senior congressional leaders want a negotiated settlement. But Roosevelt is already preparing for war.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR JANUARY 1898:Roosevelt, acting without consulting superiors, orders stop loss for U.S. Asiatic Squadron and for Squadron to assemble at Hong Kong. Cancels orders for Olympia to return to U.S. for overhaul. Orders USS Baltimore from San Diego to Philippines as well as additional ammunition for the Squadron. FEBRUARY 1898:USS Maine blows up in Havana Harbor. McKinley and key congressional leaders seek diplomatic resolution of the dispute. MARCH 17, 1898:Key Republicans advocate war. MARCH 28, 1898:Navy Board of Inquiry concludes Maine destroyed by mine. There were numerous irregularities at least in hindsight.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR April 11, 1898:Under extreme pressure from congressional leaders, McKinley asks for use of military force to intervene in Cuba. April 20, 1898:Joint Resolution calls for Spain to quit Cuba, U.S. Troops to deploy to restore order but not to establish colony. April 21, 1898:Spain breaks relations. Navy ordered to blockade Cuba. April 23, 1898:Spain declares War. April 25, 1989: U.S. declares War

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR USS Olympia recently in Philadelphia PA In 1898 it was RADM Deweys Flagship of the Asiatic Squadron sent from Hong Kong to attack the Spanish at Manila. Today it is the most well known ship of that war. It took over three months for Dewey to assemble his squadron and reinforcements from Hawaii. On April 28, word is received that War has been declared and Britain is neutral. U.S. squadron must depart Hong Kong with in 24 hours, and they do. May 1. The Asiatic Squadron catches Spanish fleet by surprise and destroys it in about an hour.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR USS OREGON (BB-3) In the Spring of 1898, however, this was the best known ship in the U.S. Navy not because of a battle, but because of a journey. Feb 26: USS Oregon ordered to depart homeport Bremerton WA to join Atlantic Squadron in Florida. Cannot leave coal not available. Mar 3: Departs Mar 6: Arrives San Francisco to load ammo. Mar 15: CO hospitalized. Mar 18: New CO, final orders Mar 19: Departs San Francisco Ca. 5 stops for coal and provisions. May 24: Arrives Jupiter Inlet FL.

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A SPLENDID LITTLE WAR The total journey took 82 days to complete. From San Francisco, it took 66 days. Total distance travelled over 15,000 nautical miles. Throughout the journey the papers questioned where it was and when it would arrive. The Navy Department often did not know nor would they say. This redeployment reinvigorated talk about a Canal at Central America. Given past experience, many were reluctant. Oregon provided one justification. As expensive as a canal would be, it was cheaper than building a Navy large enough to meet U.S. needs in both the Atlantic and Pacific. A Canal meant one fleet, not two.

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THE AMERICAN CENTURY After a brief adventure in Cuba, Theodore Roosevelt was elected Governor of New York in 1898 where he was a bull in the china shop of politics. To silence him, he was nominated (and elected) as Vice-President in 1900. He had dangerous ideas about curbing the excesses of both government and business alike and proved disturbingly popular. The good thing was no one remembered Vice Presidents

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THE AMERICAN CENTURY Left: The last photograph of William McKinley (Sep 6,1901). He was shot minutes later. Right: Roosevelt and Sen. Hanna. Photo taken as Roosevelt was walking to be sworn in as President. In August 1901, the Pan-American Worlds Fair opened in Buffalo NY. The theme was the new Century and Western Hemisphere and included exhibitions promoting a canal. The Vice President attended. There were warnings that should the President attend, there was a risk. McKinley went anyway. On Sep. 6, he was shot shaking hands with the public. He died from infection less than two weeks later. Sometimes people do remember the Vice President.

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THE AMERICAN CENTURY JOHN HAY (1838-1905) Raised in Illinois, graduated from Brown University in 1859 and read law at a firm next door to Lincoln & Herndon in Springfield. From 1861 to 1865 he served as President Lincolns Personal Secretary. (Above: 1861) (Below: 1865) 1865-1870 served as diplomat in Paris and London. 1870 he quit and became a reporter for the New York Tribune and a writer. Assistant Secretary of State: 1879-1881. Ambassador Court of St. James: 1897-1898.

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THE AMERICAN CENTURY Secretary of State 1898-1905 Named Secretary of State immediately following Treaty with Spain ending Spanish-American War. One of the most effective in U.S. history. Roosevelt inherited him. Continued thaw in U.S.-British relations. Open Door Policy regarding China. Would negotiate three treaties critical to the ultimate construction of Panama Canal.

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THE AMERICAN CENTURY Lord Sir Julian Pauncefote 1828-1902 Ambassador to U.S. 1889-1902 HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY OF 1901 Roosevelt wanted U.S. Canal at Panama. Problem: Clayton-Bulwer Treaty forbade such a canal. Draft Treaty offered by Britain based on the British Suez Convention submitted to Senate in February 1900. Rejected. Britain rejected counterproposal. Hay was tasked to change this. Negotiations opened almost immediately after Roosevelt was sworn in and concluded quickly. Treaty was signed November 1901. Ratified December 1901.