Scientific Versus Unscientific Thinking

• In everyday life, our biases easily influence our observations.

• Biases often lead us to draw incorrect conclusions about what we see.

• Ten common errors are regularly found in unscientific thinking.

Types of Unscientific Thinking Unscientific knowledge can be based on:

1. Tradition

2. Authority

3. Casual observation

4. Overgeneralization

6. Qualification

7. Illogical reasoning

8. Ego-defence

9. Premature closure of inquiry

5. Selectiveobservation 10.Mystification

4

• Sample • Population

Samples and Populations

• Examples?

The Research Cycle

Six steps in the sociological research cycle: 1.Formulate research question2.Review existing research literature 3.Select research method

4.Collect data5.Analyze data (most challenging step) 6.Publish results

The Research Cycle

Ethical Considerations

• Treatment of subjectsIs needed for

respecting rights of research subjects,

including: i. ...ii. ...iii. ...

iv. ...• Treatment of research resultsConcern

about plagiarism, especially with spread of World Wide Web.

Measuring Variables

• Sociologists need to translate abstract propositions into testable forms.

• Operationalization: • A variable:• Hypothesis:

Translating Propositions into Hypotheses

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

THE MAIN METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Main Methods of SociologyThe four main methods in sociological research:

1. Experiments 2. Surveys

3. Field Research

4. Analysis of existing documents and official statistics

Experiments

• Experiment:

• Usesrandomization:

Variables • Dependentvariable:

• Independentvariable:

Steps in a Simple Experiment

• Reliability: • Validity:

Reliability and Validity

Surveys

• Ask people questions about their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviour either in a face-to-face or telephone interview or in a paper-and- pencil format.

Closed- and Open-Ended Questions

• Questionnaires may contain two types of questions:

1. ... 2. ... 3. ... 4. ...

Threats to Validity

Reading Tables• One of most useful tools for analyzing survey

data is the contingency table:

– A cross-classification of cases by at least two variables that allows researcher to see how, if at all, variables are associated.

– Allows researchers to examine effects of control variables on original association.

• A relationship:

Relationships

than 100,000

Watching TV and Approval of Violence (in percent)

Determining Causes

• To establish whether an independent variable causes change in a dependent variable, researchers must satisfy three criteria:

1. ... 2. ... 3. ...

25

Relationship Test and Sequencing

1. Relationshiptest:

2. Sequencing:

26

Non-spuriousness

• Connections between variables and people always exist in a context.

• Control variables :• Is used to control for spurious relationship:

27

How Spurious Relationships Occur

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

28

How Authentic Relationships Occur

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

29

Sampling

30

Probability Sample

• Researchers have to choose respondents at random, and the chance of choosing an individual must be known and greater than zero.

• A sample with these characteristics is a probability sample.

• Asamplingframe:

31

Sample Size and Statistical Significance

• Large samples give more precise results than small samples do.

• Random sample of 1500 people typically will give acceptably accurate results.

• This level of accuracy is called the

32

The Margin of Error in a Sample

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

33

Field Research

• Field research

• Strategies used in field research:

i. Detached observation

ii. Participant observation

34

Detached Observation

• Classifying and counting behaviour of interest according to predetermined scheme

• Methodological concerns:

1. Reactivity:

2. The meaning of the observed behaviour may remain obscure to the researcher.

35

Participant Observation

• Involves carefully observing people’s face-to- face interactions and participating in their lives over a long period of time.

• Purpose:

36

Participant Observation: Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths: Allows researchers to develop a deep and sympathetic understanding of the way people see the world.

• It is especially useful in the “exploratory” stage of research.

• Weaknesses:

37

Measurement as Target Practice

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

38

Analysis of Existing Documents and Official Statistics

• Existingdocumentsandofficialstatisticsare created by people other than the researcher for purposes other than sociological research.

39

Analysis of Existing Documents and Official Statistics

• Strengths:

• Weaknesses: Not created with the researchers’ needs in mind. Often contain biases that reflect the interests of the individuals and organizations that created them.

40

Strengths and Weaknesses of Four Research Methods

Copyright © 2013 Nelson Education Ltd.

41

THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING SUBJECTIVE

42

The Importance of Being Subjective

• Sociological research questions often spring from real-life experiences and the pressing concerns of the day.

• However, before sociological analysis, we rarely see things as they are. We see them as we are.

43

Summary

• Scientific ideas differ from common sense and other forms of knowledge.

• Need to understand strengths and weaknesses of various research methods and control for weaknesses where possible.