scienceteacher

ISSN 0110-7801Number 124

2010

Featuring: Iron

Weathering steel

Black sand

Iron in the stars

Iron and origin of life

Iron fertilisation

Dietary iron

Iron, oxygen, and life

Plus:

Ripping yarns

Science writing and the media

What is ‘Western’ about science

And more...

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ripping yarns: science in AsiaWritten by Miles Barker, Waikato University

InthreepreviousarticlesinNewZealandScienceTeacher1Ihavetoldanumberofstoriesfromthehistoryofscience–storiesthatareintendedtoilluminatethenatureofscienceitself.Unashamedlytocatchtheeye,Ichosetocallthemcollectively‘rippingyarns’,alabelthathasstrongconnotationsfromabygoneageofblissfulimperialism.Actually,bubblingthroughthethreenewsciencestoriesinthisarticlecanbefoundoneofthedominantfeaturesoftheageofimperialism:uneasyracerelations.Thescientistinthefirststory,Austrian-AmericanbotanistJosephRock(1884–1962),whoworkedinChina,hasbeendescribedas“anegomaniacatbest,aracistatworst.”2ThenthereisscienceandtechnologyhistorianJosephNeedham(1900–1995)who,initiallythroughhisresearchassistantandloveratCambridgeUniversity,LuGwei-djen,ultimatelycametobedescribedas“themanwholovedChina”3andwho,controversially,becameanapologistforthenewlyconstitutedPeople’sRepublicofChina.ThefinalstoryfeaturesIndianJ.C.Bose(1858–1937),physicistandbotanist,whofordecadescontendedheroicallywiththeloftyandpatronisingattitudesoftheBritishRajscienceestablishment.

However,eachstoryalsohasitsownparticularpurpose–toilluminateanimportantpropositionaboutthenatureofscience.Thesepropositionsfeatureintheclassiccatalogue4ofthefeaturesofscience(Table1)thatIusedinthethreeearlierarticles.SinceIwrotethosefourteenstories,however,theneedtoexploretheNatureofScienceinclassrooms,proclaimedinthebannerheadlineacrosseachpageofoursciencecurriculumof2007,hastakenonagreaterurgency.IaddressthisafterIhavetoldthesethreenewstories.

Rhododendrons, yak butter and brigandsBotanist-explorerJosephRock’sideaof‘dinnerinthefield’wasmoreelaborateandlesscommunalthanthatofmostscientists.Whereverhefoundhimselfinthegreatnorth-southcorridoroftheChina-Tibetborderlands–inasteamyjungle,aforestoffirtreesbesidearushingtorrent,onagrassyplainbeneathsnow-cladmountains–Rock’seveningexpectationswouldbethesame.Thecleanlinenclothwouldbespreadonthefoldingtable,thebottleofgoodwinewouldappear,andhiscook(fromtheNaxiethnicminoritypeople)wouldserve,onagolddinnerservice,dishessimilartothosethatRockrecalledfromhisboyhoodinthetwilightoftheHapsburgerainVienna.

Later,afterdiningalone,andwhilehispartyofuptotwohundredsettledinforthenight,Rockwouldrelaxhistravel-wearybodyinsteamywaterinhisAbercrombieandFitchcollapsiblebathtub.Meanwhile,intheshadowsaroundhim,theservantsattendedtoRock’spersonalcomfort;theportersunloadedtheplantpresses,cameras,andsoon,thusreleasingtheyaksormulesforfeedingandwateringbythemuleteers;andthemercenariestookuplookoutstations,guardingagainsttheever-presentpossibilityofbrigandsemergingfromtheanarchicalcountrysidetoattacktheexpedition.

Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,otherbotanists,eachwiththeircarefully-guardedterritory,workedontheresplendentand,atthattime,little-knownfloraoftheChina-Tibetborderlands.However,Rock’sflamboyantexpeditionsandhiscolourfulpersonalityhavebecomean

enduringpartofthehistoryofChina’ssouth-west.Muchofthisisduetotheenigmaticandeccentriccharacterofthisstocky,1.72mtall,habituallypith-helmetedscientist.Itwasnotjustthathistemperamentwasvolatile;itwasthathispersonalitywasdeeplycontradictory.

OftencharminginEuropeancompany,hewasprivatelyperpetuallylonely.Hewasbothself-aggrandisinganddeeplyinsecure.HewasfrequentlydismissiveofHanChinesecultureandsurprisinglyobtuseabouttheTibetanworld,buthewasneverthelessinvariablyaffectionate,ifsomewhatpatronising,towardstheNaximinoritypeoplewhoinhabittheareaofthesouth-westernprovinceofYunnanwhereRockmadehisbasenearthetownofLijiang.

Afterawearisometimeintheremotecountryoftheborderlands,hewouldlongtoberidofChina,butoncebackeveninShanghai(letaloneBostonorVienna)hewouldbedecrying‘civilisation’andlongingforthesolitudeandthegrandeuroftheChina-Tibetborderlands.Andalloftheseerraticfoiblesspilledoverintohisscience.Whilehismeticulousandpioneeringbotanywasinternationallygreatlyrespected,hiscontributionstoethnographyweregenerallyseenbyspecialistsasflawedbecauseofhisfascinationwiththemacabreandthesensational.ItwasimpossibletoidentifywhereRockthescientistandRocktheidiosyncraticcitizenoftheworldbeganandended.Indeed,hislifeisagoodexampleofthepropositionthatscientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens.

Rock,byacombinationofopportunismandbluff,suddenlybecameabotanistinhisearlytwenties.Bornintothelowerclassesinstatus-consciousVienna,hehadexperiencedanimpoverishedchildhood,mademorebitterbythecontrastwithhisfather’sworkplace–FranzRockwasastewardintheluxurioushomeofawealthyPolishcount.

Ateighteenyearsofage,JosephRockleftViennawithnoacademicqualificationsbuthavingdemonstratedaformidablememoryandagiftforlanguages.(Ultimately,hetaughthimselfeightlanguages,includingSanskrit;hebeganlearningChineseinViennaattheageofthirteen.)

DriftinghiswaytotheUnitedStatesand,outofworkinHonolulu,hesuccessfullypersuadedtheDivisionofForestrythathewasneededasanherbariumcollector.Thatdayheblusteredandcharmedhiswayintoasuccessfullifelongcareer,madepossiblebyhisorderly,systematicmind,hisprodigiousmemory,hisrelentlessenergyforwritingandexploring,hisloveofnaturalbeautyandsolitude,andhiswillingnesstogowherefewtrainedbotanistshadeverpenetrated.DuringhissubsequenttravelsinIndia,BurmaandmainlyChinaoverthenextthirtyyears,heshippedmorethan80,000plantspecimensbacktoinstitutionsasprestigiousastheArnoldArboretumatHarvardUniversity,KewGardensinLondon,andtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashington.Hespecialisedinrhododendrons,hadtwonewspeciesnamedafterhim,andhisnumerousbutirregularjourneysbacktoLondon,Edinburgh,BerlinandBostonkepthimwellinformed,andalsoenhancedhisinternationalprestige.Curiously,however,RockneveractuallypublishedanyworksonthebotanyofChina.

EarlyinhistimeinChina,Rock’sattentionwasdivertedtowardsanotherdiscipline–ethnography.In1924Rock,

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nowanAmericancitizen,securedalucrativecontractwithNationalGeographicMagazineandoverthenexttenyears“ourmaninChina”5becameknowninternationallytomillionsofreadersthroughtheninearticleshewrote.Hisachievementsinthisareaareuneven.Thearticlescontainedstunningphotography;amazingly,Rockwastakinganddevelopinginthefieldthefirstcolourphotographicplatesinthe1920s.Forexample,suchphotosflamboyantlyillustratedRock’saccountoftheproductionanddisplayofthesculpturedandtintedyakbutterdeitieswhichformedthebackdroptothefestivedevildancingattheChonilamaseryupinGansuprovince.6However,hisfrequentclaimstobe“thefirstwhiteman”toviewaspectsofindigenouslife,ortoexploreasnowypeakorarivergorgebetray(certainlytoourearstoday)atbestaEurocentricbias.Withreadershipandfundingnodoubtinmind,hisattentionwasfrequentlytransfixedbymacabreandsensationaldetails;eventhetitlesofhisarticlesspokeof“weirdceremonies”,“strangekingdoms”,“brigand-infestedcentralChina”,“holymountainoftheoutlaws”.7Andhecanberightlyaccusedofdismissivelytreatingeverydaypeopleandcustomswithahigh-mindednessthatcontrastedwiththeavidattentionhepaidtheindigenous,so-called,kingsandprincesoftheregion.Approachingasettlement,Rockwouldoftenrequirehisentouragetocarryhimintothetowninasedanchair,inordertoimpressthepopulation,andespeciallyitsrulers,ofhisimportance.ItishardtoescapetheconclusionthathisattitudetowardspeopleinpowerwasanoutcomeofthewayheforeverbegrudgedhisownlowlybeginningsinVienna.

Rock’stimeinChinafinallycametoanendin1949asMaoZedong’snewlyconstitutedPeople’sRepublicofChinarequiredWesternerstovacateYunnanprovince.Wornoutbyyearsoftravel,bytheperpetualthreatstohisphysicalsafety,andnowbyindifferenthealth,Rockfledfromhis

homeoftwenty-sevenyearsnearLijiang.Forthenextelevenyearshewasaperpetualemigrant,alwaystravelling,nowhereathome.Hegaveupethnographyandreturnedtohistwoearlyinterests,botanyandlanguages.RockdiedofaheartattackinHonoluluin1962,justpriortothepublishingofthesecondvolumeofamonumentalandstillwidelyrevereddictionaryofthelanguageoftheNaxipeople.

JosephRock’sstoryremindsusthatscientistsarecitizenstoo.Sometimesthisbecomesapparentwhenscientistsbecomeinvolvedinpublicaction-taking:NobelPrizewinnersBritishcrystallographerDorothyHodgkin,andNewZealanderMauriceWilkins,ofDNArenown,alsodevotedmuchoftheirenergiestowardsinternationalpeaceandunderstanding8;andmanyclimatescientists“aregoingoutoftheirwayasprivatecitizenstosay,‘Wakeup!Thisisnotagoodthingtobedoing.’”9Andsometimesscientists’livesasprivatecitizensspilloverand,unintended,influencetheirspecialistactivitiesinscience:thereisevidencethattheprivatereligiousviewsofscientistsaseminentasSirIsaacNewtonandCharlesDarwininevitablyaffectedtheirprofessionallives.10So,too,didJosephRock’sprivateinnerworldimpingedramaticallyanderraticallyonhispublicworkinscience.

Joseph Needham’s great labour of loveCambridgeUniversityhistorianJosephNeedham’slonglife(1900–1995)isremarkableforonetitanicenterprisethathecamepassionatelytoembrace:thedocumentingofChina’sentirehistoryofscienceandtechnology,anditscontributiontoworldcivilisationgenerally.Needham’sclearestpurposewastopromotecross-culturalunderstanding;inattackingWesterncomplacency,heaimedtoshowjusthowmanycrucialscientificadvances,infact,originatedinChina–theinventionofprinting,gunpowderandthemagneticcompassarethreeofhundredsofexamples.

Needham’smonumentallabouroflovecomprised18hefty

Propositions about the Nature of Science Stories from Science (and sources in NZST)

The Scientific World View•Theworldisunderstandable

•Scienceideasaresubjecttochange

•Scienceknowledgeisdurable

•Sciencecannotprovidecompleteanswerstoallquestions

‘Allknowledgeismyprovince’-FrancesBacon’sbigclaim

(#113)

Thespiralsoflife(#106)

JosephNeedham’sgreatlabouroflove(#124)

‘Aplantisananimalstandingonitshead’(#113)

HaroldWellman-honesttoafault(#113)

Scientific Enquiry•Sciencedemandsevidence

•Scienceisablendoflogicandimagination

•Scienceexplainsandpredicts

•Scientiststrytoidentifyandavoidbias

•Scienceisnotauthoritarian

Thecaseofthemidwifetoad(#113)

WhytheKaingaroaforestisn’tgrassland(#101)

Whattranspiresinheartlessvegetables?(#106)

Radiowavesandbrainwaves(#124)

Theshamefulcaseofsexinplants(#106)

Knowingourselves-biasinanthropology(#113)

JoanWiffen,dinosaurwoman(#101)

The Scientific Enterprise• Scienceisacomplexsocialactivity

• Scienceisorganizedintocontentdisciplinesandis conductedinvariousinstitutions

• Therearegenerallyacceptedethicalprinciplesinthe conductofscience

• Scientistsparticipateinpublicaffairsbothasspecialists andascitizens

Maize,mysticismandjumpinggenes(#113)

FacialeczemadayatRuakura(#106)

AndreasReischek-thecollector(#101)

RomanovDNA-fromSiberiatosainthood(#106)

Rhododenrons,yakbutterandbrigands(#124)

Table 1: Thirteen propositions about the nature of science (from Rutherford and Ahlgren, 1990), and seventeen stories from science that illuminate the propositions. The stories are either in the present article, or in three

earlier editions of New Zealand Science Teacher.

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chtomeswhenhedied,anditisproposedthathisappointeeswillconcludea25-volumeprogramme.Withsomedisagreement,thesevolumesarereveredasasupremelyimportantcontributiontohumankind.Needham’sstory,oneofpassionatesingle-mindedness,rigorousscholarship,andpoliticalactivism,tellsusmuchaboutthepropositionthatscience ideas are subject to change.

Yes,wecanallthinkofinstanceswherethegreatideasinsciencearesuccessivelyreplaced(forexample,NewtonianphysicsbyEinsteiniumphysics),butNeedham’sstorybringsanothermeaningtothispropositionaboutthenatureofscience–thatourconstructionsofsciencehistorythemselvesaresubjecttochangebyhindsight.

Historiansofsciencearequiteoftendrawnfromtheranksofscientiststhemselves,11andsoitwaswithNeedham.AfteranintellectuallystimulatingbutsolitaryboyhoodinLondon,heembarkedoncoursesatCambridgeUniversitythatledhimintobiochemistryandthenembryology.12By1935hewasworkingwiththefamousC.H.Waddingtonononeofthegreatestscientificpuzzlesofthetime:theidentityofthe‘organizer’responsibleforinducingembryologicaldifferentiation.Needham’sprivateinterestsweremany–thistall,rangy,bespectacled,tousle-hairedman,withawickedgrinandapiercinggaze,wasalsoanudist,amorrisdancer,anaccordionplayerandachain-smokingchurchgoerwithastrongbentforphilosophyandexploringtheoriginsofcultures.

ButNeedham’sworldwastotakeanewdirectionlateonesummerdayin1937,whenLuGwei-djenknockedsoftlyandunexpectedlyonhisofficedoor.Atalentedbiochemistherself,whowasfleeingfromtheJapaneseinvasionofChina,the33-year-oldwasofferingtoworkwithNeedhamandhisbiochemistwifeof13years,Dorothy.Soon,fascinatedbytheformsandmysteriesofChinesecharacters,NeedhamwasbeggingGwei-djentoteachhimthelanguage.Inlittletime,Needham’ssystematicandwide-rangingforayintoMandarinwascausinghimtofallinlove,notonlywiththelanguage,butalsowithChinaitself.And,inevitably,hefoundhisadmirationgrowingrapidlyforthepeoplewho,overthelast3,000years,hadmadethislanguagetheirculturalcontinuum.

Needham’snewfoundloveofChinawasnopassingphase,andWorldWarIIprovidedanopportunitytopursuethispassion–hewasseenastheidealpersontofulfiltheroleofDirectoroftheSino-BritishScienceCo-operationOffice,inChongqing.13SoitcameaboutthatNeedham’splanetoucheddowninJune1943,inwhatistodaytheworld’slargestcity,butwhatwasthenaplaceofwar-ravagedchaos.Locatedinwest-centralChina,Chongqinghadbeenbombedmorethan200timesinthepreviousthreeyears,astheinvadingJapanesesoughttodestroythecitytowhichChiangKai-shekhadmovedhisNationalistgovernmentfromNanjing,14fartotheeast.

Needhamsetabouthistaskwithvigour–rebuildingscientificlifeinChinabyboostingmoraleandprovidingequipmentand,morepolitically,wavingtheflagforBritainandestablishingrelationswiththeChinesecommunists.Bytheendofthewarhehadcarriedoutelevenexpeditions(fourofthemmajor)andhadcovered30,000miles;hehadvisitednearly300scientificinstitutionsandhehaddeliveredthousandsoftonsofequipment.

ButduringhistimeinChina,Needhamalsohadapersonalagenda.In1942inNewYork,hehadconfidedasuddenideatoGwei-djen:whynot,oneday,writeabookthatwouldexplaintotheWesternworldjusthowprofoundandenormouswasChina’scontributiontoscience?HismissioninChinawasanidealchancetopursuethatthoughtand,typicallysystematic,hehadcollectedthousandsof

documentsforthispurposebythetimetheWarwasover.

Oneveryearly,massivelydifficultexpeditiontypifieshisgoal.InAugust1943,NeedhamandapartysetoutfromChongqinginaconvertedChevroletambulanceforthefarnorthernprovinceofGansu.Needham’sobjectivewastovisitCave17,oneofthe400man-madeMogaoGrottosnearthefarwesterntownofDunhuangonthefamousdryanddustySilkRoad.Itwasherein1907,thatanimmenseancientChineselibraryhadbeendiscovered,includingaprintedscrollthatwasnowrecognisedastheoldestdatedprintedbookinhistory.Itisthe‘DiamondSutra’,printedinAD868.Inotherwords,printershadbeenatworkinChinasixcenturiesbeforeeitherGutenburgorCaxtonsettheirownfirstbooksintypeinEurope.AsNeedham’sbiographerSimonWinchesterputsit,15“IfanyonethinginallcreationgavethelietotheWesternnotionthatChinawasabackwardcountry,thiswasit”.

ReturningtoEurope,NeedhamwascalledontoassistinthesettingupoftheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization–itissaid16that“hewasfamouslyinstrumentalinputtingtheSinUNESCO”–butby1948itwastimeforhisbooktobeborn.InstalledbackinroomK-IatCambridgeUniversity(aroomheoccupiedforsixdecades),NeedhambeganwritingScienceandCivilisationinChina.

Oncestartedeachday,hewouldworknon-stopuntillongafterdark,typingeverythinghimself.Thetaskwasmassive,anditscompletionever-receding.VolumeIappearedin1954.Bythetimehediedin1995therewere18volumes;andby2008thefaithfulinheritorsofthetaskhadcompleted24volumes,comprising15,000pagesandthreemillionwords.17Itcoverseverythingfromtheevolutionofthemosttheoreticalofmentalmodelsinastronomyandthenatureofmaterials,acrosstothingsaspragmaticastheinventionofthetoothbrush(9thcenturyAD)andtoiletpaper(AD589).Beginningwithwhattodaywouldbecalledthepuresciences,itrangesintoengineering,papermaking,ceramics,navigation,mining,metallurgy,architectureandpainting.Itventuresintoareaswheretheverytitlesmaytousseem“lostintranslation”:‘glyphomancy’,‘ataraxy’and‘scapulamancyandmilfoillots’.

ScienceandCivilisationinChinahashaditscritics,bothintermsofitsscholarshipanditspolitics.SometimesNeedhamhasbeenaccusedofmistranslation;ambiguouswritingsintheancientChinesemanuscripts,itissuggested,havebeenmassagedintoexaggeratedclaimsforinnovationinChina.Othercriticismshavebeenmadeaboutdeep-seatedassumptions:is‘science’universal,asNeedhamsuggests,andcancomparisonsbemeaningfullymade,atall,betweenEasternandWesternscience?Needhamhasbeenaccusedofbeingpoliticallynaïve–helenthisvoicetocallsforaninternationalinvestigationintocommunistaccusationsthatAmericanforceswereusingbiologicalweaponsintheKoreanWar,andhewasconsequentlydenouncedintheBritishpressasatraitorandastooge.18ThishasspilledoverintohostilitytowardstheMarxistframeworkheadoptedinScienceandCivilisationinChina.

Needham’sfinalyearsweremarkedbyhugeworldwideacclaimwhich,however,didnothingtodistracthimfromthetask.WhenDorothydied,in1987,hewasbrieflymarriedtoLuGwei-djen,whomheoncetenderlydescribedas“theexplainer,theantithesis,themanifestation,theassuranceofalinknoseparationcanbreak.”19Continuingtowritetotheend,NeedhampassedawayinMarch1995.

Thenotionof“re-writinghistory”isinteresting.Ifsomeonetellsyouthatyouare“re-writinghistory”,itisusuallynotacompliment.Instead,itisoftenanaccusationthatyouaretryingtopersuadepeople(probablyforyourowndubious

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education researchpurposes)thatpasteventstookadifferentcoursefromwhatisgenerallyaccepted.But,actually,thereisasenseinwhichallhistoryisperpetuallyandproperlybeingre-written;theeventsofthepastareforeverbeingre-interpreted,notonlyasnewevidencecomestohand,butalsointhelightofthesetofideasandtheorieswhichweholdprecioustoday.InRussia,theysumthisupwiththepithysaying,“Russianhistoryisunpredictable”.Soitalsoiswiththehistoryofscience.

Toexpandthepointmadeatthebeginningofthisstory:scienceideasareundoubtedlysubjecttochange;manypeoplecancitesciencetheoriesthathavebeendiscardedandreplaced–forexample,inastronomy(thecrystallinespheresoftheancientGreeks),inchemistry(phlogisten),inphysics(theopticalether),inbiology(spontaneousgeneration)andinEarthscience(catastrophistgeology).20However,theJosephNeedhamstoryalsotellsusthatscienceideasarefrequentlyperceivedtochangebecauseouraccountofthemchanges,byhindsight.

Radio waves and brain wavesInalectureroominthehugeoldcolonial-styleTownHallinCalcutta,21the‘CityofPalaces’,alargeaudiencehadgatheredthatdayin189522andalleyeswereontheshort,portly,dapperfigureoftheBengaliscientistJagadisChunderBose(pronounced‘Berzah’)ashemadethefinalmeticulouspreparationsforthedemonstration.Attheappointedtimetherewasnofailure;tothecrowd’swondermentanddelight,attheflickofafinger,Boseactivatedthetransmitterandcausedthemysteriousinvisiblewavestoapparentlyhurtlerightthroughthebodyofthechairman,Lieutenant-GovernorSirWilliamMckenzie,throughthreesolidwalls,andtoactivateareceiver75feetawayinanadjacentroom.InthewordsofBose’s1920biographer,PatrickGeddes,“thereceiver…whichcuriouslyanticipatedtheantennaofmodernwireless…atthisdistancestillhadenergyenoughtomakeacontact,whichsetabellringing,dischargedapistolandexplodedaminiaturemine.”23

RadiowaveshadnowbeendemonstratedinpublicinAsia.Butthiswasnocheaptrickturnedon,circus-style,formassentertainment;norwasitanall-or-nothingexperimentdesignedtoprove,onewayortheother,whetherradiowavesexisted.ItwassimplyasoberdemonstrationofBose’shard-wonpowersoflogicandimagination.J.C.Bose24(1858–1937),oftendescribedasIndia’sfirstmodernscientist,wasnotamantoleaveanythingtochance,andhishabituallyauthoritativeexteriorthatday,ashedrewhisaudienceintoadvancesattheveryfrontierofscience,revealedhowutterlyconfidenthewasinwhathewasdoing.

SchooledinEastBengal(nowBangladesh),andhavingobtainedhisBAinCalcutta,BosehadtravelledtoEngland,wherehefirststudiedmedicineinLondon,andwasthenawardedascholarshiptoChrist’sCollege,CambridgeUniversity,wherehetookupphysics.BoseimmersedhimselfinJamesClerkMaxwell’sepictheorisingaboutelectromagneticwavesofvariouslengths,andalsointhepracticaldemonstrationoftheirexistencebyHeinrichHerz.Bose’steachersincludedLordRayleighandJamesDewar,andhiswork–boththeoreticalandpractical,especiallyhiscapacitytodevisethemostsensitiveandrobustofinstruments–waslatertowinhighpraisefromthegreatLordKelvin.ButthedecadesfollowingBose’sreturntoIndiain1885wouldshowthattherewasevenmoretoBose’slifeinsciencethanbeingattheworldforefrontoftheinventionofradio.

Later,Bosewouldturntoplantphysiologyandachievedistinctionthere;and,inthestultifyingcontextofscience

inBritishcolonialIndia,hisgrapplingwithanattempttodefine,createandamplifyauniquely‘Indian’sciencewasabrave,ifinitiallydoomed,enterprise.Inanutterlyastonishingway,Boseinfusedthreecareers–physicist,botanistandactivistinthecultureofscience–withthenotionthat science is a blend of logic and imagination.

Mentionradiowavesand,ofcourse,thenameofGuglielmoMarconi,theItalianscientist-engineerandbusinessmancomestomind.TheresearchofBoseandMarconihasinterestingparallels.Duringthe1890s,bothwerestrenuouslyseekingtoreducethewavelengthofradiowavestoamatterofmillimetres(neededforeffectivetransmission),andbothwerelabouringtoperfecta‘coherer’,thatis,aradiowavereceiver.25

AroundthetimeofBose’sdemonstrationintheCalcuttaTownHall,Marconiwasgraduallyextendingtherangeofhistransmission,firstoveraboutamileonhisfather’sestateinItalyintheautumnof1895,theninEnglandacrossadistanceofninemilesontheSalisburyPlainin1896,andthen,mostdramatically,acrosstheAtlanticOcean,adistanceof1800milesonDecember12th1901.Buttherewerealsoimportantdifferences:Marconihadnoacademicqualificationsinphysics,Bosedid;Marconiusuallyneverlackedsupportiveworkingfacilitiesandfundingforhisprojects,Boseoftendid;Marconihadagreateyeforglobalmarketing,Bose’sultimateconcern,asweshallsee,wasforthefortunesofscienceitselfinColonialIndia;Marconiwasquicktopatenthisdiscoveries,Boseneverdid.Andalthoughbothwereacclaimedfortheirwork,somehowMarconireceivedverymuchthemajorshare–alongwithKarlBraun,hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysicsin1909.BosewasnominatedforaNobelbyhisfriend,theBengalipoetRabindranathTagore,butmissedout,althoughhedidreceiveashareofhonoursfromtheWesternscienceestablishment:hewasknightedbytheBritishgovernmentin1916,andhewaselectedaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonin1928.

However,bythetimetheseawardsweremade,Bosehaddramaticallyswitchedhisattentionfromheartlandphysicstoheartlandbotanyand,evenwider,totherelationshipsbetweenthelivingandthenonlivingworlds.Hiscapacitytomonitortinyelectricalcurrentswastheconnectingfactorinthisstunningleapoftheimagination,buttherewerealsodeep-seatedphilosophicalreasonsforhisswitch.Bose’sworkinphysicshadbeenentirelywithintheframeworkofmainstreamorWesternscience26butnow,aroundtheyear1901,hisresearchclearlybegantoshowtheinfluencesofcertainaspectsoftheIndianphilosophicaltradition,notablythedoctrineof‘monism’–thenotionthatrealityisinsomesenseone,thatis,unchangingorindivisibleorundiffer-entiated.

HisviewsculminatedinthepublicationofResponseintheLivingandNonlivingin1902.Thebook’smaintheoreticalimportancewasthepropoundingoftheso-calledBosianthesis,namelythatthereisnodiscontinuitybetweenthelivingandthenonliving.Hisstrongestclaim,that“inorganicmatterpossessedaspecificproperty,electricalresponsiveness,thatwasthefundamentalpropertyoflifeitself”,27wasinanyliteralsense,notonethatthecourseofbiologicalsciencehassincesustained.However,inanumberofmoregeneralways(forexample,ecologicalsystems’thinking)Bose’sinsistenceonthefundamentalinter-relatednessofthelivingandnonlivingworldsisnotsocontroversialtoday.

PlantphysiologyemergedasthemainthrustofBose’sresearchinhislateryears.Usinginstrumentslikehis‘Crescograph’,whichwassaidtobeabletorecordplantgrowthassmallas1/100,000inchpersecond28,Bose

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madecontributionstostudiesinwhatwewouldcallchronobiology,translocation,photosynthesis,andplantgrowthandresponsiveness.Bose’splantphysiologywasinmanywaystheoppositeofhisphysics;itwas“eccentric,idiosyncratic,overwhelminglyprolific,surprising…”and“…itdrewamixofintenseadmirationandintensedislikeamongscientistsintheWestinawayhisphysicsneverdid.”29

Thelackofacceptancewasduetosuchthingsastheabsenceofanyresearchtraditioninwhichtheworkcouldbeplaced(nooneelsewasmeasuringelectricalresponsesacrossplanttissues,anditfellinagapbetweenphysicistsandphysiologists);someregardeditasaworkofphilosophicalratherthanscientificinterest;and,verysignificantly,theworkwasbasedonBose’sidiosyncratic

Science curriculum statements:Understanding about science

Stories from science Connections

LEVEL ONE AND TWO• Appreciatethatscientistsask

questionsaboutourworldthatleadtoinvestigationsandthatopen-mindednessisimportantbecausetheremaybemorethanoneexplanation.

- ‘Allknowledgeismyprovince’–FrancisBacon’sbigclaim(#113)

- Knowingourselves–biasinanthropology(#113)

- Rhododendrons,yakbutterandbrigands(#124)

- Thespiralsoflife(#106)

- His‘scientificmethod’wassupposedlyawayofrespondingtowhateverquestionswereasked.

- Open-mindednesshasbeendifficultbecauseourapproacheshavebeendominatedbycurrentvaluesinsociety.

- JosephRock’sopen-mindednesswascloudedbyhistemperamentandtheexpectationsofhisreadingaudience.

- Morethanoneexplanation(nucleicacidsversusnucleoproteins)competedintheDNAstory.

LEVEL THREE AND FOUR• Appreciatethatscienceisawayof

explainingtheworldandthatscienceknowledgechangesovertime.

• Identifywaysinwhichscientistsworktogetherandprovideevidencetosupporttheirideas.

- Theshamefulcaseofsexinplants(#106)

- JosephNeedham’sgreatlabouroflove(#124)

- Maize,mysticismandjumpinggenes(#113)

- FacialeczemadayatRuakura*(#106)

- JoanWiffen,dinosaurwoman*(#101)

- Applyingmodelsforplantsexuallifecyclesallowsustoexplainandpredictbotanicalmysteries.

- HerewrotethechangesovertimethathaveoccurredinChinesescienceandhencechangedWesternperceptions.

- BarbaraMcClintockandothergeneticistsworkedtogetherrespectfullybutfromverydifferentassumptions.

- Toxicologists,soilscientists,botanistsandmycologistsworkedtogether.

- Thescientificcommunityinitiallyworkedtogetherwithherveryunevenly.

LEVEL FIVE AND SIX• Understandingthatscientists’

investigationsareinformedbycurrentscientifictheoriesandaimtocollectevidencethatwillbeinterpretedthroughprocessesoflogicalargument.

- ‘Aplantisananimalstandingonitshead’(#113)

- WhytheKaingaroaforestisn’tgrassland*(#101)

- Whattranspiresinheartlessvegetables?(#106)

- Radiowavesandbrainwaves(#124)

- Aristotle’serroneousideathatplantsgettheirfoodfromthegroundguidedcurrentscientifictheoryfor2000years.

- Thecobalt-‘bushsickness’linkwasdiscoveredbydoggedlogicandinspiredinterpretationofevidence.

- Thefruitlesssearchforplant/animalanalogieswascontradictedbylogicalinterpretationofHales’sexperiments.

- J.C.Bose’sextraordinarypowersoflogicandimaginativeinterpretationwereappliedtophysics,botanyandliving/nonlivingrelationships.

LEVEL SEVEN AND EIGHT• Understandthatscientistshavean

obligationtoconnecttheirnewideastocurrentandhistoricalscientificknowledgeandtopresenttheirfindingsforpeerreviewanddebate.

- HaroldWellman–honesttoafault*(#113)

- Thecaseofthemidwifetoad(#113)

- AndreasReischek–thecollector*(#101)

- RomanovDNA–fromSiberiatosainthood(#106)

- HeconnectedhisnewideasabouttheSouthIsland’salpinefaulttoathen-minoritytheory:platetectonics.

- LamarckianPaulKammerer’sdifficultiesinsubmittingtopeerreviewculminatedinhissuicide.

- Hisactivitieswouldsparkhugepeerdebatetoday,onconservationgrounds.

- TheatmosphereoffearandsuspicioninthefinalSovietyearsretardedprocessesofpeerreviewandopendebateintheuseofDNAfingerprinting.

Table 2: Connections between seventeen stories from science published in four editions of New Zealand Science Teacher and the ‘Understanding about science’ statements in The New Zealand Curriculum. Key connecting words

are in italics. The curriculum statements are treated cumulatively rather than sequentially replacing. The five stories with a New Zealand context are asterisked.

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ideasaboutwhatconstitutesthe‘signoflife’.Inasense,thiswasatusslebetweenBose’spowersoflogicandhisimagination.Asonecommentatorputsit,“Ontheonehand,hewasanexperimentalistandinstrumentdesignerparexcellence;ontheother,hismonisticmetaphysicsexceededwhathisdatacoulddeliver.”30

Bose’sthirdcareer,asanactivistinthecultureofscience,developedrelentlesslyashislifewenton.When,asayoungman,BosewasadvancingintoscienceinCalcuttainthelatenineteenthcenturyhehadfoundhimselfinaprofoundlydiscouragingenvironment.WesternsciencehadbeenveryslowtoestablishitselfinIndiaoverthepreviousthreehundredyears,andtheprevailingviewoftheBritishcolonialadministrationwasthatIndianswereincapableofengaginginfundamentalscientificresearchandthat,instead,theyshouldconcentrateonappliedtechnology.31ThisassumptionimpactedonBosewhen–nowimpressivelyqualifiedfromCambridgeUniversity–hearrivedbackinCalcuttain1885.HewasofferedapostatIndia’sbest-knowncollege,PresidencyCollegeinCalcutta,asajuniorprofessorofphysicsbutonlyif,beingIndian,heagreedtoreceivetwo-thirdsoftheregularsalary.Bosefamouslyprotestedbyforegoinghispayandbyrelentlesslyappealingtotheauthorities.Threeyearslaterheachievedpayparity.32

ThisincidentcannothelpbuthavepropelledBose’sthinkingalongapatterncommoninthedevelopmentofscienceinEuropean-colonisedcountries:fromtheinitialscienceswhichaccompanyearlycolonialpenetration(zoology,geology,geography),toasciencewhichdrawsonestablishedEuropeanpracticesandinstitutions,andthentoathirdstage–asomewhatindependentsciencetradition,inventedbyscientistswhoarenativesof,andculturallytiedto,thecolonisedcountry.33

Bose’smindclearlybegantakingintoaccounthow,asoneofhisbiographersputsit,“forcenturiestheIndianimaginationhadusednondualistthoughttoimposeorderondiversities,contradictionsandoppositions,andaunifiedworldviewonafragmentedsociety.”34Aswehaveseen,thisawarenessspilledoverintotheunderpinningsofBose’sownresearch.However,Bose’simaginationalsocausedhimtoquestiontheverystructureoforganisedscienceinIndia,andin1917heinauguratedanadvancedresearchcentreinCalcutta:theBoseInstitute.Itspurpose,accordingtoBose’sdedicationspeech,wastodefytheexcessivespecialisationinmodernscienceandtocapitaliseonIndia’suniquestrengths:“Throughherhabitofmind(India)ispeculiarlyfittedtorealisetheideaofunity,andtoseeinthephenomenalworldanorderlyuniverse.”35

IfBose’simaginationhadtakenaleapwhichwasdifficultforsomeWesternscientiststoaccommodateatthattime,assessmentsnowaremoreforgiving;forexample,“Today,whenbiophysicsisagenerallyrecogniseddisciplineandcomparativephysiologyrestsonamorescientificbasis,theideathatanimalandplanttissuesexhibitsimilarresponsesseemslesscontroversialandmayevenbetakenasforeshadowingNorbertWiener’scybernetics.”36Thesedays,thereisawidespreadacceptancethatEurocentricviewsofscienceandtechnologyhave“primarilyde-developedthevastmajorityofthepeopleswhoweresupposedtobenefitfromsuchscienceandtechnologytransfers.”37Afinalthought:itisimportantthatthedevelopersofschoolsciencecurriculadonotperpetuatethemyththatscienceisanexclusivelyWestern,post-Renaissanceactivity.38

Stories and the NZ CurriculumTable2showshowtheseventeenstoriesinfourissuesofNewZealandScienceTeacherilluminatethethirteen

propositionsaboutthenatureofsciencesuggestedbyRutherfordandAhlgren.Now–andnotforgettingthatallthestoriesactuallycomprisemanyrichcross-currentsandissuesabouthowscienceworks–Ihaveidentifiedfromeachstoryonedominantaspectwhichalignswithkeywordsinthe‘Understandingaboutscience’statementsinTheNewZealandCurriculum(seeTable2).IwouldstressthatIhaveinterpretedthestatementscumulatively,thatis,Iassumethateachcontainsawealthofmeaningthatcanbeexploredingreaterandgreaterdepthacrosseachsuccessivelevelofschooling.Thestoriesarethereforetobeselectedandusedinwhateverwayismostproductive,appropriateandpurposeful.Evenbetter,theymightinspirestorytellingandstorywritinginothers.39Overall,itismyhopethattheywillhumanize,de-mythologiseandenlivenourscienceteaching.

Forfurtherinformationcontact:mbarker@waikato.ac.nz

AcknowledgementsIamgratefultoElizabethBarkerandtoDrAjithaNayarforpointingmetowardstheNeedhamandBosestoriesrespectively,toLiJinruiforhercommentsonanearlierdraftofthisarticle,andtomanyotherfriendsandcolleaguesinChinaandIndia.

Footnotes1 Barker,M.(2002).Rippingyarns–sciencestorieswithapoint,101,31-36;

Barker,M.(2004).Spirals,shameandsainthood–morerippingyarnsfromscience,106,6-14.Barker,M.(2006).Rippingyarns–apedagogyforlearningaboutthenatureofscience,113,27-37.

2 Mayhew,B.,&Huhti,T.(1998).Lonelyplanet:South-westChina,p.378.Hawthorne,Aust:LonelyPlanetPublishing.

3 Winchester(2008).Seebelow,hasbeenpublishedunderthisalternativetitleintheUnitedStates.

4 Rutherford,J.,&Ahlgren,A.(1990).ScienceforallAmericans.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

5 Edwards,M.(1997).OurmaninChina.NationalGeographicMagazine,191(1),62-81.

6 Rock,J.(1928).LifeamongthelamasofChoni:DescribingthemysteryplaysandbutterfestivalinthemonasteryofanalmostunknownTibetanprincipalityinKansuprovince.NationalGeographicMagazine,54,569-619.

7 NationalGeographicMagazine1924,#46,473-499;1925,#47,447-491;1925,#48,331-347;1931,#60,1-65.

8 Ferry,D.(1998).DorothyHodgkin:Alife.London:Granta.Wilkins,M.(2003).Thethirdmanofthedoublehelix:TheautobiographyofMauriceWilkins.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

9 Kolbert,E.(2006).Fieldnotesfromacatastrophe–man,natureandclimatechange,p.131.NewYork:Bloomsbury.

10 Manuel,F.E.(1974).ThereligionofIsaacNewton.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Quammen,D.(2006).ThereluctantMr.Darwin.NewYork:Norton.

11 ThephilosopherThomasKuhnisanobviousexample.12 ManyofthesebiographicaldetailsaresourcedfromSimonWinchester’s

(2008)superblyreadableaccount.13 FormerlyChungking.14 FormerlyNanking.15 Winchester(2008),p.102.16 Hessenbruch(1999),p.868.17 Winchester(2008),p.9.ItispublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress.18 Blue(2004).19 Needham(1969),frontispiece.20 French,S.(2007).Science:keyconceptsinphilosophy,p.95.London:Continuum.21 Thatis,modern-dayKolkata.22 Accountsdifferastotheexactdate.Thisisasensitivepointforthosewho

wouldclaimthatBose’sinitialtransmissionprecededMarconi’s.23 QuotedinHabibandRaina(2007),p.314.24 Thisishowheisusuallyreferredto.25 Bose’sinnovativecoherercomprisedatubecontainingironintheformof

finewirespiralspringswithalayerofmercurybetween;radiationcausedthesystemtoswitchtoaconductingstate,detectedbyaverysensitivegalvanometerinthecircuit.

26 HabibandRaina(2007),p.328.27 Ibid.p.335.28 http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/JCBOSE.htm,07.04.0929 HabibandRaina(2007),p.34530 Ibid,p.338.31 Ibid,p.13932 Kumar(2006),p.218.33 HabibandRaina(2007),p.326.33 Nandy(1995),p.62.35 Ibid,p.60. continued on page 38

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36 Susskind(1980),p.325.37 Harding,S.1998).Issciencemulticultural?Postcolonialisms,feminisms

andepistemologies.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,p.738 Hodson,D.(1998).Sciencefiction:Thecontinuingmisrepresentationof

scienceintheschoolcurriculum.CurriculumStudies,6(2),191-216.39 SeeNewZealandScienceTeacher,#113,p.27.

Main sources about Joseph RockAris,M.(1992).Lamas,princes,andbrigands:JosephRock’sphotographsofthe

Tibetan BorderlandsofChina.NewYork:ChinaHouseGallery.Goodman,J.(2006).JosephF.RockandhisShangri-La.HongKong:Caravan

Press.Sutton,S.B.(1974).InChina’sborderprovinces:TheturbulentcareerofJoseph

Rock.NewYork:HastingsHouse.Winchester,S.(1996).Theriveratthecentreoftheworld:Ajourneyupthe

Yangze,andbackinChinesetime.NewYork:HenryHolt.

Main sources about Joseph NeedhamBlue,G.(2004).JosephNeedham.InH.C.G.Matthew&B.Harrison(Eds.)

OxfordDictionaryofBiography.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress(electronicsource).

Hessenbruch,A.(1999).JosephNeedham.InKellyBoyd(Ed.),Encyclopediaofhistoriansandhistoricalwriting.London:FitzroyDearborn.

Needham,J.(1969).Thegrandtitration:scienceandsocietyineastandwest.London:AllenandUnwin.

Teich,M.,&Young,R.(eds.)(1973).Changingperspectivesinthehistoryofscience:EssaysinhonourofJosephNeedham.London:Heinemann.

Temple.R.(1998).ThegeniusofChina:3,000yearsofscience,discovery,andinvention.London:Prion.

Winchester,S.(2008).Bomb,bookandcompass:JosephNeedhamandthegreatsecretsofChina.London:Viking.

Main sources about J. C. BoseHabib,S.I.,&Raina,D.(Eds.)(2007).SocialhistoryofscienceinIndia.Oxford:

OxfordUniversityPress.Kumar,D.(2006).ScienceandtheRaj–AstudyofBritishIndia(2nded.)Oxford:

Oxford UniversityPress. Nandy,A.(1995).Alternativesciences:creativityandauthenticityintwoIndian

scientists.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress(2nded.).Susskind,C.(1980).Bose,JagadisChunder.InC.C.Gillespie(Ed.),Dictionaryof

scientificbiography,v.2,p.325.NewYork:CharlesScribner.

CoRes and PaP-eRs CoRes and PaP-eRs can be used as tools for promoting the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of novice (and not so novice) science teachers, writes Anne Hume, School of Education, University of Waikato.

IntroductionTherehasbeenincreasingdiscussionaroundpedagogicalcontentknowledge(PCK)asausefulideaforpromotingteacherlearning.PCKwasfirstintroducedbytheAmericawriterLeeShulman(1987)inrecognitionoftheveryspecializedprofessionalknowledgeexpertteachersinparticularsubjectspossess,e.g.theknowledgethatanexpertscienceteacherhasthatsetshim/herapartfromanyscientistexpertinthatfield.Shulmancreditedtheseexpertteacherswiththeabilitytocarryoutteachingasacomplexandchallengingactivitythatrequiredongoingandinformeddecisionmakinginresponsetoindividualstudent’slearningneeds,ratherthanjustthesimpletransmissionofinformationfromteachertostudents.Hemaintainedthattheypossessaspecialblendofsciencecontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledgeforteachingparticularsciencetopicstoparticulargroupsofstudents,whichisbuiltupovertimeandexperienceandwhichhetermedPCK.PCKistopicspecific,uniquetoeachscienceteacher,andcanonlybegainedthroughteachingpractice.However,itisaverydifficultformofknowledgetodescribeandexemplifybecauseexperiencedteachersveryrarelydiscussorshareitwithfellowteachers−oftenbecausetherearefewopportunitiesinbusyprofessionallivestodothis,andalsobecauseofitsfluidnature,constantlychangingandevolvingasclassroomcircumstancesdictate.ThusPCKtendstoremainhiddenastacitratherthanexplicitknowledge.

SinceShulmanfirstintroducedthisnotionofPCK,otherwritershavebeguntoexplore,debate,andexpanduponitsnature.Magnussonetal.,(1999)identifiedfivecomponentsofascienceteacher’sPCKthatthereissomeagreementoninthescienceeducationfield.Thesecomponentsincludehis/her:• orientationstowardsscienceteaching(theteacher’s

knowledgeofscienceandthenatureofscience,andbeliefsaboutscienceandhowtoteachit)

• knowledgeofcurriculum(whatconceptsandskillstoteachandwhentoteach)

• knowledgeofassessment(whattoassess,whyandhow);

• knowledgeofstudents’understandingofscience(includingtheirpriorknowledgeandmisconceptionsandpotentialmisconceptions)

• knowledgeofinstructionalstrategies(provenappropriateandeffective).

ThespecificPCKsthatteacherswillneedtodevelopduringtheirteachingcareersrequireagreatdealofprofessionallearning.Classroomteachingexperienceisessentialforbuildingthisknowledge;butimaginethevaluetonovicescienceteachersofhavingaccesstosuchknowledgethatalreadyexists!Nottomentionthoseteachersalreadyintheprofessionwholackexpertiseinparticularsciencecontentareas,suchasthephysicsspecialistwhoisaskedtoteachbiologyinjuniorscienceprogrammes.Untilrecentlytherehavebeenfewconcreteexamplesthatareapplicabletoscienceteaching.

Developing PCK exemplars AboutsixyearsagoagroupofscienceeducationresearchersatMonashUniversity,beganinvestigatingiftheycould‘capture’thePCKofsomeexpertscienceteachersforuseininitialteachereducation.Loughranetal.(2004,2006)identifiedanumberofexpertscienceteachersintheirlocalarea,andinvitedthemtoparticipateinaresearchprojecttoseeiftheiraimofcapturingexpertPCKwasfeasible.TohelptheteachersrecognizeanddepictcomponentsoftheirPCK,Loughranetal.createdstrategiesknownasContentRepresentations(CoRes)andPedagogicalandProfessional-experienceRepertoires(PaP-eRs).

TheCoResaretemplateswhichattempttoportraycollectiveoverviewsofexpertteachers’PCKrelatedtotheteachingofaparticularsciencetopicandareaccompaniedbyPaP-eRs,whicharenarrativesabouthowspecificaspectsofthetopicalignedtotheCoRehavebeentaughtbytheexpertteachers−eachCoRehasasetofrelatedPaP-eRs(seeFigure1overpage).

Use of CoRes and PaP-eRs in science teacher educationTheCoResandPaP-eRsdevelopedbytheexpertscienceteachersintheLoughranetal.studyarepresentedinthe2006publicationUnderstandinganddevelopingscienceteachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledgebyJ.Loughran,A.BerryandP.Mullhall.

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