Sea Level Rise Research Report

30
Saltwater Intrusion: Finding a Solution Through Funding Research Emily Qu, Kevin Colley, Diana Konarzewski, and Laura Driscoll ENC 3241H Professor Stephens 2 December 2015

description

A report on saltwater contamination induced by sea level rise

Transcript of Sea Level Rise Research Report

Page 1: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Saltwater Intrusion: Finding a Solution Through Funding Research

Emily Qu, Kevin Colley, Diana Konarzewski, and Laura Driscoll

ENC 3241HProfessor Stephens2 December 2015

Page 2: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Abstract

In this project, we are focusing on saltwater intrusion from sea level rise in South Florida. Our report discusses two main areas in danger with the threat of saltwater intrusion: aquifers and agricultural lands. These two areas are the main contributors to the surrounding population’s drinking water and food supply, which are the major factors in population sustainability and human health. Salinated water directly affects the health and growth of vegetation and crops and aquifers provide the drinking water for millions of people in South Florida. Our solution to this extremely complicated issue is to create public policy in South Florida’s state and local governments in order to create research grants for universities to study possible technological solutions. We propose expanding the funding for research in technological fields to prevent the intrusion of saltwater in Florida freshwater aquifers and agricultural lands. For agriculture, more research could create and bring new engineering designs and technologies that will keep South Florida’s agricultural lands fertile, thriving, and free from saltwater contaminates. For aquifers, more research in the technological field can likely improve the detection and mapping for saltwater intrusion. When aquifers are determined to be in danger of saltwater contamination, the conduction of more research brings possible solutions to the table for stopping saltwater intrusion in a more economic and feasible process after detection. (221)

Page 3: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Table of Contents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………....i

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………...iii

Section One: How Sea Level Rise Causes Saltwater Intrusion in South Florida……....1Background……………………………………………………………………………...1The Main Causes of Saltwater Intrusion……………………………………………..1Solution Implementations and Proposals…………………………………………….4

Section Two: Effects of Saltwater Intrusion on Aquifers and Freshwater Bodies……....5Importance of Aquifers in Florida……………………………………………………..5Impact of Saltwater Intrusion on Aquifers…………………………………………....6Potential Effects of Sea Level Rise on Saltwater Intrusion……………………...pg#Current Mitigations for Saltwater Intrusion………………………………………...pg#

Section Three: The Effects of Saltwater Intrusion on Agriculture……………………..pg#The Importance of Agriculture……………………………………………………...pg#Saltwater Intrusion into Agricultural Lands………………………………………..pg#A Study on the Effects of Saltwater on Plants……………………………………pg#Protection Against Saltwater Intrusion in Agriculture…………………………….pg#

Section Four: Our Proposed Solution to the Issue of Saltwater Intrusion…………….pg#The Importance of Funding University Research………………………………...pg#Current Saltwater Intrusion Research and Action Plan………………………….pg#Distribution of Funding for University Research………………………………….pg#Our Recommendation……………………………………………………………….pg#

Works Cited………………………………………………………………………………...pg#

List of Figures

Page 4: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Figure 1: Process of Saltwater Intrusion when Underground Water is Extracted………..2Figure 2: Harmful Consequences to Ecosystem from Saltwater Intrusion………………..3Figure 3: Areas at Risk in Miami-Dade County……………………………………...……....4Figure 4: An Illustration of Florida’s Aquifer System……………………………………..….5Figure 5: Experimental Effectiveness of Flow Barriers in Aquifers………………………...7Figure 6: Experimental Effects of a Recharge Well on an Aquifer……………………..….8Figure 7: The Water Channel Systems of South Florida…………………………………...9Figure 8: Experiment Results of Saltwater Treatments on Vegetation…………………..11Figure 9: University R&D Funding by Source………......................................................15

SECTION ONE: HOW SEA LEVEL RISE CAUSES SALTWATER INTRUSION IN SOUTH FLORIDA

Page 5: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Background

Many of the populations along South Florida access coastal freshwater aquifers as their source of drinking supply. Although all coastal aquifers experience some form of saltwater intrusion as a part of the natural process of the earth, the growing problem of sea level rise due to climate change and other human induced problems has accelerated and worsened the problem of saltwater intrusion on coastal freshwater aquifers, freshwater bodies, and agricultural lands.

To explain the process of saltwater intrusion that occurs in these coastal aquifers, the main cause of the intrusion process occurs when groundwater levels in aquifers are depleted faster than the rate that it is recharged. The level of saltwater intrusion is dependent on the rate of groundwater recharge in the aquifer. In the natural world, climate and weather variables such as precipitation and temperature play a part in controlling the recharge rate. For example, lower levels of precipitation and higher surface area temperatures lower the recharge rate of groundwater due to the higher rates of evaporation because of temperature and smaller amounts of groundwater that are replenished because of precipitation. Saltwater has a higher density than freshwater due to the higher content of dissolved salts and minerals that saltwater naturally has. The higher density of saltwater causes it to move inland under the reservoir of freshwater where it meets with the freshwater in an area called the zone of dispersion. In the zone of dispersion, the freshwater and saltwater form an interface where the two types of water begin to mix and fluctuate. The zone of dispersion is a natural product of the saltwater intrusion process where the fluctuation between saltwater and freshwater is caused by the rate of groundwater recharge. However, the real problem occurs when there is an outside factor that is affecting the rate of groundwater recharge or if groundwater is forcibly withdrawn for human centered uses.

The Main Causes of Saltwater Intrusion

Groundwater extraction is one of the primary causes of saltwater intrusion in aquifers. The distance on how far saltwater can travel inland is controlled by the freshwater table level. However, the extraction of groundwater can lower the water table level. This reduces the pressure that is held by the column of the freshwater table and allows saltwater to move farther inland in both a lateral direction and vertical direction (see Figure 1). This process of groundwater extraction commonly leads to freshwater contamination in wells. Freshwater that is forcibly extracted from wells causes saltwater that lies beneath the depths of the aquifer (in which the well in connected) to move upward or swell into areas of the aquifer where the freshwater is located.

Page 6: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Canal and Drainage Construction is another cause of saltwater intrusion that occurs in mainly in freshwater bodies. Canals can carry saltwater inland into freshwater lakes and rivers. The construction of drainage networks that is used to reduce the water content in certain coastal areas can reduce the level of the water table which reduces the pressure exerted by the freshwater, leading to the upsurge of saltwater from the depths of the surface.

Climate Change and Sea Level Rise are other causes of saltwater intrusion. Sea level rise is induced by climate change. This is especially problematic in shallow unconfined coastal aquifers because a change in sea elevation would change the level of the saltwater-freshwater interface. When there is a rise in sea level, it builds upon the pressure that the saltwater has against the freshwater-saltwater interface. When there is a combination of both sea level rise and freshwater extraction from wells and aquifers, it draws saltwater closer to the land in both lateral and vertical directions which causes it to mix with the freshwater in the area. The level of the water table is also dependent on the sea level. As the sea level rises, the water table rises which therefore causes the saltwater to exert more pressure upon the freshwater, causing the

freshwater to move upward toward the surface and bringing the saltwater along with it.

Figure1: This illustration shows the process of saltwater intrusion that occurs underground when groundwater is forcefully extracted from the ground.

(McNoldy)

Effect on Agriculture: Sea Level Rise will not only affect the drinking supply but it will also affect the agriculture of South Florida as well. In this project, the focus will be on saltwater intrusion in irrigation crops and how this intrusion would impact human health and food resources. The amount of mass produced crops in areas where there is a lot of irrigation, canals, and draining networks can decrease drastically because the salinity concentration of the saltwater decreases the concentration of the nutrients in the soil which would therefore cause a decrease in the growth of crops and vegetation.

Page 7: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Saltwater intrusion is likely to occur in places where there is an extensive network of canal and irrigation drainage construction. This is especially evident in the Everglades which is a natural wetland habitat and ecosystem in South Florida. In addition, not only will saltwater contamination also affect the nutrition content of the sediment that helps crops to thrive, saltwater intrusion will also affect the function of the ecosystem as a whole by harming wetland habitat, the growth of native plant species, and native wildlife that inhabit the area. (Figure 2 shows the overall effects that saltwater intrusion will

have on the different categories of the ecosystem.)

Figure 2: This picture shows the various harmful consequences that saltwater intrusion could have on parts of the ecosystem (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).

Current Areas in South Florida that are being affected: Aquifers in South Florida and the area around Miami are the locations in the United State that will be the most affected in freshwater contamination by saltwater which would be induced by sea level rise. Figure 3 below shows the depth of the water table to the surface in the Miami-Dade County region of Southern Florida.

Page 8: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Figure 3: This map shows the area of Miami and the colors indicate the depth of the water table to the surface. The red areas indicate the areas most at risk due to the closeness of the water table to the surface. A lot of the areas of Miami, including all of Miami Beach, is shown to be at 0-4 feet above the underlying water tables (McNoldy).

Solution Implementations and Proposals

The solutions that will be proposed in this report will be a public policy change to allow the cities and counties of South Florida to obtain funding for Florida colleges and universities to research ways to combat saltwater intrusion on freshwater and agriculture to maintain the health of the population living in South Florida. A growth in research can lead to a team of experts from various disciplines to tackle this large and complex problem of saltwater intrusion in an interdisciplinary approach and from all different angles. With more research, researchers and scientists could create and bring new engineering designs and technologies that will keep South Florida’s agricultural lands fertile, thriving, and free from saltwater contaminates. Additionally, more research in the technological fields can likely improve the detection and mapping for saltwater intrusion. When aquifers are determined to be in danger of saltwater contamination, the conduction of more research brings possible solutions to the table for stopping saltwater intrusion in a more economic and feasible process after detection.

Page 9: Sea Level Rise Research Report

SECTION TWO: THE EFFECTS OF SALTWATER INTRUSION IN AQUIFERS AND FRESHWATER BODIES

Importance of Aquifers in Florida

The most critical level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the body’s physiological needs. These are composed of the physical requirements needed for the body’s survival. Fresh drinking water is one such physical requirement (McLeod). The St. John’s River Water Management District estimates that 90% of residents living in northeast and east-central Florida use groundwater from aquifers as their water supply. Most of this comes from the Floridan aquifer, which is the largest aquifer in the southeastern United States (St. Johns River). The Floridan aquifer is the largest and deepest aquifer in Florida, but there are many other shallower aquifers. Surficial aquifers are the shallowest aquifers and lie closest to the surface. Intermediate aquifers reside between surficial aquifers and the Floridan aquifer. Deeper aquifers are generally preferred for drinking water over shallower ones as the deeper aquifers contain fewer contaminants (St. Johns River). Figure 4 below illustrates the different levels of aquifers as well as pumps and wells at each level and interactions between the aquifers and freshwater surface bodies.

Figure 4: An illustration of the Floridan aquifer system (St. Johns River)

Page 10: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Impact of Saltwater Intrusion on Aquifers Because saltwater is heavier than freshwater, it can seep into freshwater drinking wells in a process known as saltwater intrusion. This can raise the salt content enough that the water is no longer fit for drinking (St. Johns River). Saltwater intrusion is not a new issue. Deep below every aquifer in Florida lies a layer of saltwater. Saltwater intrusion occurs either due to wells that are so deep that they pull water from the saltwater layer or due to freshwater pumps that pull freshwater faster than it can be replaced by rainfall (St. Johns River).

Potential Effects of Sea Level Rise on Saltwater Intrusion The effect of sea level rise due to climate change on saltwater intrusion in aquifers is a topic that has not seen much attention. Barlow notes in “Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal Regions of North America” that it might be important to consider the effects due to sea level rise, but beyond that no other mention of future sea level rise or climate change is made (Barlow 259). Werner and Simmons took a more in-depth look at how sea level rise may affect saltwater intrusion, and they determined that both flux-controlled aquifers and head-controlled aquifers will see a great increase in saltwater intrusion when the sea level rises about a meter, with head-controlled aquifers experiencing a far greater effect (Werner 203).

Current Mitigations for Saltwater Intrusion As saltwater intrusion is an issue that has been around for a while in many parts of the world, there are some techniques that can be employed to lessen the effect of saltwater intrusion in aquifers. One such technique is the installation of flow barriers, which are vertical walls placed within aquifers. These flow barriers work by modifying the flow of water in such a way that the “toe” of the intruding saltwater is cut short (Luyun 247). Figure 5 below shows a flow barrier in a laboratory setting and its effectiveness at various heights.

Page 11: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Figure 5: Experimental Effectiveness of Flow Barriers in Aquifers (Luyun 243)

As can be seen in the figure, the lower the flow barrier extends, the less the saltwater can flow into the aquifer.

Another technique for decreasing the impact of saltwater intrusion is building something known as a recharge well. Recharge wells pump freshwater into an aquifer in a location that will change the flow in the aquifer to push some of the saltwater away. They do this by creating a freshwater ridge that repels the head of the saltwater (Luyun 239). The location of the recharge well relative to the toe of the encroaching saltwater is critical to ensure effectiveness (Luyun 246). Figure 6 below shows an example of a recharge well being used in a laboratory environment.

Page 12: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Figure 6: Experimental Effects of a Recharge Well on an Aquifer (Luyun 242)

The figure shows the setup of the experimental “aquifer” before the recharge well is started in frame (a). Then, frame (b) shows how the aquifer’s water content has changed after the recharge well has been running for only an hour. The change is minimal but there is a noticeable change, and at a larger scale with a faster flow rate of freshwater would better repel the saltwater (Luyun 248).

Both of these methods have been shown to reduce saltwater intrusion, but they are both also local techniques that only affect a small area of the coastal aquifer around them. Therefore, it would be beneficial to map out areas of the aquifers to find those most prone to saltwater intrusion and begin implementing these mitigations in those locations first. Stewart proposes an accurate and efficient method of mapping the salinity levels in coastal aquifers by using electromagnetic conductivity.

As the aquifers form the backbone of Florida’s freshwater supply, saltwater intrusion in aquifers can lead to saltwater intrusion into surface freshwater bodies such as spring-fed lakes and rivers. These bodies of water in addition to aquifers are often used for other purposes than drinking water, as we will discuss in the next section.

SECTION THREE: THE EFFECTS OF

Page 13: Sea Level Rise Research Report

SALTWATER INTRUSION ON AGRICULTURE

The Importance of Agriculture

Drinking water and food are human necessities; any reduction in these resources will have deleterious effects on the population’s well-being and ability to survive. As discussed, freshwater resources for the people of South Florida are mostly gathered from nature’s coastal aquifers and other freshwater bodies. As saltwater seeps into these aquifers, the freshwater supply is threatened. This freshwater supply is strongly connected with the area’s agriculture; this relationship shows that as the freshwater supply is tainted, the region’s agriculture is also harmed. The components of agriculture rely on a suitable supply of water to thrive and produce the necessary nutrient foods for the region’s population (Essink 430). As Figure 7 shows, South Florida is mainly composed of agricultural lands, so the importance of agriculture for this region is undeniable. Rising sea levels and the increased saltwater intrusion into the freshwater supply that can occur threaten these agricultural lands which have significant

contributions to South Florida’s economy and population health.

Figure 7This figure depicts the systems of man-made channels which were first constructed beginning in the 1880s that distribute the water supply throughout South Florida. (Harwell 499)

Also, agriculture is a broad topic that contains various subtopics, but it is

Page 14: Sea Level Rise Research Report

important to note that all branches of agriculture rely on a source of freshwater, as all living things rely on a water supply. In this report, the focus on agriculture mainly relates to growing crops for the population’s food source and also for the agricultural business aspect of South Florida’s economy. However, other ecosystems that provide food for livestock or nutrient soils for growing crops are also affected by saltwater intrusion and should also be discussed. Later in this section, these kinds of ecosystems are discussed in the context of an experimental study whose results can be related back to the plants and crops grow in agricultural lands for commercial and sustainability purposes.

Saltwater Intrusion into Agricultural Lands

The water from coastal aquifers and other natural and man-made supplies of freshwater is pumped directly into agricultural lands in order to water, maintain, and nourish the crops growing there. This is the leading method as to how saltwater could possibly reach South Florida’s agricultural lands. Referring back to Figure 7, it is evident that the channels transporting water are largely interconnected, and any contamination into one part of the system can have widespread effects on the surrounding areas. Additionally, in the special case of South Florida, salinated water also has the ability to seep up through the porous limestone bedrock below the agriculture lands and into the soil (Egler 251), thus destroying some of the nutrients in the soil and causing challenges for the crops planted in the lands.

Next in this section is an experimental case study that discusses how saltwater intrusion affects agriculture through the area’s ecosystems. The results from this experiment and ones similar to it all help to make general conclusions about the direct impacts saltwater has on plant life and plant lineage in both ecosystem and agriculture settings.

A Study on the Effects of Saltwater on Plants

Roughly 10 years ago, Louisiana State University conducted an experiment to determine the effects of several factors deriving from sea level rise on the region’s agricultural lands and coastal marshes. Two factors of interest from this study were saltwater and flooding. After collecting samples of the coastal plant life and soil, the Louisiana researchers created different treatment combinations for each of the samples based on varying levels of salinity exposure, flooding, and the third important variable they called disturbance. The disturbance treatment was a result of clipping the vegetation to soil level to help measure how future generations of the plants would grow in the environments of salinity and flooding illustrated by the combinations of the other treatments. From April 1994 to April 1995, these researchers studied their experimental units and recorded their results quarterly (Baldwin 257).

Page 15: Sea Level Rise Research Report

After the experimental period ended, the researchers conducted significance tests in order to make some final conclusions about the effects of the saltwater, flooding, and disturbance treatments on the dependent variable of species richness, which is the measure of the variety of thriving vegetation. This experiment aimed to measure this species richness variable, which is a very important variable to consider in junction with the disturbed variable regarding the future plant generations in the discussion of how saltwater and other harmful effects of sea level rise will affect the growth and health of plants and specifically crops in South Florida.

The conclusions showed evidence that a combination of flooding and saltwater intrusion was the most significant in maliciously affecting both the current area’s vegetation in addition to the future generations of the plants and the nutrient content of the soil. These effects were most evident in the groups of vegetation that had been “disturbed” for this experiment. As illustrated in Figure 8, flooding and saltwater together decreased the species richness dramatically in the disturbed samples as compared to any of the other treatments within both the disturbed and undisturbed treatment groupings. Additionally, the coupled effects of flooding and salinity decreased the concentration of

nutrients in the soil, which affects the growth and health of plant life (Baldwin 265).

Figure 2These graphs show the effects that the four different treatment combinations had on the species richness of the vegetation samples. The arrow indicates when the treatment was implemented. (Baldwin 261)

Protection Against Saltwater Intrusion in Agriculture

Page 16: Sea Level Rise Research Report

The results of this discussed experiment lead to the conclusion that although saltwater intrusion does not appear to be a huge concern at the present time or plant growth cycle, the future of the region’s vegetation and agriculture are in great danger of being damaged. This concern of possible destruction of plant lineages growing both throughout South Florida’s ecosystems and agricultural lands is why it is vital that a solution for saltwater intrusion is found and implemented as soon as possible in order to protect the area’s thriving plants and crops.

Currently, there are various proposed courses of action to take in order to help alleviate the issue of saltwater intrusion into agricultural lands. Although, a majority of these actions have no goal of lessening saltwater intrusion; instead, the best plan is to try and prosper with the issue of saltwater intrusion. Seeing as though the lands of South Florida have already been experiencing natural intrusion by salinated waters, sea level rise and its effect in increasing saltwater intrusion even more have only directed more South Floridians to do their best to live with this issue. The most popular proposed solutions to this issue are to move the agricultural activities to lands that are not yet contaminated by harsh saltwater or to start ecosystems and new agricultural plots by planting salt-resistant crops (Essink 444).

Unfortunately, technologies are not yet widespread enough for salt-resistant crops or other most useful courses of action to be the main methods for combatting saltwater intrusion into agricultural lands. This leads to the next section which focuses on how South Florida should work towards increasing their technologies in order to thrive even in the onset of saltwater intrusion and other problems caused by sea level rise.

Page 17: Sea Level Rise Research Report

SECTION FOUR: OUR PROPOSED SOLUTION TO THE ISSUE OF SALTWATER INTRUSION

The Importance of Funding University Research

Saltwater intrusion in Southern Florida is an extremely complex issue that does not necessarily have one solution. For this reason, we propose creating policies in the federal and state governments to obtain funding for universities to research this issue in more depth. By increasing the funding of research opportunities, innovations and creative thinking are increased overall (Atkinson and Stewart 1). This growth leads to many different types of people trying to tackle a large problem from all different angles. Because such a wide variety of intellects would now be analyzing the issue of saltwater intrusion, they would be able to break it down into smaller, more manageable components for them to research and work on finding a solution for.

The funding would cause more scholars to try to actively search for an answer to this growing problem. Without the proper incentives to research this topic, it could fall to the wayside while other, less time-sensitive issues were resolved. The topics of university research are largely dictated by the amount of funds there are in a specific topic (Blume-Kohout, Kumar, and Sood 6). By creating policies that increase the funding opportunities in this area, the amount of scientists and engineers that are analyzing this issue will greatly increase.

It is important that the federal and state governments take an interest in funding this research. Funding university research is the first step to creating a lasting change. The research that is performed on a university’s campus is typically the first-stage of the innovation process (Atkinson and Stewart 1). The knowledge that is gained from this research is typically used to expand the knowledge-base of the private sector research and development (Blume-Kohout, Kumar, and Sood 30). This partnership between public universities and the private sector has long-sense been established.

A successful venue of research needs to stem from strong public policy and encourage the collaboration of many different researchers (Edmondson and Valigra 3). This partnership can be from the public and private sectors, different universities, or different departments within a university collaborating to reach a single goal. Countries, such as Taiwan and Austria, that are leading the world in innovations through research have

Page 18: Sea Level Rise Research Report

even implemented a collaborative tax credit for universities who team-up with other universities (Edmondson and Valigra 49).

Current Saltwater Intrusion Research and Action Plan

Currently, there is very little research being done on the methods of saltwater intrusion prevention and the overall alleviation of the problem. Most of the research right now is being conducted to try and understand the implications that saltwater intrusion has on the soil, the freshwater bodies, and the ecosystems that are heavily affected by it (The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council 13). This information is great for getting to know the seriousness of this issue, as well as letting other people know how far its reach is. Without the research that has been done and the research that is being done at this moment, no one would fully know how the saltwater intruded within the landscape of Southern Florida would impact the surrounding areas.

Right now, the main method against saltwater intrusion is a system of pumps and saltwater interfaces, which act as barriers between freshwater and saltwater, that are currently located in the Biscayne Aquifer to help keep the drinking water there uncontaminated (Feltgen). These measures are succeeding for the time being, but they are not the long term solution. They are a bandage that can be used to cover up the problem for the timing being while a more sustainable solution can be found. These systems cannot last indefinitely due to the increasing rate at which saltwater is moving inland and the fragility of these mechanisms. The South Florida Water Management District spends millions of dollars annually to keep the Biscayne Aquifer from becoming brackish and undrinkable (The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council 13). This money is eventually not going to be available, and as the sea level rises so will the cost of keeping the water clean.

The future research that is recommended delves deeper into these issues, as well as trying to find solutions that can be implemented to prevent further damage from saltwater intrusion (The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council 21). A wide variety of areas of study should be consulted, so that the best possible solution can be found for this extremely complex issue. The current research is being done in geology and herbology, but in order to really examine saltwater intrusion thoroughly and come up with solutions studies need to be conducted by engineers and biologists. With all of this different disciplines working together, a collaborative resolution to the issue can be found. This would be much better than anything that one department could come up with on their own.

Distribution of Funding for University Research

Page 19: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Though universities get their funds for research and development sector from a wide variety of sources, different sections of the government are the main monetary contributors (Jahnke). These governmental funds go towards creating innovations and lasting change throughout the world. The common misconception is that federal and states governments are not investing as much in research as they have in the past. In actuality, the federal government has doubled the amount of investigators that they sponsor in the last twenty years (Odlykzo).

This is evidenced by Figure 9 below. In 1992, the graph shows that the funding contribution from federal plus the state and local governments was around $20 million. By 2012, this total has doubled to reach a value of just over $40 million. This clearly shows that the government is increasing their funding, however the main complaint is that the rate at which they are increasing these funding opportunities does not match other nations that are leading the research and development field, such as Taiwan and Austria (Atkinson and Stewart 1). There is a need for more governmental funding to keep up with these competitors, and especially in critical areas such as saltwater intrusion.

Figure 9: This graphic shows the amounts of funding for research in universities in the United States by its source. The different colors represent different contributors to the funding (Jahnke).

Our Recommendation

There are many different ways to give out grants and funding for a specific research topic such as saltwater intrusion. As mentioned above, a collaborative approach is usually most successful in the long run for the research’s outcome. Working together with different universities and even the private sector fosters greater creative thinking

Page 20: Sea Level Rise Research Report

and innovative thinking as well (Edmondson and Valigra 5). This is certainly the approach that we think would be best implemented for extremely complex problem of saltwater intrusion in Southern Florida.

Governmental funds can be given to a specific university or even department within a university. If that particular institution is well-known for the particular type of research that they want completed, This way of distributing grants and funds is typically done as a way to financially aid the desired program with research that they are already performing or they might be continuing from a further study. In the case of saltwater intrusion, this would not be ideal. The goal with our distribution of funds is to encourage a wider variety of intellectuals and scholars to critically think about this problem in a manner that they might not have before, and drive themselves towards a solution.

Most of the time if the funds are going towards a specific research area of interest, such as saltwater intrusion, the distribution of these funds is handled through a research proposal process (The Association of American Universities). In this process, a request for proposal is written, outlining exactly what the topic of research is and what the applicants need to submit in order to be considered for this funding. Typically the scientist who is going to be in charge of the research will be deemed the Principal Investigator, and will have the assistance of Co-Investigators and Research Assistants (The Association of American Universities). Because we want to encourage collaboration between different universities, this process could require that there be two Principal Investigators from two different institutions. Or it could just require that some of the Co-Investigators and Research Assistants be from different institutions.

Overall, we believe that saltwater intrusion is an extremely important issue that facing Southern Florida. We propose a solution of creating and implementing public policy that will distribute governmental funds to universities to research saltwater intrusion and identify a solution to this problem. We recommend that these funds go towards a collaborative research project, as these have been more successful in the past.

Page 21: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Works Cited

Atkinson, Robert D., and Stewart, Luke A. "University Research Funding: The United States Is Behind and Falling." Nature (2011): n. pag. The Information Technology & Innovation Foundation, 1 May 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

Baldwin, Andrew H. and Irving A. Mendelssohn. “Effects of Salinity and Water Level on Coastal Marshes: An Experimental Test of Disturbance as a Catalyst for Vegetation Change.” Aquatic Botany 61.4 (1998): 255-268. Web. 2 November 2015.

Barlow, Paul M. and Reichard, Eric G. “Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal Regions of North America.” Hydrogeology Journal 18 (2010): 247-260. Wiley Online Library. Web. 28 October 2015.

Blume-Kohout, Margaret E., Kumar, Krishna B., and Sood, Neeraj. "Federal Life Sciences Funding and University R&D." NBER. The National Bureau of Economic Research, July 2009. Web. 22 Nov. 2015

Church, J.A., P.U. Clark, A. Cazenave, J.M. Gregory, S. Jevrejeva, A. Levermann, M.A. Merrifield, G.A. Milne, R.S. Nerem, P.D. Nunn, A.J. Payne, W.T. Pfeffer, D. Stammer, and A.S. Unnikrishnan. “2013: Sea Level Change”. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 26 September 2013. Web. 28 October 2015.

Edmondson, Gail, and Valigra, Lori. "Making Industry-University Partnerships Work: Lessons from Successful Collaborations." (2012): ScienceBusiness.net. Science | Business Innovation Board AISBL, 2012. Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

Egler, Frank E. “Southeast Saline Everglades Vegetation, Florida, and Its Management.” Plant Ecology 3.4 (1952): 213-265. Web. 5 November 2015.

Essink, Gualbert H. P. Oude. “Improving Fresh Groundwater Supply.” Ocean & Coastal Management 44.5-6 (2001): 429-449. Web. 27 October 2015.

Feltgen, Ann Henson. "South Florida Holding off Saltwater Intrusion." Florida Bulldog. Investigative News Network, 18 June 2015. Web. 28 October 2015.

Harwell, Mark A, John F. Long, Ann M. Bartuska, John H. Gentile, Christine C. Harwell, Victoria Myers, and John C. Ogden. “Ecosystem Management to Achieve Ecological Sustainability: The Case of South Florida.” Environmental Management 20.4 (1996): 497-521. Web. 11 November 2015.

Jahnke, Art. "History and Future of Funding for Scientific Research." Boston University Research. Boston University, Jan. 2015. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Page 22: Sea Level Rise Research Report

Luyun, R, K Momii, and K Nakagawa. "Effects Of Recharge Wells And Flow Barriers On Seawater Intrusion." Ground Water 49.2 (n.d.): 239-249. Wiley Online Library. Web. 28 October 2015.

McLeod, S. A. “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” Simply Psychology. 2014. Web. 28 October 2015.

McNoldy, Brian. “Water, Water, Everywhere: Sea Level Rise in Miami.” Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 3 October 2014. Web. 28 October 2015.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Saltwater Intrusion Puts Drinking Water at Risk.” National Ocean Service, March 2013. Web. 1 December 2015.Odlykzo, Andrew. "The Decline of Unfettered Research." Digital Technology Center. University of Minnesota, 4 Oct. 1995. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

Sinclair, Peter. “New Video Focuses on South Florida Sea Level Rise-Saltwater Intrusion.” The Yale Center for Environmental Communication, 12 November 2014. Web. 28 October 2015.

St. Johns River Water Management District. “Florida’s Aquifers.” FloridasWater.com. 9 April 2013. Web. 28 October 2015.

Stewart, Mark T. "Evaluation Of Electromagnetic Methods For Rapid Mapping Of Salt-Water Interfaces In Coastal Aquifers." Ground Water 20.5 (1982): 538. Wiley Online Library. Web. 28 October 2015.

The Association of American Universities. "University Research: The Role of Federal Funding." AAU.edu. N.p., Jan. 2011. Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council. "An Update on the Effects of Climate Change on Florida's Ocean & Coastal Resources." Seagrant. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Dec. 2010. Web. 27 October 2015.Werner, Adrian D. and Simmons, Craig T. “Impact of Sea-Level Rise on Sea Water Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers.” Ground Water 47.2 (2009): 197-204. Wiley Online Library. Web. 28 October 2015.