ScienceScopeP U B L I C A T I O N O F T H E C S I R|V O L U M E 8|N U M B E R 1 of 2 0 1 5SOUTH AFRICAS COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

Ideas

that work

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Cover page: CSIR researchers have successfully equipped a wave glider,pictured here off the Western Cape coast between Dassen and Robben Islands,with an acoustic echo sounder to better determine fish stock levels along theSouth African coastline. The technology will go a long way towards helping theDepartment of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries to regulate and allocate fishingquotas for more sustainable fishing practices. Wave gliders that carry sensorsand solar panels and are able to convert wave energy into forward propulsion,can be steered via satellite and be at sea for several months at a time.The CSIR also uses wave gliders to monitor carbon dioxide level changesin the ocean to better predict the rate and potential effects of climate change.

> CSIR Modelling and Digital SciencePretoria 012 841-3298> CSIR National Laser CentrePretoria 012 841-4188> CSIR Natural Resources and the EnvironmentPretoria 012 841-4005Stellenbosch 021 658-2766Durban 031 242-2300Pietermaritzburg 033 260-5446Nelspruit 013 759-8036> CSIR Implementation UnitPretoria 012 841 3332Stellenbosch 021 658 6582/2776Cape Town 021 658 2761Port Elizabeth 041 508 3220Durban 031 242 2441/2300/2393Cottesloe 011 482 1300Kloppersbos 012 841 2247

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T H E M AN

BEHINDTHE DIGITALLASERKnowledge is power and by involvingmore people in science, we can advanceour country and change the world.Dr Sandile Ngcobo

This CSIR scientist has been designing lasers for the past10 years. As part of the team that developed the worldsfirst digital laser, he helped make it possible, for the firsttime, to change the shape of a laser beam at the push ofa button. He was also part of the team that designed ahigh-powered laser in rectangular symmetry, with thehighest output power in the world.

Bright young scientists behindideas that work.www.csirideasthatwork.co.za

FOREWORD

The CSIRs mandate commits us to conduct research and foster technological innovation and industrial and scientific developmentto improve the quality of life of South Africas people. Over the years, our efforts have resulted and continue to result in manysuccessful innovations and interventions. These efforts are a response to national priorities and are based on innovative ideas thatcan be practically applied to better the lives of citizens Ideas that work.

Improving South Africathrough ideas that workIn the field of information andcommunication technology, our researchers havedeveloped a tool that will make possible theuse of currently unused spectrum in televisionbroadcasting frequencies to facilitate the cheaperdelivery of high-speed broadband connectivity inunderserved areas, especially in rural areas. This isa great example of using what we have to cater forwhat we need.

However, we have not always been boldenough in telling these stories. Recently,with encouragement from our stakeholders,we launched a media campaign to showSouth Africans what it is that we do, and todemonstrate that scientific and technologicalresearch can have a real and meaningful impact,that we truly are shaping our future throughscience. We wanted to show that our research isa response to national priorities and is based oninnovative ideas that can be practically applied tobetter the lives of citizens Ideas that work.

There are many other examples of ideas that work such as a 3D underwater imaging system to helpkeep South Africas ports, harbours and coastlinesafe, a technology that has the potential to beapplied internationally. Or the clever use of lasertechnology to double the lifespan of the rolls usedin steelmaking.

In this edition of ScienceScope we embrace thetheme of Ideas that work by showcasing a wealthof ideas that are truly working to empower,sustain, protect and grow South Africa.

Some other CSIR-inspired ideas will go a longway to improving the health and welfare ofour country and its people. These includechanging the way hospital wards aredesigned in order to help limit the spreadof TB, identifying crops that can besuccessfully grown and harvested onpreviously mined land, or coming upwith green home-grown solutions forbetter, more effective water sanitation.

This publication is by no means an exhaustivelist of all the solutions we have developed, butI trust that you will find yourself informed,enlightened, proud and amazed to read aboutthese exciting projects and the various waysthey are improving industry, contributing toprosperity and changing the lives of ordinarySouth Africans. They represent ideas that areshaping the future by making an impact today.Ideas that work.

Dr Sibusiso Sibisi,CSIR CEO

P LAYING W I T H D NA

FOR A LIVINGI have made it my mission to understandhow our DNA contributes to disease specifically diseases that concern Africa.DR JAnine Scholefield

Stem cell research gives us valuable information aboutsome of the continents most threatening diseases,bringing us closer to finding preventions and cures.Janine, a geneticist at the CSIR, is making a significantcontribution in this field. The genes in our DNAdont just determine the colour of your eyes or yourblood type. They also play a role in cell function andsusceptibility to disease, Janine explains. Her passionfor genetics led her to work with non-embryonic stemcell technology in her lab. As she puts it, Its sucha valuable technique and could be used beautifullyin combination with South Africas diversegenetic population to uncover clues aboutdisease susceptibility relevant to our country.

Bright young scientists behindideas that work.www.csirideasthatwork.co.za

IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

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CSIR collaborates with NHLS to improve pathology services...............................6New software to improve childhood literacy in SA............................................8Extracting the essence from tea...................................................................10African indigenous knowledge and science yield mosquito repellent..................12Worlds first digital laser unveiled.................................................................14Optical tweezing potential further increased with multi-beam development........15Overcoming buffering.................................................................................15Finding ways to share spectrum and build networksin underserved areas..................................................................................16 Sensors worth more than the paper theyre printed on....................................18 Power management device to help soldiers reduce the weight of equipment......20 Boosting concentration through better nutrition..............................................21

IDEAS THAT grow

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CHILDHOOD LITERACY

18SENSORS

22

A new Eucalyptus breed for better wood pulp................................................22Innovative use of laser technology gives SA manufacturing an edge..................24Laser-based innovation contributes to competitiveness in steelmaking...............26Titanium metal production and casting technologies for industry.......................28Cost-effective semi-solid metal casting technology suitablefor various industries..................................................................................30 30 years of prosthetic relief offered by the bollard.........................................32 International optics producer takes up CSIR laser technology............................32 Brewing industry uses innovation to predict the shelf-life of beer.......................33

IDEAS THAT sustain

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Studies pinpoint crops that can be grown on previously mined land...................34Projecting future climate change over Africa...................................................36Sea-faring glider equipped for more accurate fish stock surveys........................38Scientists identify indigenous vegetation to help rehabilitatemetal-polluted Olifants River.......................................................................40 Green, home-grown solutions for water sanitation..........................................42

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Laser-based innovation

The quest for renewable materials that are lightweight,strong and durable....................................................................................44 Heavy Vehicle Simulator: An idea adopted around the world............................46

IDEAS THAT PROTECT

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SA Navy apprehendS pirates

A technology intervention that helps the SA Navy apprehend pirates.................48Protecting shipping corridors with 3D imaging................................................50Making coastal engineering work................................................................52Shaking planes: Flutter excitation system to test aircraft integrity.....................54Fingerprint analysis software licensed to industry player..................................56An idea that protects against anti-personnel mines..........................................58National Recordal System: Safeguarding the future of indigenousknowledge through ICT..............................................................................60 Plant-based technology against rabies..........................................................62 Limiting the spread of tuberculosis by changing the wayhospital wards are designed........................................................................64

IDEAS THAT save

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One fire disaster too many: How the Advanced Fire Information Systembecame an idea that saves.........................................................................66 Portable landing light system finds use in peacekeepingand civilian contexts..................................................................................68 Mobile laser-based solution for the refurbishmentof large industrial components.....................................................................69 A system to monitor large-area surface deformation.......................................70 CSIR develops and designs technology to detect sedimentationin slurry pipelines .....................................................................................72 CoroCAM: Behind the lens of an idea that works............................................74 Innovative Umbiflow device used to determine fetus health set fortrial commencement..................................................................................76 CSIR biotech spin-off wins prestigious product award for microspheres...............77 SMS coastal early-warning system proving popular amongFalse Bay fishermen..................................................................................78

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WATER SANITATION SOLUTION

fingerprint analysis software

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Advanced Fire Information System

IDEAS THAT EMPOWERCSIR biologist Zandile Nxumalo holds aperipheral blood smear, normally used byspecialist haematologists, to evaluate thecellular pathology of blood.

The CSIR has joined forceswith the NHLS to developtechnological solutionsthat are set to boostSouth Africas capacity totrain expert pathologists,deliver support servicesand perform qualitycontrol in laboratoriesacross the country.

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A digital view of a blood smear under a microscope.

CSIR collaborates with NHLSto improve pathology servicesCore challenges of modern pathology service delivery in South Africa include a scarcity of diagnostic skills and the inability tomeet the high volume and complex disease burdens encountered in medical practice. The problem is most acute in remote areas,as the countrys pathology specialists are mostly located in major cities. The CSIR has joined forces with the National HealthLaboratory Service (NHLS) to develop digital pathology technology to help train experts remotely and to extend these servicesto all corners of South Africa.South Africa is currently experiencing a shortage ofexpert pathologists. The NHLS provides laboratory and related publichealth services to over 80% of the population through a nationalnetwork of laboratories. Every month its central laboratories receivethousands of blood samples from across the country. However, there isa shortage of trained diagnostic personnel to make correct diagnoseson often-complex cases and in such large volumes.Training staff in this domain typically requires that the trainers who are mostly based at central laboratories and their studentsare positioned around multi-header microscopes to simultaneouslyview blood samples. This means that it is almost impossible to receivetraining to become an expert without spending a considerable numberof hours at tertiary hospitals in central cities like Johannesburg andPretoria.The CSIR has joined forces with the NHLS to develop technologicalsolutions that are set to boost South Africas capacity to train expertpathologists, deliver support services and perform quality control inlaboratories across the country, says Philip Marais, a developmentand implementation scientist at the CSIR.

The database focuses on South Africas unique disease burden,for example by depicting the effect of HIV and tuberculosis on themicroscopic appearance of blood samples. With the support of thisCSIR-developed technology, the NHLS aims to become a repositoryfor haematology and morphology-related pathology information inAfrica.The initiative is set to increase the number of skilled staff to improvethe number and accuracy of diagnoses. This will reduce the need forreferrals and turnaround times for diagnoses and ultimately impact onthe health of the people of South Africa and Africa by providing ahigher standard of health care.The CSIR team concluded the deployment of this digital pathologyinfrastructure to the NHLSs internal network, which went live inNovember 2014. The work is part of ongoing collaboration with theNHLS, which also includes the development of point-of-carediagnostic devices.Enquiries: Antoinette OosthuizenPhilip Maraispmarais@csir.co.za

Marais and his colleague, Zandile Nxumalo, a research biologist,were part of a CSIR-NHLS task team, led by Prof Johnny Mahlangu,head of the School of Pathology at the NHLS and the University of theWitwatersrand, who constructed the first version of a national digitalpathology database containing 101 anonymous medical case studies.For each of these case studies, an expert pathologist from the NHLSrecorded the clinical features and full blood counts of the sample developing a total of 1 214 digital images of blood samples withdetailed annotations that identify specific abnormalities. Their workwas peer-reviewed to ensure accuracy.The assembly of these case studies into a database of digital imageswill facilitate the remote training of pathologists from basic tospecialist levels based on the case study data. By having access tothe digital database, students will not need to travel to centrallaboratories for training.We received positive feedback from both participants and facilitatorsafter piloting the system during an annual morphology trainingcourse, says Marais.

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CellLearn, digital pathology software technology developed by CSIR researchers.

IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

CSIR and StellenboschUniversity develop newsoftware to improvechildhood literacy in SAIn an effort to improve early childhood literacy in South Africa, the CSIR and Stellenbosch University have collaborated to developan eBook on a touch-screen tablet, which is able to read out text using a digital voice.

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In 2011, CSIR electronicengineer specialising inhuman language technologies,Dr Febe de Wet and StellenboschUniversity speech therapist andlecturer, Dr Daleen Klop, startedexploring ways to use technologyto improve early childhoodliteracy. Reading aloud to childrenis widely recognised as the singlemost important activity leading tolanguage development. Amongother benefits, reading alouddevelops the childrens ability tomake connections betweenletters and sounds.Unfortunately though, manySouth African pre-schoolersmiss out on the luxury of having

The research team isnow working on anisiXhosa version that willbe piloted in the EasternCape during the secondschool term of 2015.a parent or guardian read tothem regularly. A single parentwho works long hours may nothave the time or energy. It is alsopossible that neither mom nordad, nor granny nor aunty,knows how to read themselves.

To address this challenge, Klopand the CSIRs human languagetechnologies research teamare working on text-to-speech(TTS) software for South Africanlanguages. Klops focus lies inemerging literacy, which appliesto children who have just started,or will soon start school.The idea they came up with,dubbed the EarlyLit project, usesa digital voice to read stories outloud from colourful, interactiveand locally-produced eBooks ontablets.Testing the concept, the researchteam produced an originalAfrikaans tale about Thandi andher dog Jasper, with original

artwork and Afrikaans TTSaudio.The platform first introduceschildren to paging throughan eBook on a touch-screentablet by means of static picturesof Thandi and Jasper, andaccompanying text read outby the digital voice. The kidscaught on to using the tabletvery quickly, says De Wet.As part of the development,the children get to touch themain characters on the screenfor an audio description of theiractivities, like Jasper rollingaround on the grass or Thandisearching for a flower. Morecomplex word-association

For a demonstration of the TTS softwaredeveloped by the CSIR, visit www.qfrency.com.

A screen on the locally produced eBook. An isiXhosa version will be piloted this year.

exercises follow after that, allcombining audio, text andimages.A pilot study with this prototypehas been conducted to findout if the platform makes anydifference to the development ofreading and word-recognitionskills. Forty-two children from acommunity in the Western Capewhere many parents work in thesurrounding vineyards took partin the study.De Wet says the pilot studyspreliminary results have beenencouraging. Although none ofthe children had any previousexperience with computers oreven cell phones, all of themquickly grasped the digitalfunctions of the tablet andthe interactive interventionprogramme. Comparisonsbetween the pre-intervention

and post-interventionassessments showed that allthe children learned new wordsas a result of the intervention.Furthermore, follow-uptests conducted eight weekslater, showed that they hadretained the new vocabulary.Poor vocabulary is one ofthe main reasons for readingcomprehension problems inyoung children. The study provedthat this short-term interventionwas successful in fosteringvocabulary learning.However, she says digital voicesoftware does have somelimitations, such as inappropriateintonations, an inability topersonify characters, or occasionalmispronunciations. But sheasserts that the software wouldbe much cheaper to producethan pre-recorded humannarration.

Laurette Marais, appointed at the CSIR on a PhD studentship, combined the content providedby speech therapist Dr Daleen Klop of the Stellenbosch University and an Afrikaanstext-to-speech system into an eBook.It would also be much fasterto produce in comparisonwith the time it takes to createproper studio recordings. TheEarlyLit platform is completelylocal, which means accents areSouth African and content isculturally-relevant. No internetaccess would be needed to useit, and it is meant to enhanceand complement printed literacyexercises that children can takehome.The research team is nowworking on an isiXhosa versionthat will be piloted in the EasternCape during the second schoolterm of 2015.The team also plans to extendthe current software to include

features like word-levelhighlighting and an option forchildren to create their ownstories from pictures, which couldbe read back to them using TTS.Our long-term goal is tosupport the Department of BasicEducations vision of improvingliteracy drastically from grade oneto three, says De Wet. She hopesto bring publishers of educationalmaterial on board as well, inorder to create a strong team ofillustrators and story-writers totake the concept forward.

Enquiries:Febe de Wetfdwet@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

A novel pilot plant inLimpopo has beencommissioned in aninitiative to produce greenand black tea extractpowder from the teaplant, Camellia sinensis,which grows on the1077-hectare TshivhaseTea Estate near Sibasa.The estate is situatedin the foothills of theSoutpansberg Mountainsin Limpopo, where rowsof waist-high plantsfollow the naturalcontours of the estate.

Extracting theessence from teaThe investigation into the production of botanical extracts is the outcome of thefruitful partnership between the Tshivhase Tea Estate, the Limpopo Department ofAgriculture, the Department of Science and Technology and the CSIR.

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The University of Venda is another important stakeholder. Professor EdwardNesamvuni has been a champion of the Tshivhase Tea Estate for a number of years,and has been instrumental in making the tea extract project possible. The universityis expected to play a major role in research projects associated with the pilot extractfacility in future.Herbs Aplenty (Pty) Ltd and Vinco Steel (Pty) Ltd were the main technical partnersresponsible for the design, manufacturing and commissioning of the pilot plant.

Machine operator Tondani Mudauamong tea bushes at the Tshivhase Tea Estate.

Tshivhase Botanical Extracts

Pilot plant in a container

The CSIR stepped up to partneron this project after the LimpopoDepartment of Agriculturecommissioned a study to identify,investigate and pilot valueadded products based on the teacrop. Bernadette Brown leadsthe CSIR team which combinesexperience and skills in enterprisecreation with expert knowledgein botany and chemistry. Sheexplains how this came about:Tea extract is a high-valueproduct used in cosmetics,beverages, pharmaceuticalsand nutraceuticals. It thereforeoffers an additional value-addedproduct to the black tea producedon the estate.

Work on the pilot productionfacility started in 2012 and wascompleted in 2014. The facilityincorporates a mix of local andinternational technologies. Afeasibility study will be completedusing data and informationgenerated through the pilotproduction of extracts.

The CSIRs study required theplanning and execution of a rangeof activities, including the pilotscale production of tea extracts, todetermine the viability of a futureenterprise. A pre-feasibility studyresulted in funding from Venteco(Pty) Ltd and the Department ofScience and Technology for twosubsequent phases.

The pilot tea extract facilityincludes four main processingsteps including tea brewing,filtration and concentration(through ultrafiltration andreverse osmosis technologies),and drying. It required studiesto generate the requiredspecifications and designs.

Tea extract in a powder trough.

Research revealed critical factorsinfluencing design and the pilotfacility was designed to fit withintwo modified containers.In June 2014, the containerisedpilot was delivered, installedand commissioned at TshivhaseTea Estates. Run by trainedoperators, the routine productionof tea extracts commenced inSeptember 2014, together withan experimental programmedesigned to generate technicaldata and marketable products.Brown confirms: Market interestand price are dependent on extractsamples, and certificatesof analysis.She is proud of what the biggerteam has achieved, The technicaland commercial know-howgenerated is valuable intellectualproperty that will provide a fullscale enterprise with a competitiveedge in the market for tea extracts.Should a large-scale businessbe deemed viable, an enterprisecreation phase is envisaged insome three to five years.

The process of producing tea extractThe first part of the process is the extraction of tea. The tea leaves areput into large tea bags and brewed with hot water in a brew tank.In order to preserve the polyphenols, the temperature is carefullycontrolled using steam to heat the water.Polyphenols are the magic ingredient, plant operator JamesBokosi says. The higher the polyphenols, the better the price thatthe extract is expected to command on the market.The extract is then pumped into a filtration tank to remove microbesand residual plant matter (so-called insolubles).Plant operator James Bokosi.

The filtrate is put through a process of concentration by which excesswater is removed. The result is a highly concentrated tea extract.The final stage of the process involves a drip-feed of concentrate intoa spray-drier where dry air is distributed. The resultant product the extract is gathered in a powder trough and carefully stored.

Tea bags in the brewing tank.

Producing the powder is, however, half the effort. Productionprotocols are meticulously followed and the pilot plant is maintainedin pristine condition by adhering to a strict, prescribed regimen.The oversized tea bags are emptied of the brewed tea shoots now a heap of wet, limp leaves exuding a scent of cooked spinach and washed in water.

Toppies Topham, Manager: Tshivhase TeaEstate with a shoot plucked from a tea bush.

Did you know? Black tea is the term used todescribe the familiar tea productsold commercially, which isprocessed using well-documentedprocesses and yields a full-bodiedamber brew. Green tea is a teamade from the same plant, butwithout an oxidation process. Tea harvesting is known asplucking; this twisting andpinching is done with both hands.Only fresh young shoots twoand a bud are plucked fromthe mature tea bushes. Afterharvesting, the shoots are takenfor processing. Popular commodities such as fruitand vegetables, green tea, blacktea, red wine, coffee, chocolate,olives and extra virgin olive oilcontain complex mixtures ofpolyphenols. Polyphenol is a termfor the thousands of plant-basedmolecules that have antioxidantproperties.

Enquiries:Bernadette Brownbbrown@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

African indigenousknowledge and scienceyield mosquito repellentFever-Tree has introduced a range of fragrancedcandles. www.fever-tree.co.za

A licensing agreementwith Zollhaus International(Pty) Ltd has paved the way formarketing of mosquito repellentproducts, thereby realising thecommercial benefit of the essentialoil of Lippia javanica.

Mosquito controlAs the most widespread anddevastating of tropical diseases,malaria kills one African childevery 30 seconds. Sufferers fromchronic forms of malaria havediminished quality of life. Togetherwith HIV and tuberculosis, malariais a major public health challengeundermining development in thepoorest countries of the world.In South Africa, malaria ispresent in the three northernprovinces bordering Mozambiqueand Swaziland, with seasonaltransmission during Octoberto April. Because of theirnocturnal feeding habits, malariatransmission by the Anophelesmosquito occurs primarilybetween dusk and dawn.Local populations havetraditionally utilised Lippiajavanica as a mosquito repellent.Cut branches are wiped on theskin and at the entrances todwellings or burnt on an openfire at night.

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CSIR researchers worked withtraditional healers to identify thechemo type of the plant specieswith superior mosquito repellencyproperties. Dr Vinesh Maharaj,a former CSIR natural product

Studies by CSIR researchers and traditional healers on indigenous plants with mosquito repellent properties in themid-1990s led to the discovery of a novel mosquito repellent. The essential oil of the indigenous plant, Lippiajavanica, has more effective repellent properties than similar or comparable commercial products on the market.

chemist, confirmed the outcomeof this collaboration, A benefitsharing agreement betweenthe CSIR and the owners of thetraditional knowledge resultedin the first benefit payment totraditional healers duringJuly 2012.

Coming up tops in efficacyThe efficacy (or effectiveness atproducing a result) of the essentialoil was evaluated at the SouthAfrican Bureau of Standards(SABS) using olfactometer tests.An olfactometer is a device usedto study insect behaviour in thepresence of an olfactory stimulus.Using a standard protocol with theyellow fever mosquito (yellow feveris an acute viral haemorrhagicdisease), it was demonstratedthat the CSIR-developed productsare significantly more efficient atrepelling and expelling mosquitoeswhen compared with the currentproducts on the market.Both repellency and expellency areimportant qualities. Repellency isthe ability to prevent mosquitoesfrom entering an area; expellencyis the ability to drive or forcemosquitoes from an area.

Producing mosquitorepellent candlesThe essential step to realisingthe economic benefit of thisdiscovery was the establishmentof a community-based productionprocess in Limpopo with fundingfrom the Department of Science

and Technology. This followed thesuccess of the trial plantation of theindigenous plant and the efficacytesting.The production process starts withcultivation of the plant specieson a 20 hectare cultivation sitewhere the mosquito repellent cropis grown. The crop is harvestedand distilled in an essential oildistillation factory on the site.Workers at the factory of 650 m2in Giyani (Limpopo) have acquiredthe production technology andskills required to manufacture themosquito repellent candles on-site.The factory contains equipment toformulate the active ingredients ofthe candles, and manufactures andpackages up to 400 000 candlesper year.The project provides employmentfor more than 20 people in ruralcommunities.

To marketAs its first step, the CSIR filed aSouth African patent on the use ofextracts and chemical substancesderived from the plant as mosquitorepellents.The CSIR negotiated commercialterms for a licence agreement withZollhaus to formulate the patentedextract into mosquito repellent /expellent products for distributionand sale to local and exportmarkets. All royalties negotiatedunder the licence will be paid infull to the owners of traditionalknowledge. Through this licence,the CSIR secured demand for

the oil produced by the localcommunity and in the processhelped generate economic activityfor the local community. Basedon its market findings, Zollhausdeveloped a range of fragrancedcandles that effectively repelmosquitoes. Additional SABStests indicate that the improvedproduct has fly-repellentproperties.Zollhaus has taken someadditional steps to firm upmarketing prospects. Theregistration of the mosquitorepellent candle in terms ofAct 36 of 1947 allows the salesof candles to the public. Zollhausalso successfully negotiated saleswith South African chains storesand the product is currentlyavailable under the brand nameFever-Tree in more than 200South African stores.What lies at the heart of thesuccess of South Africashome-grown mosquito repellentis a winning technology recipein which several players at theCSIR fulfilled key roles: naturalproduct chemists working withowners of traditional knowledge;enterprise creation experts givingguidance; and technology transferexperts who recognise the marketpotential of this product. Biffy van Rooyen

Enquiries:Errol Moengemoeng@csir.co.za

Isaac Mohlamme, Business Development Manager at ZollhausInternational (Pty) Ltd spends time in-store at a major retailer.

Facts about malariaMalaria transmission is caused by the bite of a female Anophelesmosquito carrying the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.Worldwide, mosquitoes transmit disease to more than 700 millionpeople. Annually, it leads to more than 300 million acute illnesses andclaims the lives of at least one million people.Ninety percent of deaths due to malaria occur in Africa, with the majorityof its victims children under the age of five.

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IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

The team behind the digital laser. From left are Dr Sandile Ngcobo, Liesl Burger, Prof Andrew Forbes and Dr Igor Litvin.

Worlds first digitallaser unveiledResearchers at the CSIR designed and developed a digital laser which offersa method of controlling and altering a laser beams shape from within the unit.Traditionally, beams have to be altered as they leave the laser or via a costly refit tochange the positioning of mirrors.By replacing one of the mirrors with a liquid crystal display, researchers were able toalter the beam at will. The innovation is regarded as a milestone in laser technologyand could spur future laser-related developments.The laser will allow the scientists to digitally control laser beams and shape new waysof developing technology that will improve various aspects of everyday life such asfaster broadband and medical advancements.There are numerous potential uses for this technology from medicine tocommunications. This is a significant advancement from the traditional approach tolaser beam control, which requires costly optics and realignment of the laser devicefor every beam change.

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Since this is all done with pictures, the digital laser represents a paradigm shift forlaser resonators. The dynamic control of laser modes could open up many futureapplications. The device represents a new way of thinking about laser technology, andCSIR researchers see it as a new platform on which future technologies may be built.Enquiries:Dr Sandile Ngcobosngcobo@csir.co.za

Dr Sandile Ngcobos work on laser physics formed part of his PhD studies.The digital laser uses liquid crystal display technology to change the shape ofa laser beam dynamically and instantly, a feat scientists have been workingtowards for a long time.

OvercomingbufferingA technology that allows for video streamingin bandwidth-constrained environmentsThe usual difficulty with streaming andviewing content on any device or computer isbuffering, a particular type of disruption to thedata stream. Buffering usually happens when theconnection to the internet is slow or when thenetwork is congested, meaning there is insufficientbandwidth at a given time to meet the demand.A sample of mammalian cells being prepared for multi-beam optical tweezing, sorting and analysis.

Optical tweezing potentialfurther increased withmulti-beam developmentThe CSIR has made further advances in optical tweezing thelaser-based process of trapping microscopic particles and manipulating these forexperiments in areas such as biomedicine and biotechnology. Researchers can now,for the first time, trap multiple particles by time-sharing the laser tweezing beam.Researchers have in the past tweezed single mammalian cells and colloidal particlessuch as polymer and silica micro-beads. Now they intend to use the ability totweeze multiple particles with a laser beam to develop point-of-care HIV diagnostictools.To further hone skills in this area, CSIR researcher Fakazi Nhachissambe visitedthe University of Saarbrcken, Germany for a six-week training period under thetutelage of biophotonics expert Prof Karsten Knig in 2014. Nhachissambe is aMasters student working with CSIR principal researcher Dr Patience Mthunzi inbiophotonics research. Using automated multiple laser beams alongside differentadvanced microscopy techniques for tweezing purposes, Nhachissambe focuses oninvestigating potential medical and diagnostic applications of these technologies.

The CSIR and its partners have put an end to thishindrance with the development of AdaptiveReal-Time Streaming Technology (ARTIST). Thistechnology allows viewers to watch live content ontheir mobile devices and computers from anywherein the world without interruption to their videostream, even at very low connection speeds.ARTIST has extended the concept of adaptivestreaming to adapt faster and at very low rates, thuswidening the access not only to urban areas, butalso to rural areas. The technology is perfectly suitedto the South African environment as it works in 3Gand low-bandwidth environments like EDGE or GSMnetworks. Users are also able to use existing devices(Android smart phones and tablets) and existingmobile networks. It is rate-adaptive, meaning thatthe rate at which the video is streamed adaptsaccording to the bandwidth available. Typically, itslow bit rates range from 24 to 128kbps. The mediumrates range from 64kbps to 200kbps. Ntombi Dyosop

CSIR researchers intend using this tool in optical cell sorting for fractionation andseparation of HIV positive from HIV negative cells. Ultimately it could result inoptical microchips with applications in point-of-care HIV diagnostics.

About optical tweezingThe principle of optical tweezing is analogous to conventional tweezers, excepthere the trapping and control of the particle is purely with light and not with anymechanical device. Since these light-matter interactions occur at such a small (size)scale, optical tweezers hold massive potential for novel scientific developments andapplications in the biomedical and the biotechnological research arenas.Enquiries:Dr Patience Mthunzipmthunzi@csir.co.za

| 15|Enquiries:Nicki Koorbanallynkoorbanally@csir.co.za

IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

Finding ways to sharespectrum and build networksin underserved areasThe CSIR has developed a tool to change the way spectrum frequency is managed and regulated. The tool will allowthe use of unused spectrum in the television broadcasting frequencies, thereby helping to facilitate cheaperdelivery of high-speed broadband connectivity in underserved areas.With frequency spectrumin high demand, regulatorsglobally are looking for waysto better manage this scarceresource. In Africa, the issue isnot only about efficient spectrumusage, but also about buildingwireless broadband networksin underserved areas. TheCSIR is leading efforts in theseendeavours.The electromagnetic spectrumis the range of all possiblefrequencies. It is the medium thatallows for the provision of voice,data and television services overthe wireless interface. It is a finiteand often expensive resource.

The paradox of scarcityWhile there seems to be awidespread shortage of usablespectrum, much of the neededspectrum is lying dormant or iscurrently under-used. Spectrumregulators, wireless serviceproviders and governments arenow working on finding ways tofree up spectrum for the muchneeded wireless broadbandinternet services.

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The problem which isacknowledged by spectrumregulators globally lies with howspectrum has been managed.Spectrum management uses whatis referred to as a static licensingregime, meaning that spectrumis licensed at a fixed price to aprimary user. Often, the users for one reason or the other

cannot use the entire spectrumallocated to them, which hasled to large tracks of licensedspectrum being under-utilised.A new approach of managingspectrum is being mooted.This approach is called dynamicspectrum access. It proposesnew techniques and tools ofallocating and efficiently usingradio spectrum resources.

Sharing spectrumSpectrum sharing is an approachto dynamic spectrum access inwhich the available spectrumresource is used to accommodateeither multiple user groupsor to accommodate differenttypes of uses. There are severaltechniques encompassed inspectrum sharing. These can beadministrative; technical andmarket-based. Furthermore,spectrum can be shared in severaldimensions, namely time, spaceand geography.Spectrum sharing alreadyexists in different forms; WiFiis one such example. Thoughspectrum sharing already exists,significant technical research anddevelopment is needed to freeup more spectrum. Furthermore,progress needs to be made onassociated regulatory issues.A broader range of spectrumsharing and dynamic licensingtechnologies and solutionsis being discussed by the

International TelecommunicationUnion, the European Unionand the European Conference ofPostal and TelecommunicationsAdministrations forums. Thiswill ultimately result in buildingaffordable wireless broadbandnetworks that can providebroadband internet servicesto consumers, businesses andgovernment.

Managed sharing of spectrumThe biggest problem to overcomewith spectrum sharing has beenthe issue of interference andsignal collision. Until recently,it was not possible to checkwhether allocated broadcastfrequencies are in use or not.Even if it were possible toidentify broadcast frequenciesnot in use, no technology existedto allow for the unused broadcastfrequencies to be repurposed forother forms of communication.There are different methodsand tools for managed sharingof spectrum. One of the mostreliable techniques is the useof a geo-location spectrumdatabase.Geo-location spectrumdatabases allow efficient useand management of spectrumby assigning specific channelsat specific locations to secondaryusers in such a way that theprimary user of the banddoes not experience harmfulinterference.

Sharing CSIR expertiseThe CSIR is one of the continentsleaders on the use of suchdatabases to manage frequency.Researchers at the CSIR, ledby Dr Fisseha Mekuria, havedeveloped a novel tool for geolocation based dynamic spectrumallocation, covering all regions ofSouth Africa.Through a series of trials, the CSIRgeo-location spectrum databasehas proven that it can identifyfrequency channels unused byTV broadcasters, at a particularlocation, and provide secondarybroadband networks andinternet service providers withregulatory information on signalstrength and network coveragefor a secondary user, so as not tointerfere with primary users inthe area. In this way secondaryusers can safely utilise unusedspectrum for providing wirelessbroadband internet services.The CSIR has received requestsfrom other countries on thecontinent, the most recent beingGhana, to aid them in designingsuch spectrum managementtools. As in South Africa, otherAfrican countries are looking toaccelerate wireless broadbandconnectivity to their underservedcommunities.Enquiries:Fisseha Mekuriafmekuria@csir.co.za

CSIR researcher Litsietsi Montsi demonstrates useful aspects of the geo-location based dynamicspectrum allocation tool, developed by the CSIR. The Centre for High Performance Computingis hosting the database. Recent developments include a cloud-based spectrum service provisionplatform for flexible and scalable operation of the developed technology.

With the help of theCSIR, Ghana TechnologyUniversity College isplanning its own managedspectrum sharing trial.Using television whitespace networks asa test-bed, the trialis investigating thepossibility of providingwireless broadbandinternet services throughspectrum sharing.

| 17|This image shows an aggregate of white space spectrum availability for municipalitiesin South Africa. Recent developments include improved accuracy modelling of radiofrequency propagation, in line with EU standards.

IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

Loading sample fluid into the inlet channelof a paper-based microfluidic device.

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The well-known pH test strips used in many chemical laboratories.

Viewing the test result on the reverse side of the paper-based diagnostic device,is CSIR researcher Klariska Moodley.

Sensors worth more thanthe paper theyre printed onIf the famous litmus test for acidity could be regarded as the Nokia 3310 of paper-based sensors, then the advanced future paper-basedsensors the CSIR is working on, will seem like smartphones in comparison. These sensors include fully functioning electronic circuits printedon a piece of paper, and a blood glucose level test that involves simply placing a drop of blood on a small square of treated paper.Future paper-based sensors will be cheap to manufacture, ideal for resource-scarce populations and will be able to help with some of theworlds biggest environmental and health challenges. What makes paper-based sensors so attractive, is their simplicity. One application,a classroom chemistry demonstration kit, simply involves a piece of paper patterned with wax and a red cabbage being put in a blender.Red litmus paper turns bluein an alkaline solution, and bluelitmus paper turns red in an acid.It is a simple colour change on apiece of paper, but it reveals thepH of a solution.The litmus test is often used asan introduction to chemistryin todays classrooms, but thetechnology has been aroundsince the 1300s. In modernterms, one might even call it thefirst paper-based sensor everto be invented. It was, and is,created by absorbing a mixtureof lichen dyes onto filter paper.If we compare paper-basedsensors to cell phones, the litmustest is like those early, brickshaped objects that could donothing besides connect a call,says Kevin Land, a microfluidicsresearcher at the CSIR. Futurepaper-based sensors will be theequivalent of smart phones.Picture, for example, anelectronic circuit printed onto apiece of paper instead of ontoa circuit board. Or a glucosetest where a droplet of bloodon a square of paper would beall thats needed to measure apersons blood sugar levels.Or imagine an educationalchemistry kit, where complexreactions can be demonstratedsimply, using just a red cabbage,a folded paper cut-out andsome every-day, easy-to-obtainliquids.

In what he calls a two-weeksprint, Land and his colleaguesdropped all their other projectsto see how easy it would be toturn a piece of paper first into thateducational tool, and later intoadvanced electronic and biologicalsensors that could be appliedin areas like environmentalmonitoring or point-of-caremedical diagnostics.Such sensors would be cheaper tomanufacture than current options,easier to transport, and theywould be ideal for use in resourcepoor settings.They are also extremely scalabletechnologies. For example, inthe case of an electronic circuit,a highly specialised printer canbe used to apply fine metal tracksonto paper, or one can manuallypaint liquid metal onto a sheetusing a small brush.Even wafer-thin layers oftransistors, diodes and batteriescould be printed using advancedequipment, but it is just as easyto incorporate a regular, watchsized battery and other 3Delectronic components into ahand-painted circuit.For the cabbage chemistry kit,wax is printed onto one sideof a sheet of specialised paper(chromatography paper), leavinggaps where the liquids are to beapplied, and channels wherethey are meant to flow withinthe paper.

Next the sheet is placed onto ahot plate to melt the wax. Thisensures that the wax absorbsinto the paper right through tothe other side, thus creatingperfectly contained applicationspots and flow channels forliquids (wax is hydrophobic,meaning that it repels waterbased solutions).Land and his team used astraightforward protocol for usingthis kit in the classroom thatinvolves popping a red cabbageinto a blender to extract itspurple juice, and then applyingthis juice to the wax-channelledpaper, which has had commonreagents like lemon juice andvinegar dried into it beforehand.This experiment producesthe most brilliant and distinctcolours, says Land emphatically,adding that it demonstrateschemical reactions at differentpH levels.The way forward will involverefining and then rolling out thisclassroom aid, and, dependingon funding, investigatingfurther options for advancedpaper-based sensors that can bemanufactured on a large scaleand applied in the real world.The idea is that you couldprint almost any functionalcomponent straight onto anormal piece of paper, saysLand. From the wax for thefluid barriers, to biomaterials

Utilising standard electronic components to showtiming circuits on paper.like antibodies, to the chemistriesrequired for detection, and even theelectronics needed to display theresult.He adds that such paper-basedsensors would comply perfectly withthe World Health OrganisationsASSURED principle, which states thatdiagnostic tests should be Affordable,Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly,Rapid and Robust, Equipment-freeand Deliverable to end-users.So, just like the litmus test, Landsenvisioned paper technologies willnot only be an easy way to teachstudents, but could help solvesome of our biggest health andenvironmental challenges.Enquiries:Kevin Landkland@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT EMPOWER

The CSIR-developed power management device weighs less than 500 g and is just bigger than an average male soldiers hand. It has passed the MIL-STD-810F environmental tests, proving its durability forlong-term field deployment.

CSIR develops a power management deviceto help soldiers reduce the weight of equipmentThe CSIR has developeda power management devicethat helps soldiers to reduce theweight of equipment they carryduring field deployments.The new device has passed theMIL-STD-810F environmentaltests, proving its durability forlong-term field deployment.The new device reduces theweight a soldier has to carryby reducing the need for manydifferent chargers. With lessweight to carry, soldiers areable to move faster and travellonger distances on foot, whichcontributes to a more agiledefence force.

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Each piece of electronicequipment that forms partof a soldiers dismounted kithas a custom battery packand a charger, which leads tounnecessary duplication andadded weight. The CSIR powermanagement device can becharged from a number ofsources, such as vehicle batteries

equipment. This also simplifiesthe logistical supply chain andreduces costs as only one typeof battery is required for all theequipment.

or by harvesting energy from thesun through a light, portable solarpanel.Intelligent cable identificationtechnology ensures automaticsource and load detection, toavoid a wrong connection whichmay lead to damaged batteries oroverheating. This is particularlyuseful when the system is operatedin complete darkness.Any equipment used by asoldier on foot needs to be small,lightweight, efficient and robust.The CSIR device fully complies withthese requirements. The userinterface is uncomplicated withan alphanumeric LCD display andfive navigation buttons. It has twoports, clearly marked in and out,instructing first-time users whereto connect the energy source andwhere to connect equipment orbatteries that are low on power.The display informs soldiers ofpower usage and remaining batterytime, assisting them with optimalenergy use management.

Fast fact Batteries

contribute about 30% to theoverall weight of a soldiersbackpack, which also includeswater, ammunition, weapons,navigation equipment, radios,food supplements and otherequipment. These packs canweigh in excess of 80 kg.

The device utilises a rechargeableradio battery as the main energystorage item. Soldiers generallycarry a radio with a battery packand this battery pack is utilisedoptimally to power all their other

The system was extensively testedin the CSIRs environmentaltesting laboratory. Testinginvolved exposing the deviceto temperature cycles varyingbetween -21 degrees Celsius and63 degrees Celsius. Its durabilitywas put to strenuous altitudetesting, as well as shock, vibrationand water resistance testing.Navigation systems and satellitephones, amongst others, arecritical to mission success. Byincluding the CSIR-developeddevice in a soldiers kit, theyare able to charge batteries thatpower their equipment, despitehaving limited access to resourceswhile on a mission.Enquiries:Achmed Giesleragiesler@csir.co.za

Boosting concentrationthrough better nutritionProper nutritionimproves health andprovides people with thenecessary nutrients to be morefocused and productive, not onlyin the workplace, but also duringthe early school years. The CSIRhas developed a vegetablebased nutritional drink, whichis provided to learners inthe Eastern Cape as part ofa comprehensive educationintervention programme toboost learning and improve thenutritional status of the learnersin the province.The Eastern Capes Intsika Yethumunicipality is one of the poorestin South Africa. Many childrenlive in such poverty that theironly meal of the day is the oneprovided by the Departmentof Basic Educations nationalschools nutrition programme.Researchers believe this lack ofsufficient nutrients contributes topoor educational outcomes.

The nutrition challengeA baseline study conducted byVaal University Technology (VUT)showed poor iron status amongstchildren in five schools in theCofimvaba district. In addition,chronic and acute malnutritionwere mainly observed inthe girls. The prevalence ofunderweight was 8,3%, acutemalnutrition (wasting) 2.8%and stunting 5.6%. Only 2.3% ofthe boys suffered from chronicmalnutrition (stunting) and noacute malnutrition was observed.Some 4.7% of the boys wereoverweight, which confirmsthe double nutrition challengeof over- and under-nutritionfaced by the country, especiallyin children. We developed anutritional breakfast drink thatprovides micronutrients, inparticular Vitamin A, iron andzinc, which have been shown tobe lacking amongst South Africanchildren, says Tshidi Moroka,

manager of the CSIRs naturalproducts and agro-processingresearch area.Vitamin A helps to improvevision, while sufficient iron canimprove performance in school,and zinc improves the immunesystem as well as brain function.

Producing the drinkThe CSIR transferred theproduction technology to theUniversity of Fort Hare Agri-Park,which manufactures the drinkand supplies it to the schoolsin three different flavours;chocolate, strawberry and vanilla.The nutritional drink containsvegetables such as sweet potato,carrot, beetroot and morogo,a highly nutritious indigenousvegetable similar to spinach.Other ingredients includesorghum, soya powder and milkand it is produced in a powderedpremix format, which has to bemixed with clean water.

In order to measure theimpact of the drink, VUT willconduct a study to look atbiochemical measurements andanthropometrics at the end of2015. The results will show howthe intake of the drink affectsthe levels of the three micronutrients. So far the feedbackfrom the school principals is thatthe breakfast drink has improvedschool attendance. Nutrition isimportant for learning outcomes,as hungry children find it hardto concentrate in class, saysMoroka. The project is fundedby the Department of Scienceand Technology and formspart of a broader educationalintervention also supportedby the Department of BasicEducation. Antoinette Oosthuizen

Enquiries:Tshidi Morokammoroka@csir.co.za

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The nutritional drink is produced in a powdered premix format, which has to be mixed with water.

IDEAS THAT GROW

| 22|

A eucalyptus flower is covered with apollination bag after controlled pollination.

Eucalyptus flower.

The hybrid Eucalyptus planted during trials (above) and field trials (right).

A new Eucalyptus breedfor better wood pulpIn South Africa the demand for wood for various products significantly outstrips supply.Studies have shown that the current shortfall in the supply of wood is expected to continue overthe next 30 years. To address this need, researchers developed two novel Eucalyptus hybrids withimproved pulping properties.Improvements in volume,basic wood density and pulp yieldhave the biggest impact on theprofitability of pulp production.As part of Project Pulp, the CSIR, inpartnership with the Departmentof Science and Technology andNCT Forestry, has developed acommercial and a pre-commercialhybrid Eucalyptus clone.The main purpose of the cloneswas to provide the pulpingindustry with a better qualityof wood, says Karen Eatwell, aresearcher at the CSIR specialisingin tree improvement.

A pre-commercial clone is onethat has performed well underexperimental conditions and thatshould be tested over a periodof two to three years at separatesites to establish its potential forcommercialisation. A commercialclone is one that has performedwell during the commercial testingand is therefore recommended foruse by NCT Forestry.Eatwell says one of the CSIRclones passed its pre-commercialand commercial testing and thehybrid clones have, for the lasttwo years, successfully been

marketed through establishedand licensed forestry nurseriesto forestry growers throughoutSouth Africa.Plant Breeders Rights whichprohibits anyone else fromreproducing the clone wereawarded to Eucalyptus cloneCSIRGxN2107 which displayedsuperior performance in variousfield trials. This was the firstPlant Breeders Rights forEucalyptus to be issued inSouth Africa, says Eatwell. Reyhana Mahomed

Enquiries:Karen Eatwellkeatwell@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT GROW

Innovative use of laser technologygives SA manufacturing an edge

| 24|

Laser 3D cutting of automotive components.

The CSIR, through its laser engineering services, helps to save the South African industry millionsof Rands by increasing productivity and reducing direct and indirect maintenance costs by eliminating theneed for expensive imported replacement components and excessive downtime.Laser cladding technologyenables us to save the South Africanmanufacturing industry millions ofRands on a yearly basis, says the CSIRsHansie Pretorius. For instance, lasercladding offers a cost-effective alternativeto repair rather than replace high valuecomponents such as turbine rotors in thepower generation industry.We use laser cladding to repair journalareas part of the shaft that makescontact with the bearing on these highvalue components. Previously they wereeither scrapped or exported to Europe forrepair at enormous cost, not to mentionthe downtime incurred. We can use lasercladding for refurbishment of turbineblades and compressor blades; and therepair of aircraft gear boxes, cylinderheads, shafts and tooling, he says.

Similarly, the CSIR provides a service tothe automotive industry and suppliers tothe automotive industry through whichthe global competitiveness of this sector isenhanced by means of access to state-ofthe-art laser technology. Local suppliersof car body parts benefit from the CSIRs3D cutting technology which enablescost-effective production of sample partsfor quotation purposes and setting up ofassembly lines.To date, the CSIRs laser-enabledmanufacturing group has done lasercutting, hardening, engraving and weldingwork for companies such as MercedesBenz, VW/Audi, Ford, Nissan, Toyotaand Maserati. Work was also done forDenel on the Rooivalk Attack Helicopter;Tupperware, and for various toolingmanufacturers.

One of our biggest clients in laserhardening is Bell Equipment, saysPretorius. For Bell, we do selectivehardening on specific areas on stubaxles. Pretorius is proud to say that thegroups work can also be seen in thenew VW Polo line, where they did laserhardening on the styling lines of a bonnetpress tool in order to increase the servicelife of the tool.The successes of the group bear testamentto the CSIRs continued commitmentto enable and support the globalcompetitiveness of local industry throughresearch, development and innovation.

Enquiries:Hansie Pretoriushpretorius@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT GROW

Laser-based innovation contributesto competitiveness in steelmakingThe CSIR, in collaboration with ArcellorMittal, has developed a laser-based process todrastically increase the service life of foot rolls used in steelmaking.

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Production cost playsa major role in determiningthe cost of any product orcommodity. Both the direct andindirect costs associated withthe maintenance of productionequipment impact on the cost of

production. Continuous castingmachines play a pivotal role insteel production. It is in thesemachines that the molten metalis cast, resulting in solid slabsfrom which the myriad of steelproducts will be manufactured

down the line. For the industry toremain competitive, productionlosses because of a malfunctionor even scheduled maintenanceof continuous casting machinesshould be kept to an absoluteminimum.

CSIR metallurgist Corney van Rooyen monitors the concast roll cladding process (left). The service life of foot rolls such as those shown above can beincreased by up to 300 percent with the use of laser technology.The most vulnerable componentsin a continuous casting machineare the foot rolls. These rollsare positioned just under themould in the continuous castingmachine and are used to containthe solidifying slab. These rollsoperate under extreme serviceconditions which include hightemperature corrosion andoxidation, abrasive wear andcyclic thermal loads caused by therolling contact with the solidifyingslab and the cooling water thatis sprayed onto the opposite sideof the roll. The combination ofthese conditions is known to posea serious threat to the surfacecondition of metals in generaland foot rolls are no exception.The surface degradation ofthese foot rolls determine thescheduled maintenance intervalsfor continuous casting machines.Any intervention which couldresult in a substantial increasein the surface life of foot rolls willbe beneficial to the cost of steelproduction.The service life of a foot roll isdetermined by the extent to whichthe material from which it ismanufactured can resist the wearmechanisms that are triggeredby the operating conditionsthat it is exposed to. The abilityof a material to resist wear isdetermined by its chemicalcomposition in combinationwith its microstructure.The microstructure in turn isdetermined by a combination

of the chemical composition andthe thermo-mechanical historyof the material.Traditionally the wear resistanceof foot rolls is improved by amartensitic stainless steel overlaywhich is applied by means of anarc welding process. The servicelife of these rolls is limited bysensitisation of the stainless steelas a result of carbon pick-upfrom the roll material duringwelding. This is because the highheat input associated with arcwelding causes excessive dilutionof the overlay material by thecarbon-containing roll materialas well as a microstructure whichcontains ferrite in addition to themartensite. The carbon depletesthe chromium from the ferritein the matrix which reduces itscorrosion resistance along theferrite-martensite interfaces.Corrosion along ferrite-martensiteinterfaces will eventually result inthe disintegration of the materialand compromise the integrityof the surface.The CSIR in collaborationwith ArcellorMittal devised aninnovative process through whichthe low heat input and excellentcontrol of a high-power laseris combined with an overlaymaterial with a novel chemicalcomposition to produce a weldoverlay which increases theservice life of foot rolls by between200 and 300 percent. The lowheat input provided by the laser-

based process eliminates carbonpick-up through much-reduceddilution, while the chemicalcomposition in combination witha rapid solidification produces afully martensitic microstructurewhich contains no ferrite.The enhanced performanceof the laser-welded foot rollswas verified during fieldtrials which started in 2010at the ArcellorMittal plant inVanderbijlpark. ArcellorMittalstarted using laser-weldedfoot rolls in 2012 andcontinues to do so.The laser-based process hasbeen licenced to FW Gartner, anAmerican-based multinationalsurface engineering companyfor international distribution.Hgans AB has been contractedto manufacture the CSIRdeveloped welding consumableunder a royalty agreement.The research that laid thefoundation of this successfulinvention was published inthe prestigious Welding in theWorld which is the mouthpieceof the International Institute ofWelding. Corney van Rooyen wasalso honoured by the SouthernAfrican Institute of Welding withthe Harvey Shacklock Gold Medalfor his research.

Enquiries:Herman Burgerhburger@csir.co.za

Steel is one of themost widely usedmaterials today.It is encounteredin practically everyaspect of modernsociety, includingtransportation,construction, mining,agriculture andconsumer goods.Every year some1.3 billion tons ofsteel is producedglobally.

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IDEAS THAT GROW

titanium metal productionand casting technologiesfor industryThe CSIR is developing a suite of complementary technologies to help South Africa add value to its vast resources oftitanium. Key to this is a novel process for producing primary titanium metal. A small-scale titanium pilot plant hasbeen established to focus on up-scaling the production of titanium metal powder.

|28 |

A panoramic view of the titanium plant.

Enquiries:Dr Dawie van Vuurendvvuuren@csir.co.za

Pierre Rossouwprossouw@csir.co.za

The titanium pilot plant is a step towards a commercialscale plant that will be able to produce titanium powder ata lower cost than present imports and alternative processes,making this light metal an economically viable option onwhich many downstream manufacturing industries can bebased and sustained.South Africa has vast reserves of titanium-bearing mineralsand is the second largest producer of mineral concentrate inthe world. Apart from concentrating the mineral to producetitanium slag and pig iron, little further value is added tothe mineral before exporting it. It is believed that there issignificant potential to add value and create much-neededemployment if titanium metal is extracted from the mineralconcentrate and a new downstream industry is created tomanufacture titanium metal components and products.The pilot plant uses a novel and patented process thatis internationally competitive. The DST has been a key

stakeholder in this initiative and has allocated more thanR100 million for the development of this technology.One of the other complementary technologies developed by theCSIR is an investment casting process for titanium. Very fewcompanies in the world can produce titanium castings usingan investment casting process. The CSIR developed a processfor South Africas industry to use and is not only refining thisprocess, but also optimising every step in the process so thatthe technology, equipment and everything needed for theprocess, can be successfully transferred to industry.I believe that the investment casting of titanium represents awonderful opportunity for the local manufacturing industry,says Pierre Rossouw, CSIR principal technologist charged withdeveloping the CSIRs titanium investment casting process.The industry will have access to locally produced materialsand techniques that previously had to be imported at a veryhigh premium.

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IDEAS THAT GROW

Cost-effective semi-solidmetal casting technologysuitable for various industriesResearch has shown that with the use of a novel rheo-high pressure die casting(R-HPDC) technology developed by the CSIR for the casting of semi-solid metalalloys, high-quality metal components can consistently be produced at a low cost.The casting of semi-solid metalalloys was first developed at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) in the early 1970s. The challenge forthe CSIRs researchers and engineers wasto develop a technique that consistentlyproduced high-quality products that could beused in cost-sensitive niche markets, such asthe automotive industry.Following research conducted at theUniversity of KwaZulu-Natal in the mid1990s, the CSIR developed and patented anovel semi-solid metal rheocasting systemin 2002 for the preparation of semi-solidslurries from the liquid state.Two technologies can produce metal slurriesat a temperature at which semi-solidcasting can take place, namely thixocastingand rheocasting. Thixocasting is a twostep process. Special feedstock materialis purchased at a much higher cost andreheated to the semi-solid state (highlycapital and energy intensive) before forminginto a final component. With rheocasting, in

contrast, the molten metal is cooled andcast into a solid shape in one step.The biggest advantage of the rheocastingprocess is that the slurry can be madeon demand and in house. The chemicalcomposition of the cast metal can also bemodified and tailored to meet the qualityand property specifications of thecomponents. This allows scrap and otherused metals to be directly re-melted forsubsequent rheocasting, which contributesto lower production costs.The rheo-high pressure die casting (R-HPDC)technology developed by the CSIR is bothflexible and capable of processing justabout any alloy or metal with a meltingtemperature below 1 000 OC.The technology can be used to developcomponents for a number of end-users,from the aerospace industry to prosthetics.Discussions about the suitability of thetechnology are underway with bicyclemanufacturers.

Enquiries:Dr Sagren Govendersgovender@csir.co.zaDr Hein Mllerhmoller@csir.co.zaUlyate Curleucurle@csir.co.za

| 30|An automotive component (brake calliper) produced in aluminium alloy A356 withthe CSIR rheo-high pressure die casting process.The integrated induction and forced air cooling coil is atthe heart of the CSIR Rheocasting System used in theorganisation's rheo-high pressure die casting process.

Further reading: Curle UA, Mller H, Govender G. R-HPDC in South Africa.Solid State Phenomena 192-193 (2013) 3-15.

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A 630-ton high pressure die casting machine.

IDEAS THAT GROW

30 years of prosthetic reliefoffered by the bollardThe bollard a medical device used in conjunction with a prosthetic ligament for therepair of cruciate ligaments in the knee was developed by the CSIR in 1982 andmore than 60 000 devices have been sold over the past three decades, the last salebeing an order of 250 units in 2013.The CSIR-invented and developed implantable expanding rivet is made of carbon fibrereinforced polysulfone (a family of thermoplastics). It resulted from the CSIRs investmentin research on biomaterials with a focus on developing composite materials that werebiomedically more compatible than the metals used for surgical implants at the time,without compromising strength.In 1984, the bollard received the Chairmans Award for Excellence from the SABS DesignInstitute (at that time called the Shell Design Awards). It was also the first carbon fibrereinforced composite implant to be approved by the US Food and Drug Administrationfor human surgery.

The CSIR-developed bollard, used in the repair of knee ligaments.Enquiries:Nicki Koornbanallynkoornbanally@csir.co.za

Sales of the device started in 1984, via the CSIRs technology commercialisationcompany, Technifin. In 1989, co-inventor Peter Mundell left the CSIR and set up FibretekDevelopments CC to manufacture the bollard. Fibretek later became a private company(Fibretek Developments (Pty) Ltd). It was one of the first South African medical devicemanufacturing companies to develop export markets for its products.Very few companies, if any, can sustain themselves from income based on a single product,but Fibretek was fortunate to have had sufficient sales in the early years to be able to investin the development and commercialisation of other products, such as the Optoscan VisualField Scanner and the Cape Town Stereotactic Pointer, concludes Mundell.

International optics producer takes up CSIR laser technology

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Cassidian Optronics, formerly Carl ZeissOptronics, adopted a CSIR-developedconcept to customise its range oflasers. CSIR scientists demonstratedthat a minor modification to a standardindustrial laser system (the additionof two novel mirrors) increases theefficiency of the system by a factorof ten. The technology has significantpotential and forms the basis of anew Technology Innovation Agencycommercialisation project.Enquiries:Andrew Forbesaforbes1@csir.co.za

A reliable process toproduce a key reagent that isused to predict the shelf-life of beeris increasingly used by local andinternational breweries.The reagent, -phenyl-N-tertbutylnitrone (PBN), is used incombination with an analyticaltechnique called electronparamagnetic resonance spintrapping. The application of thisassay is used to measure theresistance of beer to free-radicaloxidation. Typically, all brewedbeverages contain a certainamount of naturally occurringantioxidants that protect theirquality. Beverages with increasedlevels of natural antioxidantsare resistant to the oxidationprocess for longer periods andthus the beverages are stable forincreased periods.By predicting the shelf-life of thebeverage, the beverage producercan determine the products usefulretail life within the commercialenvironment, leading to improvedlogistical planning and profits.The robust PBN process developedyields a high-quality productwhich has been taken up by thebrewing industry.CSIR process chemist, Dr GregGordon, started working with ateam on the technology in 1998and developed a market-readyproduct by 2002. Thereafterthe market was developed andexpanded to include supply tolocal and international breweries.The technology was then licensedto Chemical Process Technologies(Pty) Ltd and the PBN businesshas subsequently grown undertheir stewardship.

Brewing industryuses innovationto predict theshelf-life of beer

Enquiries:Dr Greg Gordonggordon@csir.co.za

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IDEAS THAT SUSTAIN

Studies pinpoint cropsthat can be grown onpreviously mined land

| 34|Forest trees were part of the trial to ascertain whatplants could be cultivated on previously mined land.

The study site in Richards Bay.

With the right fertilisers, crops like peanuts, Bambara nuts, rosemary, tea tree, mango and certainEucalyptus clones can be successfully grown on the characteristic sloping dunes near RichardsBay after mining of the land. The CSIR, contracted by Richards Bay Minerals (RBM), recentlycompleted assessing the feasibility of using previously mined land for agricultural purposes.

The study, the Richards Bay MineralsAlternative Land Use Project, was aimed atdeveloping sustainable agricultural land useoptions for the land the company is leasing fromcommunities for mining.The crops assessed for feasibility included forestryspecies, legumes, vegetables, fruit trees, herbsand pasture grasses. The trials also assessedthe capacity of the crops to continue landrehabilitation through soil improvement.The conditions on the sloping dunes whichcharacterise the mined land are differentdepending on the direction they face and positionrelative to the top and bottom of the dune.This, as well as the effects of the sea breeze andirrigation on the growth of crops and trees wasalso considered during the trials. The growth oftrees was tested on four sites: sea-facing sites,inland-facing sites, steep slopes and flat surfaces.The growth and yield of crops and fruit and nuttrees were assessed on flat surfaces at the topand at the bottom of the dunes.The yield of each crop was assessed againsta determined benchmark yield of the crop asinformed by the KwaZulu-Natal Department ofAgriculture. A crop was deemed to be technicallyviable if its yield consistently equalled or exceeded

the benchmark level for three years. The cropsfound to be technically viable were peanuts,bambara nuts, cowpea, napier fodder, Rhodesgrass, rosemary, tea tree and mango. On allsites assessed, six Eucalyptus clones werefound to survive well, yield high volumes ofhigh quality wood and to be resistant to acommon pest. The clones were recommendedfor planting on the previously mined dunes.

Rosemary plants growing successfullyon previously mined land.

The trials entailed the periodic monitoringof soil. Soil samples were collected beforeannual crops were planted and two weeksafter the harvest of each crop to measure soilproperties including exchangeable acidity,total cations and magnesium. The consistentlow nutrient levels in these soils indicated thatsuccessful crop production on the mined sanddunes could only be achieved with the useof appropriate fertilisers. However, it must benoted that the results represented only fouryears of cropping and changes in soilproperties take a longer time to manifest. Reyhana Mahomed

Enquiries:Dr Constansia Musvotocmusvoto@csir.co.zaAssessment of the crops was doneat regular intervals.

| 35|Cultivation of rosemary plants.

Freshly harvested peanuts.

IDEAS THAT SUSTAIN

Projecting future climatechange over AfricaThe African continent is likely to experience a wide range of impacts from future climate change, with large parts ofsubtropical Africa projected to become generally drier and significantly warmer during the 21st century. This may threatenthe sustainability of agriculture and livestock farming, biodiversity and water security. It is likely to alter energy demandand increase the prevalence of natural disasters such as flooding, droughts and fires. The CSIR helps find workable ideasthat aid us in understanding and planning for what may be the greatest problem ever faced by humanity.The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in theearths atmosphere has increased by about 40% sincethe industrial revolution and is the main cause ofglobal warming and climate change. CO2 concentrationsare continuing to rise, mainly driven by humanactivities, and in particular the burning of fossil fuelsfor energy.Increased greenhouse gas concentrations have alreadycaused global temperatures to rise and climate expertsare warning that further global warming may take place

| 36|A field of maize destroyed by hailstones from an afternoon thundershower in the Umzimkulwana Valley in the Drakensberg. Extremeweather events such as thunder and hail storms are predicted toincrease as a result of climate change in Southern Africa.

at an accelerated rate. A concerted international effort is neededto mitigate the magnitude of the change, but countries willalso need to consider adaptation measures at a regional levelto prepare for changes that are inevitable.

Twice the riskThis is particularly challenging in southern Africa, a regionfaced with economic and developmental challenges and wheretemperatures over some regions will rise at about twice theglobal rate of temperature increase.

Increased temperature as a result of climate change will make cattle vulnerable to heat stress,which may impact their feed intake and fertility. Nguni cattle are indigenous to SouthernAfrica and may be more resilient in such conditions.Dr Francois Engelbrecht wholeads climate studies, modellingand environmental healthresearch at the CSIR saysthat South Africa is particularlyvulnerable to climate change.Even if global efforts to curbCO2 emissions successfully limittemperature increases duringthe 21st century to 2OC relativeto pre-industrial times as climatescientists hope, southern Africacould see an increase of up to4OC over the interior regions.

ResearchGlobal climate models havebecome the main tool to projectfuture climate change. However,their projections are of too coarsehorizontal resolution to developclimate change projections at aregional or municipal scale.The CSIRs climate modellers,supported by the Centre for HighPerformance Computing, aretherefore developing downscaledclimate projections, which arebeing used widely to project thelocal impact of climate changeon South Africa and Africa.

Impact on agricultureIn agriculture, research hasshown that a 4OC temperatureincrease can significantly reducemaize harvests over southernand East Africa. In a worst-casescenario where global climatemitigation fails, temperatureincreases of 6 to 8OC are plausibleover parts of Africa. International

crop modelling studies showthat no current maize varietiescan withstand such drastictemperature increases, and failureof the maize crop in southernand East Africa may reachdrastic proportions under sucha scenario, says Engelbrecht.Researchers from the University ofPretoria have also used the CSIRsmodels to project the future ofpotato farming in South Africa.They have found that the increasein CO2 levels might boost potatoharvests, but this benefit will belost if there is not enough waterfor irrigation due to projecteddecreases in rainfall.Tomato farmers in the northeastern parts of South Africaare reporting that is has alreadybecome too hot to grow tomatoesin mid-summer in parts ofLimpopo. They are foreseeinga shift of tomato production, atleast to some extent, to farms incooler Gauteng where winter frostis likely to occur less frequentlyunder climate change.According to the CSIRs Dr EmmaArcher-Van Garderen who hasstudied the impact of climatechange on cattle farming futureincreased temperatures can causeheat stress which can influencefeed intake, fertility, weight gainand mortality. Different breedshave different heat thresholdsand farmers might have to lookat more resilient, locally adaptedbreeds to maintain production.

Dr Francois Engelbrecht leads climate studies, modelling and environmental health research at the CSIR.

BiodiversityClimate change could also inducebush encroachment as plant speciesdiffer in their capacity to benefitfrom CO2. This in turn could havea negative impact on the naturalhabitat of large herbivores thatsurvive in the grasslands andsavannah regions of South Africa.Warmer and drier temperatures willalso impact on many other aspectsof the countrys biodiversity. Fynbos which evolved over thousands ofyears in moderate temperatures andwet winters may not be able tothrive under drier winters that arealso significantly warmer, while smallbird species are highly vulnerable toextreme heat conditions.

IndustryCSIR research on the climate futureof Africa is also starting to findincreasing impact in industry, saysEngelbrecht. Eskom currently usesthe CSIRs downscaled climatemodels to inform its adaptationstrategies in terms of the effectsof high-impact climate eventson Eskom infrastructure andhousehold demand for energy.CSIR researchers project thatAfrica may experience moreextreme weather events underclimate change, such as intensethunderstorms, large-scaleflooding, heat waves and drought.An increase in tropical storms andcyclones that reach land are alsoprojected for the northern partsof neighbouring Mozambique.

Many sectors, including theinsurance industry, are likely to beincreasingly affected by the costsassociated with high-impactclimate events.

Informing policyCSIR research on climate changealso informs national policymaking. Recently, the CSIR climatechange projections formed anintegral part of the Long-TermAdaptation Scenario Project ofthe Department of EnvironmentalAffairs (DEA) and related CSIRresearch informs the position ofthe DEA on aspects of the climatenegotiations of the United NationsFramework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCC).Climate change projections arecontinuously being refined andextended. Engelbrecht points outthat, going forward, the CSIRsclimate change researchers willcontribute to international climatechange projection initiatives,such as the Coordinated RegionalDownscaling Experiment andCoupled Model Inter-comparisonProject Phase 6 of the WorldClimate Research Programme.CSIR researchers will also studythe implications of the UNFCCclimate negotiations to informsuitable adaptation and mitigationstrategies for Africa.

Enquiries:Dr Francois Engelbrechtfengelbrecht@csir.co.za

| 37|

IDEAS THAT SUSTAIN

Sea-faring glider equippedfor more accuratefish stock surveysCSIR researchers successfully equipped a wave glider with an acoustic echo sounder to determinefish stock levels along the South African coastline.

|38 |

Unmanned marine vehicle fitted with an active sonar system on deployment between Dassen and Robben Islands.

Unsustainable fishingis a big threat to oceanecosystems. It destroysthe physical environmentof marine life and distortsthe entire food chain in theoceans. According to the WorldWildlife Fund, more than 80%of the worlds fish stocks havebeen pushed to (or beyond)their biological limits and arein need of strict managementto restore them.The Department of Agriculture,Forestry and Fisheries has theresponsibility to determinethe available fish stock levelsin South Africas ExclusiveEconomic Zone (EEZ) toregulate and allocate fishingquotas. The EEZ is a seazoneprescribed by the UnitedNations over which a statehas special rights in terms ofthe exploration and use ofmarine resources.Currently, scientists fromthe department conductthese surveys by following apredetermined route along thecoastline. Once the on-boardunderwater sonar detectsspecies that resemble fish,a net is drawn to capture asample of the species. Usingthe data gathered fromthe sonar images and fishsamples, fishing quotasare established.

Janet Coetzee, a scientist fromthe department, says, Currentlywe only do two surveys a year.If we can have something outthere more often to provideinformation on fish migrationpatterns, it will be of great use.In an effort to assist thedepartment, the CSIR used itsexpertise in oceanography andresearch in the southern oceans,combined with its experiencein developing technology forspecialist maritime applications,to develop a solution which willallow the department to performmore surveys per year whilesaving costs.The first successful fieldexperiments took place in March2014 and since then researchand development has improvedthe unit to the extent that itcan potentially be continuouslydeployed for months at a time.The wave glider can store highresolution data onboard, whilesending compressed data backto research centres for immediateprocessing.This means that the departmentwill have continuous access tocurrent data, allowing themto focus their trawling whereneeded and spend less time atsea. Having current data willimprove their understanding offish behaviour and migration

patterns, says Hannes Zietsman,a CSIR senior engineer andmaritime defence expert.

Technology building blocksThe technology componentscomprise a sonar system to detectfish, and a data-capturing unitinstalled on an unmanned marinevehicle that serves as the sensorplatform. The integration of thesetechnology components wassupported by industry partner, SeaTechnology Services. Zietsmanworked with Sea TechnologyServices to design, develop,and integrate a power supplyunit that powers the sonar anddata-capturing unit. The vehiclerelies on wave propulsion to glideforward, making it possible forthe vessel to be deployed for longperiods. The data-capturing andcontrol unit is housed in a payloadcompartment made available byLiquid Robotics.

First field deploymentDuring a field test experimentin March 2014, the system measuring just under 3 m inlength was deployed for a seatrial of two days. Travelling at anaverage speed of 2.4 km / h, thevessel covered 121 km betweenRobben and Dassen Islands.The signal received from the echosounder proved stable and theresearch team successfully

detected schools of fish. Theimproved glider was deployedin March 2015 to assess itsperformance over longer periods.Coetzee says: We are excitedto continue the work. Futuretests will look at the glidersperformance in rough seas,strong currents, and its abilityto cross a vast area in AgulhasBay in a set time frame. Thepossibility of deploying multiplegliders (referred to as swarmrobotics), fitted with camerasand other devices, will enableus to identify the specific fishspecies, which will greatlyadvance the effectiveness ofour surveys. The work willultimately reduce the number ofships that have to be out at sea,saving the departments alreadystrained resources.The technology offers potentialfor broader applications suchas maritime domain awareness,commercial fishing, oceancarbon and climate observationand oceanographic research. Lsa van Rooyen

| 39|Enquiries:Hannes Zietsmanjzietsman@csir.co.za

IDEAS THAT SUSTAIN

Scientists identifyindigenous vegetationto help rehabilitatemetal-polluted Olifants RiverCSIR experts in water chemistry and botany have found that certain indigenousvegetation are able to rehabilitate rivers polluted with metals such as iron,aluminium and manganese. Seven common and pollution-tolerant plant speciesprevalent on the banks of the Upper Olifants River were found to bioaccumulatethese metals in areas where rivers are affe