Science Aurora 2005

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Murtaza Safri

Umair Sadiq

Asad K alimi

Aurora is GIKI's first and only official science magazine. First published by GIKI ScienceSociety in 1999, it has been revived this year, to cater to the growing demand for such a

publication.

Aurora's basic aim is to provide a platform for GIKI students to voice their theories andresearch in various scientific fields. Also, Aurora aims to serve as GIKI's voice in thescientific community, giving an insight as to the scientific activity going on inside GIKI.

This issue ofAurora includes Technical articles, Interviews, and a fun section, as well asFinal Year Project abstracts and Research papers by prominent people of the field,including many of our own faculty members.

It is a great opportunity for GIKI students to express their thoughts and ideas, and taketheir first steps into the world of scientific research and publication.

EDITORIAL

A u r o r a 2 0 0 5

Bilal Riaz Omar Rana

Umair TariqWaqar Nayyar

Abdul HannanFoaad Ahmed

Abdul Wasae

Abdul Basit

Aamir Shah



Apart from being a centre of excellence with regard to academicpursuits, GIKI is also known nationwide for its elaborated andimpressive extra curricular culture. Science society has alwaysplayed a very pivotal role to enrich this culture.

AROURA is the official scientific magazine published by GIKI Science Society. Itwas last published in SPRING 1999 by batch 6. I must congratulate Science Society for reviving this tradition with such a great quality. All the articles and papers from the

Faculty and Students of GIK Institute describe the newly emerging technologies. Theidea of Science Timeline is also excellently implemented. In short, it is a great effort putupbyGIKIScienceSocietyandIonceagaincongratulatethemfortheirhecticeffort.

Dr. Jameel-un-nabiDean, Student affairs

Giki institute

Being the Advisor of GIKI Science Society, I will like to take thehonor to congratulate GIKI Science Society on Publishing AROURA.

Over the years, the Science Society has matured significantly. From humblebeginnings, it has grown to become one of the most prestigious societies in GIKI, with anenviable reputation all over the country.

AROURA is the official scientific magazine of the Institute. It was last published inSPRING 1999 by batch 6. It is a quality publication and one of major publication of itskind in the country. I once again like to appreciate the efforts of Science Societymembers and especially the editorial board ofAROURAfor bringing out this magazine.

Dr. Ibrahim qaziAdvisor, Giki Science Society

G I K I S c i e n c e S o c i e ty



ContentsFaculty Advisor

Coordinator

Editor in Chief

Editorial Board

Dr. Ibrahim Qazi

Asad Kalimi

Abdul Wasae

Billal Riaz

Umair Tariq Umair Sadiq

Waqar Nayyar Abdul Hannan

Foaad Ahmed

Murtaza SafriAamir ShahOmar Saeed Rana

Abdul Basit

Omar Saeed Rana

Technical Team

Layout Design

Cover Design

Contact:

[email protected]

Copyright 2005GIKI SS

Aurora

2005

Was Big Bang really the beginning of Time?

Deterministic Chaos - There is a method in themadness.Number Theory Plasma - The fourth state of matter

Quantum TeleportationBiological Nanotechnology - Nanomachines

The journey to human powered flight

Bermuda TrianglePolar Aurora

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3

4

6

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10

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11

ARTI

CLES

Interview with Dr. Abdullah Sadiq - RectorGIKI 15

INTERVIEW

Closed form approximation solutions for therestricted circular three body problem

17

RE

SEARCH

P

APER

Human Computer Interfacing usingBiological signals

Orca

Neuro-Mod

21

21

22

ABSTRACTS

FYP

Stars - How they originate and how do they change in their life cycle.

The fundamental forces of the universe

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23

ARTI

CLES

Crossword

Brain Teasers

Enigma

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27

28

BRAI

N

CRACKERS



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Was Big Bang Really theBeginning of Time? By Waqar Nayyar

Wasthebigbangreallythebeginningoftime?Or did the universe exist before then? Such a questionseemed almost blasphemous only a decade ago. Mostcosmologists insisted that it simply made no sense--thatto contemplate a time before the big bang was like askingfor directions to a place north of the North Pole. Butdevelopments in theoretical physics, especially the rise of string theory, have changed their perspective. The pre-bang universe has become the latest frontier of cosmology.

The new willingness to consider what might havehappened before the bang is the latest swing of anintellectual pendulum that has rocked back and forth for millennia. In one form or another, the issue of the ultimatebeginning has engaged philosophers and theologians innearly every culture. It is entwined with a grand set of concerns, one famously encapsulated in an 1897painting by Paul Gauguin: D'ou venons-nous? Quesommes-nous? Ou allons-nous? "Where do we comefrom? What are we? Where are we going?" The piecedepicts the cycle of birth, life and death--origin, identityand destiny for each individual--and these personalconcerns connect directly to cosmic ones. We can traceour lineage back through the generations, back throughouranimal ancestors, to early forms of life and protolife, to

the elements synthesized in the primordial universe, tothe amorphous energy deposited in space before that.Does our family tree extend forever backward? Or do itsroots terminate? Is the cosmos as impermanent as weare?

The ancient Greeks debated the origin of timefiercely. Aristotle, taking the no-beginning side, invokedthe principle that out of nothing, nothing comes. If theuniverse could never have gone from nothingness tosomethingness, it must always have existed. For this andother reasons, time must stretch eternally into the pastand future. Christian theologians tended to take the

opposite point of view. Augustine contended that Godexists outside of space and time, able to bring theseconstructs into existence as surely as he could forgeother aspects of our world. When asked, "What was Goddoing before he createdthe world?" Augustine answered,"Time itself being part of God's creation, there was simplyno before!"

Einstein's general theory of relativity led modern

cosmologists to much the same conclusion. The theoryholds that space and time are soft, malleable entities. Onthe largest scales, space is naturally dynamic, expandingor contracting over time, carrying matter like driftwood onthe tide. Astronomers confirmed in the 1920s that our universe is currently expanding: distant galaxies moveapart from one another. One consequence, as physicistsStephen Hawking and Roger Penrose proved in the1960s, is that time cannot extend back indefinitely. As youplay cosmic history backward in time, the galaxies allcome together to a single infinitesimal point, known as asingularity--almost as if they were descending into ablack hole. Each galaxy or its precursor is squeezeddown to zero size. Quantities such as density,temperature and spacetime curvature become infinite.The singularity is the ultimate cataclysm, beyond whichourcosmicancestrycannotextend.

The unavoidable singularity poses seriousproblems for cosmologists. In particular, it sits uneasilywith the high degree of homogeneity and isotropy that theuniverse exhibits on large scales. For the cosmos to lookbroadly the same everywhere, some k ind o f communication had to pass among distant regions of space, coordinating their properties. But the idea of such

communication contradicts the old cosmologicalparadigm.

To be specific, consider what has happened over the 13.7 billion years since the release of the cosmicmicrowave background radiation. The distance betweengalaxieshasgrownbyafactorofabout1,000(becauseof the expansion), while the radius of the observableuniverse has grown by the much larger factor of about100,000 (because light outpaces the expansion). We seeparts of the universe today that we could not have seen13.7 billion years ago. Indeed, this is the first time incosmic history that light from the most distant galaxies

has reached the Milky Way.Nevertheless,thepropertiesoftheMilkyWayare

basically the same as those of distant galaxies. It is asthough you showed up at a party only to find you werewearing exactly the same clothes as a dozen of your closest friends. If just two of you were dressed the same,it might be explained away as coincidence, but a dozensuggests that the partygoers had coordinated their attire

Strange Coincidence:

500,000 - 400,000 years ago 3500 BC 3000 BC

Humans begin to control fire for usefulpurposes.Theuseoffireprobably develops in four stages: observing naturalsources, acquiring fire fromnatural sources, learning tomake fire, and learning tocontrol fire.

Sumerians invent the wheel. Itconsists o f two or threew o od e n s e gm e nt s h e ldtogether by transverse strutsthat rotate on a wooden pole.Evidence indicates that thewheel was invented only onceand then spread to Asia andEurope.

Abacus was invented insouthwest Asia use an earlyform of the abacus to performcalculations. Other earlycivilizations also used someformoftheabacus.



in advance. In cosmology, the number is not a dozen buttens of thousands--the number of independent yetstatistically identical patches of sky in the microwavebackground.

One possibility is that all those regions of spacewere endowed at birth with identical properties--in other

words, that the homogeneity is mere coincidence.Physicists, however, have thought about two morenatural ways out of the impasse: the early universe wasmuch smaller or much older than in standard cosmology.Either (or both, acting together) would have madeintercommunication possible.

The most popular choice follows the firstalternative. It postulates that the universe went through aperiod of accelerating expansion, known as inflation,early in its history. Before this phase, galaxies or their precursors were so closely packed that they could easilycoordinate their properties. During inflation, they fell out

of contact because light was unable to keep pace with thefrenetic expansion. After inflation ended, the expansionbegan to decelerate, so galaxies gradually came backinto one another's view.

Physicists ascribe the inflationary spurt to thepotential energy stored in a new quantum field, theinflation, about 10-35 second after the big bang. Potentialenergy, as opposed to rest mass or kinetic energy, leadsto gravitational repulsion. Rather than slowing down theexpansion, as the gravitation of ordinary matter would,the inflation accelerated it. Proposed in 1981, inflationhas explained a wide variety of observations withprecision [see "The Inflationary Universe," by Alan H.Guth and Paul J. Steinhardt; Scientific American, May1984; and "Four Keys to Cosmology," Special report;Scientific American, February]. A number of possibletheoretical problems remain, though, beginning with thequestions of what exactly the inflation was and what gaveitsuchahugeinitialpotentialenergy.

A second, less widely known way to solve thepuzzle follows the second alternative by getting rid of thesingularity. If time did not begin at the bang, if a long erapreceded the onset of the present cosmic expansion,matter could have had plenty of time to arrange itself smoothly. Therefore, researchers have reexamined the

reasoningthatledthemtoinferasingularity.

One of the assumptions--that relativity theory isalways valid--is questionable. Close to the putativesingularity, quantum effects must have been important,even dominant. Standard relativity takes no account of such effects, so accepting the inevitability of thesingularity amounts to trusting the theory beyond reason.

To know what really happened, physicists need tosubsume relativity in a quantum theory of gravity. Thetask has occupied theorists from Einstein onward, butprogress wasalmost zero until the mid-1980s.

Today two approaches stand out. One, going by

the name of loop quantum gravity, retains Einstein'stheory essentially intact but changes the procedure for implementing it in quantum mechanics [see "Atoms of Space and Time," by Lee Smolin; Scientific American,January]. Practitioners of loop quantum gravity havetaken great strides and achieved deep insights over thepast several years. Still, their approach may not berevolutionary enough to resolve the fundamentalproblems of quantizing gravity. A similar problem facedparticle theorists after Enrico Fermi introduced hiseffective theory of the weak nuclear force in 1934. Allefforts to construct a quantum version of Fermi's theoryfailed miserably. What was needed was not a new

technique but the deep modifications brought by theelectroweak theory of Sheldon L. Glashow, Steven Wein-bergandAbdusSalaminthelate1960s.

The second approach, which I consider morepromising, is string theory--a truly revolutionarymodification of Einstein's theory. This article will focus onit, although proponents of loop quantum gravity claim toreachmanyofthesameconclusions.

String theory grew out of a model written down in1968 to describe the world of nuclear particles (such asprotons and neutrons) and their interactions. Despitemuch initial excitement, the model failed. It wasabandoned several years later in favor of quantumchromodynamics, which describes nuclear particles interms of more elementary constituents, quarks. Quarksare confined inside a proton or a neutron, as if they weretied together by elastic strings. In retrospect, the originalstring theory had captured those stringy aspects of thenuclear world. Only later was it revived as a candidate for combining general relativity and quantumtheory.

Evolutionof a Revolution:

Continued on page 24

G I K I S c i e n c e S o c i e ty 2

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The Sun loses up to a billion kilograms every second becauseof the solar wind that blasts out from its surface.Uranus is the only planet whose poles are warmer than its equator.The tail of a comet always points away from the sun due to

pressure of solar wind (particles ejected from the surface of sun).

2000 BC

Babylonians solve quadraticequations quadratic equationsa n d d e mo n st r a te t h ei r discovery of what is now calledthe PythagoreanTheorem.

194 BC 250 AD 517 AD

E r at o sh t he n es a G re e kgeographer devised the firstworld map, including thef e at ure s o f l at it u de a n dlongitude.

Diophantus p ioneered insolving certain indeterminatealgebraic equations.

John Philoponus determinedthat falling objects do so withthe same acceleration, or 'impetus,'



Deterministic Chaos - There

is a method in the madness By Umair Sadiq

The stars in the sky have always been seen as asymbol of harmony and order. The Copernican,heliocentric image of the world is so convincing in itssimplicity that it was easy to assume for a long time thatthe course of the planets will never change, that the solar systemisthereforestableinasense.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century,astronomy was undergoing a highly successful period,building on Newton's law of gravity and on the progressmade in analytical mechanics. The planets Neptune andUranus were predicted and discovered as a result of deviations between calculated and observed dataregarding the movements of Jupiter and Saturn.Following this, King Oscar II of Sweden offered a prize for proof of the stability of the solar system. The prize wasfinally awarded to a French mathematician, HenriPoincare, but for proving that this proof could not begiven! Poincare discovered what are now known ashyperbolic structures in the space of the planetsencompassing their positional and momentumcoordinates (phase space), which make it practicallyimpossible to trace the courses of the planets in the longterm: planetary movement turns out to be chaotic on alongtimescale.

What still appeared to be a peculiar quirk of planetary movement in Poincare's time was soon to be anessential element of natural laws. Nearly a hundred yearslater, this chaotic behavior was being found in almostevery field of science: comprehensive experimental andnumerical studies in biological, ecological, chemical,physical and other systems constantly revealed the sameseemingly random, irregular movements, the same long-term or even short-term unpredictability. Chaos iseverywhere! Future weather, for example, can bemathematically worked out in a principle, but any greatdegree of accuracy is simply not attainable for more thanashortperiod.

What is remarkable about this form of chaos isthat it does not develop from a large number of unknowninfluences, like noise in electrical circuits, for example,that is caused by the disordered movements of myriadelectrons. It is rather the result of the nonlinear law of motion, which is otherwise entirely deterministic. Howcan we understand this? Let us first imagine a billiardtable with two balls on it at some distance from one

another. One of the balls is then hit off the other in twodifferent experiments with a slightly different angle butfrom the same starting position in both cases. After eachcollision, the angle between the two trajectories of theballs is significantly greater than before. If we consider colliding atoms of a gas, each disturbance in the angles of their flight trajectories will be increased on eachadditional collision with other gas atoms. Informationabout the original direction of the trajectory will very soonbe totally lost. The phenomenon described are known asdeterministic chaos and this has two characteristicdefining features: firstly, almost every initial disturbanceof a chaotic system, however small, will intensify itself continually and, secondly, a specific range of values,fixed for all components of the system, will be adhered toduring this process (e.g. 360 degrees for the angle of impact). These two together result in irregular andunpredictable movements that appear to be random.

Even in this chaos, certain space-time patternsdevelop over longer periods of time and these generallyhave a fractal structure: they are known as strangeattractors. Although long term predictions of the course of motion are practically impossible, we can have bymodern aids a deep insight in the phenomenon. Acharacteristic signature of chaotic behavior in a system is

the fact that its sequence over time can be described onlyby a superposition of a continuum of periodicmovements. The equations of motion are purelydeterministic and involve no random elements, but theyare nonlinear. Chaos requires only a few degrees of freedom, but it is not limited to simple systems with fewdegreesof freedom.

We encounter chance and statistics in Nature inthree different ways. Firstly, we have an inherentlystatistical character of quantum mechanics, about whichwe obtain information from the laws of probabilityamplitudes, which are in themselves strict. Secondly, we

have deterministic chaotic motion occurring as a result of nonlinear, classical laws of nature, with all the knownrandom elements, such as unpredictability andirregularity of sequence. Thirdly, we have chance,originating from the interplay of many individualcomponents (electrons, molecules, grains, chunks of dust in Saturn's rings, star clusters etc). We know by nowthat for many statistical phenomenon of a macroscopicnature, it is irrelevant whether the particles move

750 AD 800 AD 850 - 900 AD

Paper was invented by theChinese. J ab be r b in H ay ya n, d idwonders in the department of chemistry, tried to create goldfrom sulphur and mercury.

- Water mills were developed tosupply mechanical power todrive machinery etc.-Moors in Spain prepared purecopper by reacting its salts withi r on , a f o re r un n e r o f electroplating.

A u r o r a 2 0 0 53

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According to the laws of quantum mechanics or theclassical, nonlinear laws. It is solely the vast number of particles involved that causes macroscopically randombehavior that we graphically describe as “noise”. As wasrecently discovered, this noise can even causeresonance vibrations (“stochastic resonance”) anddirected motion. It also has a decisive influence on the

course of every chemical reaction and might be relevantfor the way in which even muscles work (biologicalnanomachines).

It could well be said that deterministic chaos willhave an important part to play in future high-speedcomputer chips that work with “ballistic” electrons. Theinsights gained in the meantime concerning the analysisof chaotic time sequences are increasingly also beingused outside the field of physics in medicine for thee v a l u a t i o n o f e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a m s a n d

electroencephalograms, for example, and in qualitycontrolorintheanalysisofstockmarketprices.

Number TheoryBy Foaad Ahmed Tahir

Since the dawn of mankind, man has been

endeavoring to make his l ife better and morecomfortable. In this quest he began discovering andinventing new things. This led to the birth of mathematics.The first thing that led to mathematics was numbers.However shortly man began to investigate thesenumbers and thus discovered some remarkableproperties of theirs. This led to the birth of Number Theory. This deals with all the abstract properties of numbers which connects set of numbers. Theseproperties have found numerous uses in our everydaylives. Some of the properties of numbers are describedbelow.

Prime numbers have fascinated men since thebeginning. They seem to contain magical powers amongthem in that they cannot be divided wholly by any number other than itself and 1. A lot of advancement has beenmade in mathematics due to research done ininvestigating prime numbers. Although the criterion of primenumberissimple,yettofindlargeprimenumbersisa long process using the simple factorization method. For this purpose a special type of prime numbers calledMersenne prime numbers is the main field of interest for findinglargeprimenumbers.Theseprimenumbersareof the form 2 -1 where p is itself prime. The advantage for

such numbers is that there is an algorithm for finding outitsprimality.Thealgorithmgoeslikethis:

1. Takeanumbernandsquareit.2. Nowsubtracttwofromit,wehaven -2.3. Now divide the by the number p and take the

wholeremainderasn.

Thisprocessisrepeatedp-2timesandifthefinal

remainder is 0, then the number

is prime. Initially we take

nas4.For example we have 31= 2 -1, where the prime number pis5.1. We have n=4, =14,14mod31= 14.2. We have n=14, = 194, 194 mod 31 =8.3 Wehaven=8, =62,62mod31=0.

This algorithm has been performed 5-2=3 timesand the final result is 0. So the number 31 is prime. Thisalgorithm is so efficient that the largest prime number andthe 42nd Mersenne prime number so far found is 2- 1, having 7,816,230 digits. It has great practical uses aswell. Because of the fact that prime numbers are so hardto factorize, they are used to secure financial dealings by

encryption. Thus an abstract property such as primality isalsoofgreatuseineverydaylives.

PrimeNumbers:

p

2

5

25,964,951

n -2

n -2n -2

n -2

Perfect numbers are numbers which are the sumof their factors other than the number itself. For example 6= 1+2+3 is the smallest perfect number. Perfect numbersalso have a relationship with Mersenne prime numbersas each of these prime numbers is associated with aperfect number. If p is a Mersenne prime number then thetriangular number p(p+1)/2 is a perfect number, this canbeshownasfollows:

Let Mersenne Prime number be p = 2n 1, then

the perfect number is P=p(p+1)/2 = (2n -1)2n-1 .Thus thesumoffactorsoftheperfectnumberisgivenby

S=1+2+…+2n-1 + (2n -1)(1+2+…+2n-2)=2n-1+ (2n-1)(2n-1-1)= (2n-1)(2n-1-1+1)= (2n-1)2n-1= P

2

2

2

2

PerfectNumbers:


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1000AD

Ibn al-Haitam introduced theidea that light rays emanate instraight lines in all directionsfrom every point on a luminoussurface.

1044 AD 1100's AD 1145 AD

Chinese found the recipe of gunpowder. -The concept of Blast furnacewas established.-Alchemists had developed theart of distillation to the stage atwhich disti llates could becaptured by cooling in a flask,and wine could be distilled toyieldaquavitae.

Abraham ben Meir Ibn Ezraexplained the Arabic system of numeration and the use of thesymbol0.



Thus the sum of factors of the perfect number equals itself. Hence with the discovery of every newMersenne prime number a new perfect number is alsodiscovered. However no odd perfect number has beenfound as yet and there isno proof that none exists, if thereisoneitisextremelylarge.

This is the series 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21, … whereevery number is the sum of the previous two terms. Thisseries was discovered by Fibonacci also known asLeonardoofPisa.Hethoughtofthefollowingproblem:

A closed compound is left with a rabbit whichstarts breeding after two months but thereafter breedsmonthly. The newborns also breed similarly. What will bethenumberofrabbitsasthemonthsprogress?

The answer as it emerges is the Fibonacciseries. This series is found everywhere in the universe. If

the number of petals on flowers are counted they arearranged in the form of Fibonacci numbers, 1 in centrethen 2,3,5,8,… as we move out radially . If a rectangle isformed with sides having length equal to two consecutivenumbers, and then a square with side equal to the shorter side is made inside it, the new inscribed rectangle alsohas sides equal to consecutive Fibonacci numbers. If thisprocess is repeated and then the centers of the squaresare joined and the curve smoothened, then the resultingcurve is Fibonacci curve. If the spiral galaxies areobserved then the spiral is fibonaccian. Similarly, thehorns of animals have the fibonaccian spiral. If the ratiosof two relatively large consecutive fionaccian numbersare taken it emerges as the golden ratio. This is a number

whosesquareis1morethanitselfwhilethereciprocalis1less than itself. It is (1+√5)/2 which comes out to be about1.61. This number has the property that geometricalobject having this ratio seem pleasant to the eye. If thesides of rectangle have this ratio then it looks pleasant.Thus this series has its uses and is found everywhere inthe nature.

FibonacciSeries:

Quantum-confinement nanostructures onsemiconductors and monomolecular electronics (singlemolecules as electronic devices) are emergingtechnologies that would realize extremely large scaleintegrated, extremely low-power consumption electroniccircuits and powerful computers of very small size. This is

a kind of nanotechnology that will have a great impact onmany markets other than the electronic appliances andcomputer market, in the near future. Just as whathappened with the term "nanotechnology", there is someconfusion about what is meant by "molecular electronics". This term should properly be reserved tosing le-molecule based devices and systems.Inappropriately, the same term is used to designate

devices and systems based on conductive molecular materials; while it is used generally for thin film or "low-dimensional" molecular materials, it is to be stressed thatthe properties featured by the molecular material in thiscase are bulk, not single-molecule properties.

The progress in Molecular Nanotechnology

looks closely related to advances in Nanoelectronics for control purposes. Supramolecular science (chemistryand physics) is supplying tools and processes toward thedevelopment of complex molecular electronic structures,because supramolecular structures are essentiallybased on weak, van der Waals bonds capable of a richlyvaried behavior with respect to strong, covalent chemicalbonds.

NanoelectronicsBy Umair Sadiq

1202 AD 1285 AD 1364 AD

Leonardo Pisano, gave birth tothe Fibonacci series. A l es s a nd r o d e l la S p in ainvented spectacles for far-sightedness.

Giovanni di Dondi built acomplex clock which kept tracko f c al en da r c yc le s a ndcomputed the date of Easter byusingvariouslengthsofchain.

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Plasma - The fourth state of

matter By Umair Sadiq


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We encounter the matter around us in its threefamiliar states: as solids, liquids, or gases. Everyoneknows that all materials go through these three states asthe temperature rises, the order being solid - liquid - gas.The evaporation temperature of normal air as anexample of a gas mixture is far below zero degreeCelsius, while temperatures above 5,000 C are requiredto turn heat resistant materials, such as tungsten, into thegaseous state. People are less aware of the fact thatevery substance assumes a “fourth state” when heatedveryintenselytoroughly20,000 C:itbecomesplasma.

Due to these high transition temperatures,

plasma formation is a rather rare occurrence in our everyday environment, because no vessels exist in whicha substance could be converted to its plasma state bymeans of extreme heating. Nevertheless, “naturally”occurring plasmas can also be found on Earth: lighteningis probably the most familiar example of terrestrialplasma.

However, if we consider all the visible matter inthe universe, it becomes evident that the plasma state isby far predominant and that the three states of matter familiar to us solid, liquid, gaseous are the exceptions:plasma makes well over 90% of all matter and is thus the

most frequent and “natural” state of matter. Plasma canbe found as extremely dense matter at the hot centre of astar, and as extremely diluted matter in interstellar space,where it contributes to the formation of new stars. Plasmaphysics,thescienceofplasma,isthusalsooneofthekeysub-disciplines of astrophysics.

An essential feature of the plasma state is thatthe previously neutralatoms or molecules of matterbreakdownintothepositivenucleus orion andtheassociated,now free, electrons. Matter in the plasma state thusacquires new physical properties and can simultaneouslyhaveaspecificeffectonitscoldersurroundings:

Good (metal-like) electrical conductivity,Strongly influenced by magnetic fields (constriction),Radiation emission from the infrared to theUV or X-ray range,Powerful heat source (at high plasma densities),Specific plasma-chemical effects in the bulk and on

surfaces.These features are associated with numerous,

interesting physical plasma phenomena, as well as withimportant technical applications for example in lightingtechnology, controlled nuclear fusion, thin layer surfacetreatments, plasma etching etc. The removal of surfacesby means of plasma etching has made a decisivecontribution to advancing microelectronics structuringmaking possible the manufacturing of highly integratedprocessors, memory chips, micro sensors and muchmore.

The fundamental physics of all these techniquesis thoroughly understood. However, further developmentof established plasma processes or the discovery of newones still requires an immense research effort. Plasmaprocess engineering is still in the exploratory phase inseveral fields, such as biotechnology, medicaltechnology and environmental engineering.

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AlbertEinsteincouldnotspeakuntilhewasfouryearsold,anddidnotreaduntilhewasseven.Beethoven'smusic teacher saidabouthim,"As a composerhe ishopeless.” WhenThomasEdisonwasayoungboy,histeacherssaidhewassostupidhecouldneverlearnanything.WaltDisneywasoncefiredbyanewspapereditorbecausehewasthoughttohaveno"goodideas.” Whenthe sculptorAuguste Rodin wasyoung hehad difficulty learning to readand write. Today,wemay sayhe hada learning

disability,buthisfathersaidofhim,"Ihaveanidiotforason.” Carusowastoldbyonemusicteacher,"Youcan'tsing.Youhavenovoiceatall."

Youarenottheonlyone.....

1468AD

Type Writer was invented byJohannGutenberg.

1473 -1543 AD 1482 AD 1545 AD

Polish astronomer NicolasCopernicus changed theconcept of the universe for thepeople of the world. Gave them od el o f u ni ve rs e a ndplanetary motion.

Leonardo da Vinci began hisn ot eb oo ks i n p ur su it o f evidence that the human bodyis microcosmic, which, by1 5 1 0 - 1 5 1 1 , i n c l u d e ddissectionsofthehumanbody.

Girolamo Cardano, in ArsMagna, published a completed iscussion o f Tartag l ia 'ssolution forcubic equations.



Quantum TeleportationBy Abdul Hannan

Teleportation is the name given by science fiction

writers to the feat of making an object or persondisintegrate in one place while a perfect replica appearssomewhere else. How this is accomplished is usually notexplained in detail, but the general idea seems to be thatthe original object is scanned in such a way as to extractall the information from it, then this information istransmitted to the receiving location and used toconstruct the replica, not necessarily from the actualmaterial of the original, but perhaps from atoms of thesame kinds, arranged in exactly the same pattern as theoriginal. A teleportation machine would be like a faxmachine, except that it would work on 3-dimensionalobjects as well as documents, it would produce an exactcopy rather than an approximate facsimile, and it woulddestroy the original in the process of scanning it. A fewscience fiction writers consider teleporters that preservethe original, and the plot gets complicated when theoriginalandteleportedversionsofthesamepersonmeet;but the more common kind of teleporter destroys theoriginal, functioning as a super transportation device, notas a perfect replicator of souls and bodies.

In 1993 an international group of six scientists,including IBM Fellow Charles H. Bennett, confirmed theintuitions of the majority of science fiction writers byshowing that perfect teleportation is indeed possible inprinciple, but only if the original is destroyed. In

subsequent years, other scientists have demonstratedteleportation experimentally in a variety of systems,including single photons, coherent light fields, nuclear spins, and trapped ions. Teleportation promises to bequite useful as an information processing primitive,facilitating long range quantum communication (perhapsultimately leading to a "quantum internet"), and making itmuch easier to build a working quantum computer. Butscience fiction fans will be disappointed to learn that noone expects to be able to teleport people or other macroscopic objects in the foreseeable future for avariety of engineering reasons, even though it would notviolateanyfundamentallawtodoso.

In the past, the idea of teleportation was nottaken very seriously by scientists, because it was thoughtto violate the uncertainty principle of quantummechanics, which forbids any measuring or scanningprocess from extracting all the information in an atom or other object. According to the uncertainty principle, themore accurately an object is scanned the more it isdisturbed by the scanning process, until one reaches a

point where the object's original state has been

completely disrupted, still without having extractedenough information to make a perfect replica. Thissounds like a solid argument against teleportation: if onecannot extract enough information from an object tomake a perfect copy, it would seem that a perfect copycannot be made. But the six scientists found a way tomakeanendrunaroundthislogic,usingacelebratedandparadoxical feature of quantum mechanics known as theEinstein-Podolsky-Rosen effect. In brief, they found away to scan out part of the information from an object A,which one wishes to teleport, while causing theremaining, unscanned,part of the information to pass, viathe Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen effect, into another object

C which has never been in contact with A. Later, byapplying to C a treatment depending on the scanned-outinformation, it is possible to maneuver C into exactly thesamestateasAwasinbeforeitwasscanned.Aitselfisnolonger in that state, having been thoroughly disrupted bythe scanning, so what has been achieved is teleportation,not replication.

As the figure above suggests, the unscannedpart of the information is conveyed from A to C by anintermediary object B, which interacts first with C andthenwithA.What?Canitreallybecorrecttosay"firstwithC and then with A"? Surely, in order to convey somethingfromA to C, the delivery vehicle must visit A before C, notthe other way around. But there is a subtle, unscannable

1590 AD 1592 AD 1609 AD

Zacharias and Hans Janssencombined double convexlenses in a tube, producing thefirst telescope.

Galileo found that the path of aprojectile is a parabola byassuming that the uniformm ot io n p re se rv ed i n t heabsence of an external force isrectilinear.

-Kepler calculations of Mars'orbit, which were inconsistentwith then current assumptionthatitwasacircle.-Galileo built a telescope withwhich he d iscovered themountains on the moon, thefour largest satellites of Jupiter,and sunspots.

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kind of information that, unlike any material cargo, andeven unlike ordinary information, can indeed be deliveredin such a backward fashion. This subtle kind of information, also called "Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR)correlation" or "entanglement", has been at least partlyunderstood since the 1930s when it was discussed in afamous paper by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, andNathan Rosen. In the 1960s John Bell showed that a pair of entangled particles, which were once in contact butlater move too far apart to interact directly, can exhibitindividually random behaviour that is too stronglycorrelated to be explained by classical statistics.Experiments on photons and other particles haverepeatedly confirmed these correlations, therebyproviding strong evidence for the validity of quantummechanics, which neatly explains them. Another well-known fact about EPR correlations is that they cannot bythemselves deliver a meaningful and controllablemessage. It was thought that their only usefulness was inproving the validity of quantum mechanics. But now it isknown that, through the phenomenon of quantum

teleportation, they can deliver exactly that part of theinformation in an object which is too delicate to bescannedout and delivered by conventional methods.

This figure on the right compares conventionalfacsimile transmission with quantum teleportation (seeabove). In conventional facsimile transmission theoriginal is scanned, extracting partial information about it,but remains more or less intact after the scanningprocess. The scanned information is sent to the receiving

station, where it is imprinted on some raw material (e.g.paper) to produce an approximate copy of the original. Bycontrast, in quantum teleportation, two objects B and C

are first brought into contact and then separated. ObjectBistakentothesendingstation,whileobjectCistakentothe receiving station. At the sending station object B isscanned together with the original object A which onewishes to teleport, yielding some information and totallydisrupting the state of A and B. The scanned informationis sent to the receiving station, where it is used to selectone of several treatments to be applied to object C,thereby putting C into an exact replica of the former stateof A.

Thefollowingconcerns a question in a physicsdegree exam at theUniversityof Copenhagen:"Describehow to determine theheightof a skyscraperusing a barometer." Onestudent replied,

"You tie a long piece of string to the neck of the barometer, then lower the barometer from the roof of the skyscraper to the ground.Thelength of thestringplus thelengthof thebarometerwill equal theheightof the building."This highly original answer so incensed the instructor that the student was failed. The student appealed on the grounds that hisanswer was indisputably correct and the university appointed an independent arbiter to decide the case. The arbiter judged thatanswer was indeed correct, but did not display knowledge of physics. To resolve the problem it was decided to call the student inandallowhim sixminutes in which to provide a verbalanswer, which showed at least a minimal familiarity theprinciples of physics.For five minutes the student sat in silence, forehead creased in thought. The arbiter reminded him that time was running out, towhich thestudent replied that he hadseveral extremelyrelevant answers, but couldn't make up his mind which to use.Onbeingadvisedtohurryupthestudentrepliedasfollows,"Firstly, you could take the barometer up to the roof of the skyscraper, drop it over the edge, and measure the time it takes to reachthe ground. The heightof the building can thenbe workedout fromthe formula H = 0.5g x t squared.But bad luck onthe barometer.""Or if the sun is shining you could measure the height of the barometer, then set it on end and measure the length of its shadow.Then you measure the length of the skyscraper's shadow, and thereafter it is a simple matter of proportional arithmetic to work outtheheightof theskyscraper.""But if you wanted to be highly scientific about it, you could tie a short piece of string to the barometer and swing it like a pendulum,

first at ground level and then on the roof of the skyscraper. The height is worked out by the difference in the restoring force T = 2 pisq.root(l/g).""Or if the skyscraperhas anoutside emergency staircase,it would be easierto walk up itand markoff the heightof the skyscraperinbarometerlengths,thenaddthemup.""If you merely wanted to be boring and orthodox about it, of course, you could use the barometer to measure the air pressure on theroof of theskyscraper andon theground, andconvert thedifference in millibars into metersto give theheightof thebuilding.""But since we are constantly being exhorted to exercise independence of mind and apply scientific methods, undoubtedly the bestway would be to knock on the janitor's door and say to him 'If you would like a nice new barometer, I will give you this one if you tellme theheightof this skyscraper'."ThestudentwasNielsBohr,theonlypersonfromDenmarktowintheNobelPrizeforPhysics.

1614AD

John Napier created the firstlogarithmic tables and the firstuseoftheword'logarithm.'

1644 AD 1647 AD 1649 AD

-Evangelista Torricelli devisedthe mercury barometer andcreated an artificial vacuum.-Blaise Pascal built a five digitadding machine, driven byrising and falling weights.

C a v a l i e r i d e r i v e d t h erelationship between the focallength of a thin lens and theradii of a surface's curvature.

Descartes laid the foundationof analytical geometry.



Biological Nanotechnology-

Nanomachines By Umair Sadiq

Nanotechnology offers the prospect of designingand building novel materials and devices at the atomiclevel. A long-term goal of this field is to devisenanomachines that will be able to store, retrieve andreplicate programs accurately, acquire raw materials,assemble them according to their programming, andobtain or generate the energy needed to carry out theseelementary processes. Such capabilities are necessarybefore a nanomachine can ultimately replicate itself.Much of the current work in the design of nanomachineshas utilized mechanical analogies in an attempt toduplicate macroscopic mechanisms, such as gears androds,onamicroscopicscale.

An alternative paradigm to the `mechanicalengineering' approach to nanomachines is provided bybiological systems. At the cellular level, information isstored by sequences of nucleic acids, which constitutethe programs for the key functions of the organism. Withthe aid of appropriate enzymes, the specific sequence of nucleic acids is replicated, and, when necessary,repaired, with an error rate of only 10-6. Other enzymesenhance the rates of chemical reactions in cells byseveral orders of magnitude. These reactions allow for building long biopolymers and operating the cellular machinery in an accurate and highly controlled manner.

The energy necessary to drive these chemical reactionsis captured from the environment by specializedassemblies of proteins. One broad class of energy-capturing proteins converts light energy into chemicalenergy, in the form of proton gradients acrossmembranes. Since light energy can easily be distributedover large areas, we can envision large 2-dimensionalarrays of nanomachines, each including a set of protonpumps for its power supply. However, naturally occurringlight-driven proton pumps, such as bacteriorhodopsin,are complex and involve many, sometimes poorly-understood stages. Let us take a brief look on the designof a simple nanomachine; a simple light-driven proton

pump, usingstate-of-the-art molecular modeling.

There are two basic components to a simplelight-driven proton pump: a source of photo-generatedprotons and a `gate-keeper', which prevents theseprotons from re-binding to their source. Deamer hasshown that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,incorporated into membranes, releaseprotons when theyareilluminated.Therefore,focusingonthedesignofthe

`Gate-keeper.', the initial approach involves a pair of proton acceptors, coupled to each other by a transientwater bridge, and supported in the membrane by a smallbundle of peptide helices. Upon illumination, the protonsource transfers its proton to the first acceptor of the gate-keeper. While the reverse reaction is highly probable,irreversibility is ensured by a nonvanishing probabilitythat the proton will be transferred to the second acceptor across a transient water bridge. Back transfer of theproton to the first acceptor, and hence to the protonsource, is impeded by the free energy required to movethe proton uphill towards the proton source, as well as bythe disruption of the water bridge resulting from thechange in the hydration of the two acceptors. Based onthe established principles, a prototypical peptide protonpump can be readily constructed and tested byexperimentalists. Once it is successfully demonstratedthat the pump performs its functions, it can be further optimized for efficiencyand regulatory precision.

Beyond this application of biological principles tonanotechnology, scientists are working on designingsmall, peptide enzymes supported by membranes. Usingmembranes as the supporting material would allow for the reduction in the size of enzymes and aligning them intwo-dimensional arrays. This, in turn, can prove very

useful in synthesis of different types of polymers.Furthermore, using membrane-supported enzymes incombination with proton pumps and membrane-boundpeptide channels could lead to a simple synthetic systementirely driven by light (with no other source of energyneeded).

’ Put your hand on a hot stove for a minute, and it seems like an hour. Sit with a pretty girl for an hour, and it seems like aminute. That's relativity’ .

’ If A is success in life, then A equals x plus y plus z. Work is x; y is play; and z is keeping your mouth shut’ .’ Do not worry about your problems with mathematics, I

assure you mine are far greater’ .Albert Einstein

1654 AD 1678 AD 1682 - 1705 AD

French mathematicians BlaisePascal and Pierre de Fermatf or mu la te t h e t he o ry o f probability.

D u tc h a s tr o no m er a n dphysicist Christiaan Huygensproposed Theory of LightWaves.

Applying Newton's laws of m ot io n t o c om et s a ndmathematically demonstratingthat comets move in ellipticorbits, English astronomer Edmond Halley correct lypredicts that a comet hedescribed in 1682 would returnin1758.

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The journey to humanpowered flight By Foaad Ahmed Tahir

Since ages man has dreamt of flying. There werevarious attempts made at flying by strapping wings to thearms and falling from heights but all were flawed at thebasic fact that, weight for weight, human muscles are notas powerful as birds and so cannot sustain the weight of body by the method of flapping wings. The reason lies atthe fact that the mode of thrust is air being pushed downand in reaction an equal force is applied on the body. Nowthe force applied depends upon the rate at whichmomentum is imparted on the air, which in turn dependson the mass of air and its velocity, but the limiting factorsof human, its power, is related to the rate at which energy

is imparted to the air, which in turn is related to its massand square of velocity. Thus in order to minimize theenergy consumption, while keeping the momentum andthus force constant, large amount of air has to be pushedat slow velocities. In the flying mode of flapping wingssmall amount of air is pushed at great velocity, thus thedesign is flawed. When attempts were made to rectify thismistake by making aircraft, the weight was too great andthe efficiency too low for it to be successful. Thus thehuman dream of flight by own power was nearlyforgotten. That is until a British industrialist again ignitedinterest in this matter by announcing an award of £50,000for a human powered controlled and steered flight. Manyattempts were made but none succeeded. That is until1977 when an American engineer Dr. Paul Mccreadypursued this project.

He was inspired about the project when he saweagles gliding effortlessly in the drift of wind. He startedcalculating the ratios of load per area of the wings of different birds. Finally he arrived at the design of hangglider. He calculated that it requires 0.5 horsepower for flight. Thus if its wingspan is doubled without increasingthe weight, its power requirement would be reduced toabout 150 watts, roughly what a healthy athlete canproduce for the duration of the test flight.

His method for the construction of the plane wasvery a crude engineering approach. If a componentworked, they made it lighter until it broke; if it broke initiallythey strengthened it. Thus they worked by trial and error.He used extremely light andstrong materials of his day. Inall, he used balsa wood, aluminum, cardboard, epoxyresins and piano wire. The aluminum tubes used at the

ends of wings were specially treated to reduce their thickness to 1/32 inch. They were so thin that under stress they were rubber like. He covered the wings withspecial Mylar plastic to reduce the weight. It was the firstsuch type of project in which the components' mass wasmeasured in grams. Their design was a hang glider shaped wingspan with the rudder and aerolon controls atthe front. It had a 2 meter long propeller which was 86%efficient and rotated at 120 rpm.A 3:2 ratio gear was usedas the human power is at its peak at 80 rpm. The planeitself moved at just 16km/h. It had a wingspan of 96 feetbut weighed in at an astonishing 35 kilograms. It was

named Gossamer Condor. To win the prize it had to takeoff unassisted and steer in an 8 shaped figure and thenclear an 8 foot pole. It achieved that easily and thus madehistory by being the first human powered, controlled andsteeredflight.

Then the same British industrialist offered aneven bigger prize of £100,000 for a human powered flightacross the 23 miles of English Channel. The same teamlead by Dr. Paul Mccready again worked on an improvedplane called Gossamer Albatross. It had an even bigger wingspan but was lighter due to advancement inmaterials. It flew across the channel in 1979 in more than2 hours, thus setting the then world record of the longestflight, which was later improved by the Deadulus plane of MITonwhich staggering100,000manhourswerespent.

However the story of Dr. Paul Mccready does note nd h ere. H e w en t o n to ma ke a co mp an y, Aerovironment, which is a leading name in energyefficient machines. First a remote controlled solar airplane was made that flew from London to Paris. Thenin collaboration with GM motors it participated in solar car race in Australia and won by a margin of 50% over runners up. This led to the design of an electric car madeby GM in collaboration with Aerovironment. It had anaerodynamic drag coefficient of 0.19, that of an f-16

fighterjet,andwentfrom0-60mphin8.9seconds.

Thus Dr. Paul Mccready has endeavored onmany trendsetting and breakthrough projects and isrightly called the father of human powered flight. Hismottoisrightly“Doingmorewithless.”

1684AD

G e r m a n m a t h e m a t i ci a nGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizpublishes an account of hisdiscovery of calculus. Sir IsaacNewton developed calculusindependently in 1666 butdoes not publish a descriptionofhismethoduntil1687.

1698 AD 1714 AD 1742 AD

English engineer ThomasSavery builds the first practicalsteam engine, which serves asa water pump. It uses twocopper vessels alternatelyfilledwithsteamfromaboiler.

Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheitmakes the first thermometer tousemercuryinsteadofalcohol.

Swedish astronomer AndersC e l s i u s d e s c r i b e s atemperature scale.



Bermuda TriangleThe "Bermuda or Devil's Triangle" is an

imaginary area locatedoff the southeasternAtlantic coastoftheUnitedStates,whichisnotedforahighincidenceof

unexplained losses of ships, small boats, and aircraft.The apexes of the triangle are generally accepted to beBermuda,Miami,Fla.,andSanJuan,PuertoRico.

In the past, extensive, but futile Coast Guardsearches prompted by search and rescue cases such asthe disappearances of an entire squadron of TBM Avengers shortly after take off from Fort Lauderdale, Fla.,or the traceless sinking of USS Cyclops and MarineSulphur Queen have lent credence to the popular belief inthe mystery and the supernatural qualities of the"BermudaTriangle.”

Countless theories attempting to explain themany disappearances have been offered throughout thehistory of the area. The most practical seem to beenvironmental and those citing human error. The majorityof disappearances can be attributed to the area's uniqueenvironmental features. First, the "Devil's Triangle" is oneof the two places on earth that a magnetic compass doespoint towards true north. Normally it points towardmagnetic north. The difference between the two is knownas compass variation. The amount of variation changesby as much as 20 degrees as one circumnavigates theearth. If this compass variation or error is notcompensated for, a navigator could find himself far off

courseandindeeptrouble.

An area called the "Devil's Sea" by Japanese andFilipino seamen, located off the east coast of Japan, alsoexhibits the same magnetic characteristics. It is also

knownfor its mysterious disappearances.

Another environmental factor is the character of the Gulf Stream. It is extremely swift and turbulent andcan quickly erase any evidence of a disaster. Theunpredictable Caribbean-Atlantic weather pattern alsoplays its role. Sudden local thunder storms and water spouts often spell disaster for pilots and mariners. Finally,the topography of the ocean floor varies from extensiveshoals around the islands to some of the deepest marinetrenches in the world. With the interaction of the strongcurrents over the many reefs the topography is in a stateof constant flux and development of new navigational

hazards is swift.Not to be under estimated is the human error

factor. A large number of pleasure boats travel the watersbetween Florida's Gold Coast and the Bahamas. All toooften, crossings are attempted with too small a boat,insufficient knowledge of the area's hazards, and a lack of good seamanship. The Coast Guard is not impressedwith supernatural explanations of disasters at sea. It hasbeen their experience that the combined forces of natureand unpredictability of mankind outdo even the most far fetched science fiction many times each year.

Polar AuroraP ol ar a uro ra s a re o p ti ca l p h en om en a

characterized by colourful displays of light in the nightsky. An aurora display in the Northern Hemisphere iscalled the aurora borealis, or the northern lights; in theSouthern Hemisphere it is called the aurora australis.

Auroras are the most visible effect of the solar wind uponthe Earth's atmosphere. The aurora occur when the Van Allen radiation belts become "overloaded" with energeticparticles, which cascade down magnetic field lines andcollide with the earth's upper atmosphere. The mostpowerful aurora tend to occur after coronal massejections. Aurora in Latin means dawn and Borealiscomes from Boreas, the name of the Greek god of thenorthern wind.

The sun gives off high-energy charged particles(also called ions) that travel out into space at speeds of 300 to 1200 kilometres per second. A cloud of suchparticles is called plasma. The stream of plasma comingfrom the sun is known as the solar wind. As the solar wind

interacts with the edge of the earth's magnetic field, someof the particles are trapped by it and they follow the linesofmagneticforcedownintotheionosphere,thesectionof the earth's atmosphere that extends from about 60 to 600kilometres above the earth's surface. When the particlescollide with the gases in the ionosphere they start to glow,producing the spectacle that we know as the auroras,northern and southern. The array of colours consists of red,green,blueandviolet.

1777 AD 1780 AD 1799 AD

French physicist CharlesCoulomb invents the torsionbalance for measuring theforce of magnetic and electricalattraction, to formulate theprinciple, known as Coulomb'slaw.

Scottish inventor James Wattand English manufacturer M a tt h e w B o ul t on b e g inmanufacturing a steam enginef or p r ov id in g p ow er t omachinery. This acceleratesthe process of industrializationp op ul ar ly k no wn a s t heIndustrial Revolution.

German mathematician CarlFriedrich Gauss submits aproof that every algebraicequation has at least one root,or solution. It comes to bec a l le d " t h e f u n da m en t a ltheoremof algebra."

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The Northern Lights are constantly in motionbecause of the changing interaction between the solar wind and the earth's magnetic field. The solar windcommonly generates up to 1,000,000 megawatts of electricity in an auroral display and this can causeinterference with power lines, radio and televisionbroadcasts and satellite communications. By studying

the auroras scientists can learn more about the solar wind, how it affects the earth's atmosphere and how theenergy of the auroras might be exploited for usefulpurposes.

1800AD

S i r W i l l i a m H e r s c h e lannounces his discovery of infrared radiation in the Sun'slight.

1803 AD 1804 AD 1822 AD

E n gl i sh p h ys i c i s t a n dphysician Thomas Youngd e m o n s t r a t e s l i g h ti n te r fe r en c e a n d h e lp sestablish the wave theory of light.

British inventor and engineer Richard Trevithick constructsthe f irs t pract ica l s teamlocomotive in 1804. Within fiftyyears the railroad becomes thedominant means for movingpeopleandfreight

- Jean B.J. Fourier publisheshis mathematical analysis of heat, showing that through at r i g on o m e tr i c s e r i e s, a n yfunction can be expressed asthe sum of an infinite series of sines and cosines.-Charles Babbage begins workthe DifferenceEngine.



1825 AD 1826 AD 1831 AD

C a r l F r i e d r i c h G a u s s(German), Nikolay IvanovichLobachevsky (Russian), andJános Bolyai (Hungarian)independently discover non-Euclidean geometry, in whichmore than one parallel can bedrawn to a given line through agivenpointnotontheline.

French inventor Joseph N.Niépce takes the first survivingpermanent photograph using abitumen-coated pewter plateexposed in a camera obscura(a box with a lens that projectsan image onto the box's insidesurface).

English physicist MichaelF a r a d a y d i s c o v e r selectromagnetic induction,proving that a current flowing ina coil of wire can induceelectromagnetically a currentinanearbycoil.

Interview withDr. Abdullah Sadiq

Howit all started…

A new phase of life…

Back to the homeland…

I became a physicist through pure chance. Thanks to my teacherMr. Ghulam Ishaq Khan I developed interestin mathematics in my childhood. I was also fond of making my own toys and tinkering with simple machines I could laymy hands on. I could hardly put them back though after I had put them apart! But I hardly had any plans to become ascientist.

After my intermediate from Islamia College Peshawar, I tried to become a GDP (pilot), cleared the written testbut got rejected on medical grounds because of a weak collar bone. Hence I continued my studies. After my B. Sc Iagain applied for a job but the late Professor Abdul Majid Mian, who was the Principal of Islamia College as well asChairman of Physics and Mathematics departments of Peshawar University, refused to give me a letter of recommendation. Instead he advised me to join the Physics Department. Hence I went to University of Peshawar anddid my masters in physics. As a university student I went on a study tour of Lahore and visited the then Atomic EnergyCenter there. That was my first visit to a place as far as Lahore! I was so impressed by its well kept lawns, shiny floorsandwellequippedlaboratoriesthatIdecidedjointhisplaceonmygraduation.

After my masters and teaching for a few months in my Alma Mater I applied for the job in the Atomic EnergyCommission (PAEC) and was interviewed in the same Center in Lahore. An American professor on the InterviewBoard, Michael Moravcsik, asked me the reason for the oval-shape of the sun just before it sets. My rather tentativeanswer must have impressed him as I was offered a job in PAEC. A few months later I was inducted as an Officer onSpecial Training, or OST. Dr Samar Mubarakmand, Chairman NECOM and Mr. Parvez Butt, Chairman, PAEC weresome of the other OSTs who joined PAEC with me. I had an exciting time in Lahore and met leading physicists of thecountry including Professor Abdus Salam. And what made it all the more interesting was the diversity of talentedpeoplebelongingtodifferentfieldsfromoverthecountry,includingthethenEastPakistan.

It was very difficult to distinguish between Professor Riazuddin, and his identical twin, Professor Fayyazuddin, who was my research supervisor. It was not uncommon for me to go to Riazuddin for consultation takinghimforFayyazuddin.HewouldpolitelytellmethatperhapsIwanttotalktohisbrother.Ididquitewellinthetrainingbut

forsomereasonIwentabroadformyhigherstudiesayearlaterthanmostofmybatchmates.Insummer1964,beforeI went abroad, I had to choose between three possibilities. To go to Edinburgh as a Commonwealth Scholar and studyunder the supervision of Higgs, now of the Higgs Boson fame, to go to the University of Colorado on a scholarship or to study at the University of Illinois (U of I) as a teaching assistant.After discussions with some teachers I finally chosetheUofIatUrbana-Champaign,USA.

I found an intellectually and culturally rich environment at the U of I. There were students from all over theworld with weekly seminars and colloquia by famous scientists fromwithin and outside the States, this wasparticularlyso during the Centenary Celebrations of the University. These were the days soon after President Kennedy andMalcolm X were assassinated, the black movement was at its peak and USA got involved in Vietnam. Thesedevelopments made students all over the world relatively more concerned about social issues. Students at the U of ICampus were also drawn into the so called students' movement that reached its peak towards the late sixties. This

also made me conscious of my social responsibilities and during 1970 I managed to raise some funds for flood victimsofthethenEastPakistan.

On my return home in 1971 I got involved in social work and infra-structure development for research at theexpense of my own physics research. I tried to improve literacy in neglected areas of the society by going to a localityof sanitation workers and teaching

Htheir children. At about the same time my teacher, mentor and friend, Michael

Wortis, also helped me write and publish my PhD research. PINSTEC was then newly established. I also took1

1. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Sciences and Technology.

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1837AD

American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse and British physicistS i r C h ar l es W h ea t s to n eindependently invent the firstelectric telegraphs.

1842 AD 1850 AD 1854 AD

German Julius Robert vonMayer formulates the law of c o n s erv a ti o n o f e n e rgy.German scientist Hermannvon Helmholtz and Britishphysicist James Prescott Joulea ls o a re c re di te d w it hdiscovering this principle.

G e r m a n m a t h e m a t i c a lphysicist Rudolf Clausius is thefirst to enunciate the secondlaw of thermodynamics.

B o ol e a n A l ge b ra B r it i s hmathematician and logicianGeorge Boole describes analgebraic system in whichl o g ic a l p ro p os i t io n s a redenoted by symbols and canbe acted on by abstractmathematical operators thatcorrespondtothelawsoflogic.

active part in the organization and development of its library into a modern and extensive resource base of scientificand technical information.

In duecourse of time a feeling started nagging me that my involvement in social work and other non-academicactivitiesisnotmakingmuchdifferencetothesociety.IfeltthatImightbeabletomakesomecontributioninthefieldinwhich I had some formal training. I requested Dr Ishfaq Ahmad, then member PAEC, to relieve me of the library relatedwork with a view to go back to physics research. My association with Raza Tahir-Kheli of Temple University, USA andthe International Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) at that stage greatly facilitated this transition. I also got anopportunity to spend about 18 months in Germany as an Alexander von Humboldt fellow, which eventually paved theway for the ICTP Prize and Gold Medal. Still after all that, there lied a dormant feeling to do something more. It was atthattimeIswitchedmycareerofascientisttooneasaneducationist.

In response to a request from Mr. Ghulam Ishaq Khan, who was then Federal Minister of Finance, PAECnominated me to help him plan an engineering institution. The initial proposal was for a post B. Sc. graduate school. Istrongly felt that we need to select people at an earlier age and it ended up like it is today. We rented a small building inIslamabad, where I used to spend a few hours daily before going to my office in PINSTECH. Mr. Samiullah Marwatsoon joined that office on full time basis. The Society for the Promotion of Engineering Sciences and Technology inPakistan (SOPREST) was soon formed as the parent body of the new Institution. Mr. Ghulam Ishaq Khan was itsPresident and Dr. A. Q. Khan, Mr. H. U. Beg, me and some others as its founding members. An academic planning

team was also assembled with Dr. A. Q. Khan, Mr. Amanullah Khan and me as interim deans and the former also asProject Director and Mr. H. U. Beg as an Executive Director. Because of my involvement with GIKI I had to declinefaculty position at ICTP as a staff associate. With the dedicated work of the project and academic teams the institutegot functional in fall 1993. I was the first faculty member to shift here with my family and taught physics 101 and 102 tothe pioneering batch.After one year I decided to leave GIKI. I wanted to go back to my village, but on the insistence of my wife I returned to my parent organization, PAEC and was posted in the Center of Nuclear studies, CNS that wasledbymyteacherandmentor, DrInam-ur-Rehman.

President Laghari started a series of meetings with professionals from various fields at the time I went back toPAEC in 1994. Dr Ishfaq Ahmad, Chairman PAEC led a team of physicists in one of these meetings and asked Dr.Masud Ahmad, now Member Physical Sciences, PAEC, and me to make a list of points for discussions. InitiatingPhysics Talent Contest (NPTC) was one such point. NPTC is meant to groom the youth of the nation for careers in

Science, Engineering and Technology, or STEM Careers and prepare a Pakistani team for participation in theInternational Physics Olympiad. The President graciously endorsed this proposal among others and with the help of funding from PAEC we launched it on a pilot scale in 1995. Meanwhile in CNS we also started other activities likeweekly Colloquium where country chief of ICI, Chairman HEC, poets like Ahmed Faraz and other luminaries gavetalks.

NPTC has been a great success. Pakistani students are now successfully competing in the InternationalPhysics Olympiads. President Musharaf is taking keen interest in this activity and has been awarding additional cashprizes to the selected students. NPTC has beenextended to similar contests in mathematics, biology and chemistry inthe form of National Science Talent Contest and a National Engineering Competition under the umbrella of STEMcareers project of Higher Education Commission.

I look forward to strengthening all disciplines of specialization. We need the faculty who own the institutionand for that I am keenly interested in GIKI alumni. The social environment at GIKI is good. The idea of societies datesback to batch one. It's a healthy activity and produces more well rounded and refined engineers. GIKI now seems tome an opportunity to be able to fulfill my earliest dreams. It probably would have been better were I younger at thisstage. Now I am trying but yes with some handicaps.After twelve years I feel I lack that energy but I am resolute to putupmybestandIhopeallpeopletoshowtheirenthusiasmaswell.

As for the inspiration of students I would like to say that in general you should try to do your best whatever fieldyouchoose.Asforscience,getnewworksandfillintheblanks!

Realization…

Foundations of GIKI…

NPTC andPIEAS …

Finally, after comingback to GIKI…

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1. Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences



Closed formapproximation solutionsfor the restricted circularthree body problem

Abu Bakr MehmoodS. Umer Abbas

Ghulam Shabbir

An approach is developed to find approximate solutions to the restrictedcircular three body problem. The solution is useful in approximatelydescribing the position vectors of three spherically symmetric masses,one of which has a much smaller mass than the other two. These massesperform free motion under each others' gravitational influence. The set of solutions is found using the Lambert's wave function.

Key words: Lambert'swavefunction,spherically symmetricmasses.

The aim of this paper is to findapproximations for the restricted circular threebody problem. The problem by definition is todescribe the free motions of three masses, two of which have spherically symmetr ic massdistributions and one of which is small comparedto the other two. The smaller mass should be smallenough in comparison to the other two, so that itcan be approximated as a point mass. A typical

real life application of the problem would be themotion of a probe between the earth and moon.Moreover, the spherically symmetric massdistributionsof the earth and moon would allow them to beapproximated by point masses. In the problemconsidered, it is further assumed that the motion of

the two larger masses, say m1 and m2 is notaffected by the presence, or motion of m3; thesmaller mass. It therefore follows that m1 and m2execute two body motion under each other'sgravitational influence only, whereas m3 executesmotion which is effected by both the presence andmotion of m1 and m2. The motion of m1 and m2shall be solved for, only by considering two bodymotion, and the motion of m3, shall then be solved

for by the use of generalized three body motionequations. Figure 1 presents a diagrammaticrepresentation of our system of three bodies,whichformanisolatedsysteminfreespace.

Our aim is to find r1, r2 and r3 explicitly astimefunctions.Wechoosetosolvetheproblemin

1866 AD 1867 AD 1869 AD

German engineer Werner S ie m en s d i sc o ve r s t h ep r in c ip l e o f t h e e l ec t ri cdynamo. The company hecofounded in 1847, Siemens &Halske, produces the firstelectrical power transmissionsystemtenyearslater.

Swedish chemist Alfred Nobelpatents dynamite. R u s si a n c h e mi s t D m it ryI v a n ov i c h M e n de l e ye vpublishes the first version of theperiodictableofelements.

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two dimensions. The bodies perform translational

motion under each other's gravitational attraction.Since our assumptions allow us to approximatethe three bodies as point masses, we neglectrotational motion.

In this paper we have developed aversatile approach to find approximate solutionsfor the restricted circular three body problem. Theproblem finds a lot of applications in celestialmechanics. As mentioned previously, a typicalapplication of the problem would be to describethe motion of an interplanetary probe under the

gravitational influence of two massive gravitatingbodies, that is planets. We considered the factthat the motion of the two massive bodies m1 andm2 was not effected by the presence or motion of

a third body m3 having negligible mass on a

relative scale. Using this proposition, we foundanalytic approximations for the motions of m1 andm2, which were given by the expressions definingr1(t), r2(t), μ1(t) and μ2(t). Of course this wasaccomplished by a simple consideration of thetwo body motion executed by m1 and m2. Havingdonethis,wemodeledthesystemofthreebodies,taking into account the motion of m3, under thegravitational influence of m1 and m2. The nextstep was to find approximations for the motion of m3. This was accomplished by using our approximations for the motions of m1 and m2

(found through consideration of two body motion),and performing algebraic manipulations on thesystem of equations developed while consideringthree bodydynamics.

1873AD

British mathematician andphysicist James Maxwellpublishes his electromagnetictheory of light and suggestst ha t a w ho le f am il y o f electromagnetic radiation mustexist, of which visible light isonlyonepart.

1875 AD 1876 AD 1877 AD

Seventeen European nationsadopt the metric system. Adecimal system of physicalunitsbasedonthemeter,itwasintroduced in France almost acenturyearlier.

U si ng a t ra ns mi tt er a ndreceiver , Scottish-Americaninventor Alexander GrahamBell delivers the first telephonemessage to his assistant,ThomasA.Watson.

German inventor Nikolaus A.Otto patents the Otto cycleengine. It is the first effectivef o u r - s t r o k e i n t e r n a lcombustion engine, the typethat will eventually be used inautomobiles..

For complete research paper, please contact Dr. Ghulam Shabbir.shabbir @ giki.edu.pk

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Stars, how they originateand how do they changein there life cycle?

By Muhammad Usman RazaWhat is a star?

How do stars originate?

Howdo they change in their lifecycle?Stage 1: Giant Molecular Cloud:

ArehotbodiesofglowinggasthatstarttheirlifeinNebulae. They vary in size, mass and temperature,diameters ranging from450x smaller to over 1000x larger than that of the Sun. masses range from twentieth to over 50 solar masses and surface temperatures range from3,000 degrees Celsius to over 50,000 degrees Celsius.The colour of a star is determined by its surface

temperature, the hottest stars are blue and the cooleststars are red . The Sun has a surface temperature of 5,500 degree Celsius. Its colour appears yellow. Theenergy produced by a star is by nuclear fusion in the starscore. Many stars occur in special types of groupings.These groupings are called star clusters. These clustersare divided into Open Clusters and Globular Clusters.The open clusters contain small number of young stars;the globular clusters are much older and contain manymore stars.

Stars form from concentrations in huge

interstellar gas clouds. These contract due to their owngravitational pull. As the cloud gets smaller it loses someof the energy stored in it as potential gravitational energy.This is turned into heat which in the early days of theembryostarcaneasilyescapeandsothegascloudstayscool. As the clouds density rises it gets more and moredifficult for the heat to get out and so the center 'burning'of hydrogen into helium takes place, as in the Sun. Theobjectisthenastar.

A giant molecular cloud is a large, dense gascloud (with dust) that is cold enough for molecules toform. Thousands of giant clouds exist on the disk part of our galaxy. Each gain molecular cloud has a 100,000's toa few million solar masses of material (most of thismaterial is gathered when a supernova explodes).Fragments of giant molecular clouds with tens tohundreds of solar masses of material apiece will startcollapsing for some reason all at about the same time.Possible triggermechanisms could be a shock wave from

the nearby massive star at its death or from the passageof the cloud through regions of more intense gravity asfound in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. These shockwaves compress the gas clouds enough for them togravitationally collapse. Gas clouds may start to collapsewithout any outside force if they are cool enough tospontaneously collapse. Whatever the reason, the resultisthesame:gasclumpscollapsetoformprotostars.

When the gas clumps together to form protostarsenergy is released. The gas clump becomes warmenough to emit a lot of infrared and microwave radiation. A protostars will reach a temperature of 2000 to 3000 K,hot enough to glow red, but the cocoon of gas and dustsurrounding it blocksthe visible light.

Fusion starts in the core of the star and theoutward pressure from these reactions stop the core fromcollapsing any further. But material from the surrounding

cloud continues to fall onto the protostars . Most of theenergy produced by the protostars is from thegravitational collapse of the cloud material. Eventuallythe star becomes stable because hydrostatic equilibriumhas been established. The star settles down to spendabout 90% of its life as main sequence star .It is readilyfusing hydrogen to form helium in the core.

Stars initially begin their lives in clusters near other stars. After a few orbits around the galactic center,gravitational tugs from other stars in the galaxy cause thestars in the cluster to wander away from their cluster andlive their lives alone or with perhaps one or twocompanions. The gas and dust around the stars may beresidual material from their formation or simplyinterstellar clouds the cluster is passing through. Themore massive the star is the more quickly it burnshydrogen and hence the brighter, bigger and hotter it isandsothelessisitslifeline.

The medium mass stars like our sun eventually

Stage 2: Protostars:

Stage 3: MainSequence:

Stage 4: Forming of a red giant:

1879 AD 1882 AD 1893 AD

British inventor Thomas Swana n d A m er i ca n i n ve n to r Thomas Edison independentlydevelop practical electriclights.

Thomas Edison develops andinstalls the first central electric-power station in New York City.T h e s t a ti o n g e n er a t eselectricity in direct current,which is replaced later byalternating current.

German inventor Rudolf Dieselpublishes Theory and Designof a Rational Heat Engine,which describes the high-efficiency internal combustionengine. The engine uses heatcaused by air compression toignite fuel.

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run out on their hydrogen supply and converts it all intohelium in their centers during their main-sequence stagebut eventually there is no hydrogen left in the center toprovide the necessary radiation pressure to balancegravity. The center of the star thus contracts until it is hotenough for helium to be converted into carbon. Thehydrogen in a shell continues to 'burn' into helium but theouter layers of the star have to expand. This makes thestar appear brighter and cooler and it becomes a redgiant.

There are very few stars of more than 5 times themassofthesun.Thesestarsburntheirhydrogenoutveryquickly compared to the sun. Like medium mass stars,they 'burn' all their hydrogen at the centers and continuewith hydrogen burning shell and central helium 'burning'shell. They become brighter and cooler on their outsideand are called red super giants. Carbon burning candevelop at the stars center and a complex set of elementburning shells can develop towards the end of the starslife. During this stage many different chemical elements

will be produced in the star and the central temperaturewill approach 100,000,000 degreesKelvin.

During the red giant phase a star often loses a lotof its outer layers, which are blown away by the radiationcoming frombelow. Eventually, in the more massive starsof the group the carbon may be 'burnt' to even heavier elements but eventually the energy generation will fizzle

out and the outer layers drift away from the core as agaseous shell, this gas that surrounds the core is called aPlanetaryNebula. The star will collapse to what is called a'degenerate white dwarf', when it dims and finally stops'shiningitiscalledablackdwarf.Thisiswhathappenstoastaraboutthemassofthesun.

The high mass stars that form the red super giants, for all the elements up to iron the addition of morenucleons to the nucleus produces energy and so yields asmall contribution to the balance inside the star betweengravity and radiation. To add more nucleons to ironnucleus energy is required, so no more energy isreleased and the star cools down and the star's core thenhas no resistance to the force of gravity and once it startsto contract a very rapid collapse will take place. Theprotons and electrons combine to give a core composedof neutrons and vast amounts of energy is released. Thisenergy is sufficient to blow away all the outer parts of thestar in a violent explosion and the star becomes asupernova in less than a second.The light of this one star

i s th en a s b rig ht a s th at f ro m a ll t he o th er 100,000,000,000 stars in the galaxy. During this phase allthe elements with atomic weights greater than iron areformed and, together with the rest of the outer regions of the star are blown out into interstellar space. The centralcore of neutronsis left asa neutron star ifit has a mass of between 1.5-3 solar masses. If the core is much greater than 3 solar masses, the core contracts to become aBlackHole.

Stage 5: End of the star's life:

1900AD

German physicist Max Plancklays the foundation for thequantum theory, or quantummechanics.

1901 AD 1903 AD 1905 AD

Italian inventor GuglielmoM ar co ni s en ds t he f ir stwireless message overseas.

At Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, American aviator Orville Wrightmakes the first successful flightof a piloted, heavier-than-air flying machine. Built by Wrightand his brother, Wilbur, thecraft flies a distance of about37m(120ft).

German American theoreticalphysic ist A lbert E inste indevelops his special theory of relativity.



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Human Computer Interfacing using biological signals is an emerging technology which hasenabled disabled people to communicate with the world and with their surroundings. With the help of thissetupnotonlylocked-insyndromepeoplewillbebenefitedbutallotherscanalsouseitaswell.

Mouse control via eyeball movement has been described in this text. Various techniques are usedfor this purpose to establish the task. Digital image processing is one of these which require light as aprimary source but we approached the same problem by capturing EOG (electro-oculography) signals

(produced by eyeball movement due to relative potential difference generated between retina and cornea)by placing EOG electrodes at right positions in the proximity of the eyes. These signals were thenprocessed and interfaced with computer via microcontrollers and then were mapped on computer monitor screen via custom software to control the mouse cursor efficiently. You can click an icon merely by staringat that icon for three seconds. The advantage of EOG signal based technique over the previous one is thatit can operate in darkness as well i.e. light is not required as a source. This setup will help in virtual gaming,virtual keyboard, eye painting, net browsing and in crime investigation.

Human ComputerInterfacingusing Biological signals

Abdus SaboorIhsan Ullah

M. HammadullahSaad bin Hussain

Human powered vehicle, Orca is a vehicle that was designed and built with three primaryobjectives in mind. First and foremost, the design is to be beautiful in its simplicity. Secondly, since thevehicle is being designed for one purpose, speed; all design selections are to be made with this purpose inmind. Thirdly, the attainment of Orca maximum velocity will be done with rider safety as a paramount goal.These objectives were achieved by performing aerodynamics analysis, bio-mechanics considerations,calculations involving safety of the rider and the frame design. The Orca design is a long wheel based lowracer, front wheel drive recumbent. This design is the first of itstype produced at GIK Institute.

OrcaOmer Masood Qureshi

S. Mansoor AliFaheem Salem Gilani

Jawad Aslam Butt

1906 AD

r.

1908 AD 1913 AD

American engineer Lee DeForest invents the audion,later known as the triode, avacuum tube that becomes akey component in manyelectronic systems, includingradio and television. It iseventually replaced by thetransisto

German physicist Hans Geiger invents a portable radiationcounter. The device detectsand records information aboutsubatomic particles emitted byradioactive substances.

American industrialist HenryF o r d b e g i n s t o u s estandardized interchangeablep a rt s a n d a s se m bl y -l i netechniques in his automobile-manufacturing plant, and ischiefly responsible for their g e n er a l a d o p t i on a n dsubsequent wide use.

[The full reports are available at the GIKI Library.]




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Neuro-Mod Muhammad Faraz AzharMuhammad Usman Amjad

Nida JavedUmair Shafai Rao

The aim of this project was to develop an application that reads an MR image library of a patientsbrain images and automatically reconstructs the 3-D model from it. It performs segmentation to extract thebrainpart from the given MRI scans. The segmented data is then utilized forthe brainreconstruction.

The input data is in the form of bitmap images acquired from MR Imaging hardware. Thesegmentation module extracts the brain part using an automated hybrid approach comprising anisotropicdiffusion, thresholding, erosion, selection and mask application. The 3D reconstruction module appliesthe marching cubes algorithm on the segmented images. Both modules are fully automatic performingtheirrequiredfunctionssolelyonthebasisofimagedata.

The prime concern in the application is the accuracy of the various algorithms and their correctmathematical computations to suit the bio-medical imaging problem at hand. This implies that the designtakes into account the minor details of anatomy displayed in each image for calculation of the model. Theproposed system with a few modifications, can act as a 3-D engine for the reconstruction of variousanatomical parts whose image slices can be obtained using medical imagingtechniques.

The system eliminates the need for 3D reconstruction process. The hardware systems are onlyrequired to capture the MRI scans. Once a digital copy has been obtained, there is no need to go backtothe expensive hardware. 3D reconstruction can then be performed on any computer system fulfilling thebasic set of requirements. This allows a physicians at a remote location to obtain a better visualisation of the patient's brain scans to facilitate the diagnosis process.

The project serves as a baseline for future research in Medical Image Processing.The segmentationprocess proposed for the brain scans can be applied to any other anatomical part of the body with equalefficiency. Similarly, the 3D reconstruction module can act as a generic 3D engine. The various facilitiesprovided by with the system can further be modified to act as powerful tools in totally automateddiagnosis of brain abnormalities and can easily be extended, by including various diagnostic techniquesfortumoursandclotsdetection,toaidinlasertherapy.

Finally, the system is very cost-effective. The maintenance cost of MR Imaging systems is very high.By separating the reconstruction process (post-processing) from the image acquisition (pre-processing), the performance of the imaging hardware is enhanced resulting in less frequentmaintenance required.

Applications:

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1916AD

German American theoreticalphysic ist A lbert E inste inpublishes his general theory of relativity. It succeeds Newton'stheory as the basic explanationofgravitation.

1919 AD 1925 AD 1926 AD

B r it i s h p h y si c is t E r ne s tRutherford bombards nitrogengas with alpha particles andobtains atoms of an oxygenisotope and protons. Thistransmutation of nitrogen intooxygen is the first artificiallyinduced nuclearreaction.

Austrian American physicistWolfgang Pauli defines theexclusion principle of quantummechanics, which states thatno two electrons can occupythe same quantum or energys t a t e o f a n a t o msimultaneously.

Austr ian physic ist ErwinSchrödinger presents histheory of wave mechanics,which expresses Louis deBroglie's 1923 wave conceptmathematically.

[The full reports are available at the GIKI Library.]



The Fundamental Forcesof Universe By Foaad Ahmed Tahir

All things that we observe in our universe can beexplained on the basis of physical laws. Everydayobservations from the running of automobiles to themovement of planets in orbits and the burning of starsoccur because of the presence of forces between'matter'. The universe consists of matter and energy andtheinteraction of matter occurs in theform of forces whichleads to the presence of energy. These interactions occur because of the force carrying particles. There are four fundamental forces in the universe, namely the strongnuclear force, the weak nuclear force, the electromagnetforce and the force of gravity. Combined, these forces are

responsiblefortheworkingsofthisuniverse.

The strong nuclear force is responsible for thebinding of the nuclei of atoms. It has a very short rangeand thus its effect is only felt within the nucleus. It istransmitted via force particles called gluons which bindtogether quarks that lead to the formation of protons andneutrons and cumulatively the nucleus. It is the strongestforce of all and is 100 times stronger than theelectromagnetic force. But due to its small range it doesnotplayamajorroleinoureverydaylives.

The electromagnetic force plays a dominant rolein our everyday lives. The atoms and molecules within anobject are held together only because of these forces.Our machineries such as car engines, maglev trains andother equipment cannot work without it. It is also a strongforce. It acts only between charged particles such asproton and electron. This interaction occurs because of the force particles photons. The electromagnetic force isunique in the sense that not only can it interact directlybetween matter but it can also travel in the form of electromagnetic waves thus enabling us to transmitinformation via it. It is a long range force as it variesinversely with square of distance.

This force is responsible for the disintegration of nuclei. It is again a short range force and its effect islimited only within the nuclei. It is transmitted via W+,W-and ZO particles. It plays part in phenomenon such asradioactivity and nuclear fission and fusion. It is a veryweak force and is a million times weaker thanelectromagnetic force. Yet its role is decisive as the stars

wouldceasetoburnwithoutit.

The force of gravity plays also plays a veryimportant role in our lives as the orbits of planets,formation of stars and our daily routine activities dependupon it. It is a very weak force and is 100 million billionbillion billion times weaker than electromagnetic force.However it plays the most dominant role in the universedue to the fact that it is always cumulative, unlikeelectromagnetic force which is both attractive andrepulsive. Thus due to accumulation of matter its effect

increases drastically. Infact, so great is its power thatwhen a star explodes and if it has a critical radius, thematter is sucked and compressed due to its owngravitational attraction and eventually so much mass isconfined in such a small space that the resultinggravitational field is strong enough to prevent light fromescaping it. Such a phenomenon leads to the birth of black holes. Gravity is caused by the hypothetical fieldparticles dubbed gravitons, though they have not beenpractically observed. In the time before 20th century theconcept of gravity was that given by Newton - an objectcreates gravitational field around it with which another object interacts leading to an attractive force. Though thistheory was very successful and predicted many things,including orbits of planets, but still there were someobservations unexplained by it. However in 1916Einsteinpresented his general theory of relativity in which hepresented a totally new theory for the explanation of gravity which explained the previously unexplainablephenomenon such as shift in apparent position of star and the rotation of axis of Mercury's orbit. It stated thatgravity is a result of the distorting of space-time where amassive object is placed. Thus when any object istraveling in space-time it follows the distortion and weobserve it as an orbit. It can be visualized as a heavyobject placed on a rubber sheet causing it to sag more atplaces near it, and less farther away. Thus according to

this theory even light bends as it passes near a massiveobject. Another remarkable conclusion of this theory isabout transmission of gravitational changes. Newton saidthat changes in gravitational field are transmittedinstantaneously over distances. However th iscontradicted Einstein's postulate that nothing travelsfaster than light. Thus he did calculations and it evolvedthat gravitational changes travel at the speed of light.Thus if a star explodes, gravitational changes, such as

The Strong Nuclear Force:

The Electromagnetic Force:

The Weak Nuclear Force:

The Force of Gravity:

1927 AD 1929 AD 1930 AD

German physicist Werner Heisenberg formulates theuncertainty principle, whichstates that the position andmomentum of a subatomicparticle cannot be specifiedsimultaneously.

Comparing the distances of galaxies to the speed at whichthey are moving away fromEarth, Edwin Hubble discoversthat the farther a galaxy is fromEarth, the faster it is recedingarelationship so consistent thatit comes to be known asHubble's Law.

British aviatorand aeronauticalengineer Sir Frank Whittle fileshis first patent for a turbojetengine. The engine is tested ina British experimental fighter planeduringWorldWarII.

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Thus if a star explodes, gravitational changes, such aschange in orbit, would be observed simultaneously withthe sight of star exploding. This theory also predictsenergy dissipation in the form of gravitational waves.Evidencesupportingthisfacthasbeenseenintheformof binary stars reducing their mutual distances, thoughthere has been no practical observation of thisgravitational counterpart of electromagnetic wavesdespite20yearsofresearch.

A Pakistani physicist (Dr. Abdus Salam), alongwith two fellow scientists proved that under extreme

conditions electromagnetic force and weak nuclear forcebehave similarly, thus they unified the two. Since thenwork has been going on to unite the other forces too. Among the three, gravity seems to be the one hardest torelate to others. If all can be united then the wholeuniverse can be explained completely in a singleequation. It is also said that it would be too complicated tobe of practical use although two of the most fundamentaltheories of 20th century, the theory of relativity andquantum theory, have resulted in inventions such asnuclear energy and electronics respectively. If such anaccomplishment is achieved it will be a great steptowardsunderstand the working of this universe.

The Grand Unification Theory:

Was Big Bang really the

Beginning of Time?Continued from Page 2

The basic idea is that elementary particles arenot point like but rather infinitely thin one-dimensionalobjects, the strings. The large zoo of elementaryparticles, each with its own characteristic properties,reflects the many possible vibration patterns of a string.How can such a simple-minded theory describe thecomplicated world of particles and their interactions? Theanswer can be found in what we may call quantum stringmagic. Once the rules of quantum mechanics are appliedto a vibrating string--just like a miniature violin string,except that the vibrations propagate along it at the speedof light--new properties appear. All have profoundimplications for particle physics and cosmology.

First, quantum strings have a finite size. Were itnot for quantum effects, a violin string could be cut in half,cut in half again and so on all the way down, finallybecoming a massless pointlike particle. But theHeisenberg uncertainty principle eventually intrudes andprevents the lightest strings from being sliced smaller than about 10-34 meter. This irreducible quantum of length, denoted ls, is a new constant of nature introducedby string theory side by side with the speed of light, c, andPlanck's constant, h. It plays a crucial role in almost everyaspect of string theory, putting a finite limit on quantities

thatotherwisecouldbecomeeitherzeroorinfinite.

Second, quantum strings may have angular momentum even if they lack mass. In classical physics,angular momentum is a property of an object that rotateswith respect to an axis. The formula for angular momentum multiplies together velocity, mass anddistance from the axis; hence, a massless object canhave no angular momentum. But quantum fluctuations

change the situation. A tiny

string can acquire up to twounits of h of angular momentum without gaining anymass. This feature is very welcome because it preciselymatches the properties of the carriers of all knownfundamental forces, such as the photon ( for electromagnetism) and the graviton (for gravity).Historically, angular momentum is what clued inphysicists to the quantum-gravitational implications of stringtheory.

Third, quantum strings demand the existence of extra dimensions of space, in addition to the usual three.Whereas a classical violin string will vibrate no matter what the properties of space and time are, a quantumstring is more finicky. The equations describing thevibration becomeinconsistent unless space-time either ishighly curved (in contradiction with observations) or contains sixextra spatial dimensions.

Fourth, physical constants--such as Newton'sand Coulomb's constants, which appear in the equationsof physics and determine the properties of nature--nolonger, have arbitrary, fixed values. They occur in stringtheory as fields, rather like the electromagnetic field, thatcan adjust their values dynamically. These fields may

have taken different values in different cosmologicalepochs or in remote regions of space, and even today thephysical "constants" may vary by a small amount.Observing any variation would provide an enormousboosttostringtheory.

One such field, called the dilation, is the master key to string theory; it determines the overall strength of all interactions. The dilation fascinates string theorists

1932AD

-Ernst A.F. Ruska and MaxKnoll build the first electronm i cr o s co p e , c a p ab l e o f magnifying objects 400 times.-Sir John D. Cockcroft andE rne s t T. S . W al t on u s eartificially accelerated particlesto successfully disintegrate thenucleusofanatom.

1935 AD 1937 AD 1938 AD

-Charles F. Richter and hisassociates devise a scale for measuring the strength of earthquakes.- R o b e r t W a t s o n - W a t tdemonstrates a ground-basedradio-locating device that canspot and count aircraft morethan161km(100mi)away.

American mathemat ic ianHoward Aiken begins work onan important forerunner to thedigital computer. The machine,the Mark 1, is completed in1944.

After bombarding uranium withneutrons, German chemistsO t t o H a h n a n d F r i t zStrassmann find traces of bar iumevidence that theu r an i um h a s u n de r go n efission.



because its value can be reinterpreted as the size of anextra dimension of space, giving a grand total of 11space-time dimensions.

All the magic properties of quantum strings pointin one direction: strings abhor infinity. They cannot

collapse to an infinitesimal point, so they avoid theparadoxes that collapse entails. Their nonzero size andnovel symmetries set upper bounds to physical quantitiesthat increase without limit in conventional theories, andthey set lower bounds to quantities that decrease. Stringtheorists expect that when one plays the history of theuniverse backward in time, the curvature of spacetimestarts to increase. But instead of going all the way toinfinity (at the traditional big bang singularity), iteventually hits a maximum and shrinks once more.Before string theory, physicists were hard-pressed toimagine any mechanism that could so cleanly eliminatethe singularity.

Conditions near the zero time of the big bangwere so extreme that no one yet knows how to solve theequations. Nevertheless, string theorists have hazardedguesses about the pre-bang universe. Two popular modelsarefloatingaround.

The first, known as the pre-big bang scenario,which my colleagues and I began to develop in 1991,combines T-duality with the better-known symmetry of time reversal, whereby the equations of physics workequally well when applied backward and forward in time.The combination gives rise to new possible cosmologiesin which the universe, say, five seconds before the big

bang expanded at the same pace as it did five secondsafter the bang. But the rate of change of the expansionwas opposite at the two instants: if it was deceleratingafter the bang, it was accelerating before. In short, the bigbang may not have been the origin of the universe butsimply a violent transition from acceleration todeceleration.

The beauty of this picture is that it automaticallyincorporates the great insight of standard inflationarytheory--namely, that the universe had to undergo a periodof acceleration to become so homogeneous andisotropic. In the standard theory, acceleration occurs after

the big bang because of an ad hoc inflation field. In thepre-big bang scenario, it occurs before the bang as anatural outcome of the novel symmetries of string theory.

According to the scenario, the pre-bang universewas almost a perfect mirror image of the post-bang one. If the universe is eternal into the future, its contents thinningto a meager gruel, it is also eternal into the past. Infinitelylong ago it was nearly empty, filled only with a tenuous,widely dispersed, chaoticgas of radiation and matter. The

forces of nature, controlled by the dilaton field, were sofeeblethatparticlesinthisgasbarelyinteracted.

As time went on, the forces gained in strengthand pulled matter together. Randomly, some regionsaccumulated matter at the expense of their surroundings.Eventually the density in these regions became so high

that black holes started to form. Matter inside thoseregions was then cut off from the outside, breaking up theuniverse into disconnectedpieces.

Inside a black hole, space and time swap roles.The center of the black hole is not a point in space but aninstant in time. As the infalling matter approached thecenter, it reached higher and higher densities. But whenthe density, temperature and curvature reached themaximum values allowed by string theory, thesequantities bounced and started decreasing. The momentof that reversal is what we call a big bang. The interior of oneofthoseblackholesbecameouruniverse.

Not surprisingly, such an unconventionalscenario has provoked controversy. Andrei Linde of Stanford University has argued that for this scenario tomatch observations, the black hole that gave rise to our universe would have to have formed with an unusuallylarge size--much larger than the length scale of stringtheory. An answer to this objection is that the equationspredict black holes of all possible sizes. Our universe justhappenedtoforminsideasufficientlylargeone.

A more serious objection raised by ThibaultDamour of the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques inBures-sur-Yvette, France, and Marc Henneaux of the

Free University of Brussels, is that matter and spacetimewould have behaved chaotically near the moment of thebang, in possible contradiction with the observedregularity of the early universe. I have recently proposedthat a chaotic state would produce a dense gas of miniature "string holes"--strings that were so small andmassive that they were on the verge of becoming blackholes. The behavior of these holes could solve theproblem identified by Damour and Henneaux. A similar proposal has been put forward by Thomas Banks of Rutgers University and Willy Fischler of the University of Texas at Austin. Other critiques also exist, and whether they have uncovered a fatal flaw in the scenario remains

tobedetermined.So, when did time begin? Science does not have

a conclusive answer yet, but at least two potentiallytestable theories plausibly hold that the universe--andtherefore time--existed well before the big bang. If either scenario is right, the cosmos has always been inexistence and, even if it recollapses one day, will never end.

Taming the Infinite:

1942 AD October 14, 1947 1948

Italian-American physicistE nr i c o F er mi a n d h i scolleagues at the University of Chicago in Illinois initiate acontrolled chain-reaction, anexperiment that constitutes thefirst nuclear reactor.

Supersonic Flight Charles“Chuck” Yeager of the UnitedStates Air Force becomes thefirst person to break the soundb a r r i e r . H e p i l o t s a nexperimental aircraft, the BellX-1, to a speed of 1065 km/h(662 mph), faster than thespeedofsoundathisaltitude.

-Claude E. Shannon presentshis initial concept for a unifyingt h e o ry o f i n f o r m a t i o ntransmission and processing.-American physicists Walter H.Brattain, John Bardeen, andWilliam B. Shockley developthe transistor.

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. Point on the celestial sphere which is directly abovean observer. (6)

. American Botanist,(1872-1956), who discovered theimportant antibiotic, aureomycin. (6)

. The sort of refraction shown by crystals of calcite. (6)

. The time for one cycle of a repeating phenomenon. (6). Unit based on the mass of one litre of hydrogen at

S.T.P. (5). An atomic grouping which cannot lead a separate

existence, and yet passes unchanged through chemicalreactions. (7)

. A complex nitrogenous organic compound of highmolecular weight consisting of amino acids joined intofolded chains by peptide links. (7)

. Electrical connection to ground. (5)

. Element of atomic number 6, which (with the possibleexception of silicon), is unique in its ability to form long

chains. (6). Inventor of the rotary petrol engine. (6). Complex compound forming about 30% of wood, and

which must be removed from wood if pure cellulose isrequired. (6)

. English biologist, (l578-l657), who studied bloodcirculation, and is regarded as the founder of modernphysiology. (6)

. A zone of the celestial sphere, 9 degrees on each sideof the ecliptic, and divided into 12 equal parts. (6)

. Particle with spin one half, but with zero rest mass andzero charge, of importance in beta decay. (8)

. Prefix meaning "distant", as in -metry, -scope, etc. (4)5. Carbamide. (4)

. For an amplifier, this is the ratio of output power toinput power. (4)

. Type of symmetry in which a plane divides into 2halves which are mirror images, as seen in manyanimals. (6)

. Dutch physicist, (l853-l928), who deduced thecontraction in length and the increase in mass for a bodywith a velocity close to that of light. (7)

. Russian physicist, (b1904), who caused particles toexceed the velocity of light in a transparent medium, andthus give off a characteristic radiation. (8)

. Unit of pressure equivalent to 1 newton per squaremetre. (6)

. English biologist, (1825-1895), an ardent Darwinist,who did much to promote the theory of Natural Selection.(6)

. A chemical used in medicine.(4)

. One property of an ellipse is that the sum of thedistances from any point on the ellipse to these isconstant. (4)

. The facts on which a computer program operates. (4)

ACROSS DOWN

November 01,1952

United States detonates thefirsthydrogenbombinatestonEnewetak Atoll. Its force isabout 500 times greater thanthe atom bombs dropped onHiroshima and Nagasaki.USSR detonates i ts f irsthydrogen bomb eight yearslater.

1956 AD 1957 AD 1960 AD

American computer scientistJohn McCarthy coins the term"artificial intelligence" (AI). In1959-1960 he develops LISP, al i s t - o r i e nt e d c o m p u t e r programming language, whichb e co m es t h e s t an d ar dlanguage forAI research.

The USSR launches the firstartificial satellite, Sputnik 1, tos t u d y E a r t h ' s u p p e r atmosphere. The satelli teweighs 83 kg (184 lb) andcirclesEarthin95minutes.Thelaunch of Sputnik 1 marks theinaugurationofthespaceage.

American astronomer Allan R.Sandage finds the first star-likeobjects with strong radioemissions.



Why are manhole covers round rather than square? Does the sun always rise in the east? If you are on a boat and toss a suitcase overboard, will the water level rise or fall? How many times a day do a clock's hands overlap? How many points are there on the globe where, by walking one mile south, one mile east, and one mile north, you reach the place where you started? How would you weigh a jet plane without using scales? Why do mirrors reverse right and left instead of up and down?

Have you ever wonderedave you ever wondered

The day of Venus is longer than its year.The highest mountain in solar system is Olympus Mons on Mars which is 29 km high.The Amazon River is smaller than Nile River but contains more than 60 times its water.

At the time of launch of Space rocket, 86% percent of its weight is fuel.The deadliest fish is piranha which has razor sharp teeth that can rip the skin off crocodiles. Sohigh is its hunger than if one of its own is caught in a fishing line and it can't free itself, the rest of the school will even eat it.The strongest animal in the world, a beetle, can lift objects 750 times more massive than itself.The energy in one hurricane is equal to about 500,000 atomic bombs.The Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean is so deep that Mount Everest could be submerged init with its summit still two kilometres below the surface.In the middle of the Atlantic the two plates, the African Plate and the American plate, aremoving apart at about the same speed as your fingernails grow. A bolt of lightning contains enough energy to toast 160,000 pieces of bread. Unfortunately thebolt only takes 1/10,000 of a second – so turning the bread over might prove difficult.

Knowledge BINnowledge BIN &

Unquotable Quotesnquotable Quotes ¥"They say that something as small as a butterfly beating its wings in China can cause a hurricane in America, so maybe we should go to China and kill all the butterflies, just to be safe." - Ken Advent

"The surest sign that intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is that it has never tried tocontact us." -Calvin and Hobbes

"If it's green or wriggles, it's biology.If it stinks, it's chemistry.If it doesn't work, it's physics..." Handy guide to science

"Ascientist can discover a new star, but he cannot make one. He would have to ask an engineer todothat." GordonL. Glegg

1961 AD 1969 AD 1971 AD

First Human in Space Sovietcosmonaut Yuri Gagarinbecomes the first human totravel in space. Launchedaboard Vostok 1, he orbitsEarth once, spending an hour and 48 minutes aloft.

- U . S . a s t r o n au t s N e i l Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz” A l dr i n , A p o ll o 11 c r e wmembers , become the firstpeopletowalkontheMoon.-U.S. Defense Departmentcontractors set up ARPANET( p re d ec e ss o r o f c u rr e ntInternet)

American engineer MarcianEdward proposes the idea of putting all of the logic circuitryo f a c al cu la to r' s c en tralprocessing unit on a singlechip. This first microprocessor,which Intel produces in 1971andnamestheIntel4004,

[ The answers to puzzles are available at www.giki.edu.pk/campus/ss/aurora.html ]

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Solve the puzzle within a week and win a free dinner on behalf of ScienceSociety. To claim your prize join #science on mIRC and write ‘Science Rules!!’

1986 AD 1990 AD 1993 AD

The Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics (USSR) launchesMir, a space station designedt o p r o v i d e l o n g - t e r maccommodations for crewmembers while in orbit aroundEarth.

Hubble Space Telescope Thefirst optical telescope in space,the Hubble Space Telescope,is launched into Earth orbit byt he U .S . s pa ce s hu tt leDiscovery.

S tu de nt s a t t he N CS A( N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r Supercomputing Applications)at the University of Illinois,Champaign-Urbana, developMosaic, the first browser software.

June 26, 2000AD

Researchers announce thecompletion of a rough draft of the human genome. Thedecoding of the genome ise x p e c t e d t o l e a d t odevelopment of new drugs andtreatments for geneticallyrelated diseases.



29

GIKI Science Society is one of the most active societies in Ghulam Ishaq khan Institute. It has

always played an important role in the extra curricular culture of this place. Here is a brief detail

of Science Society activities.

Sixth All Pakistan Science Fair was organized on 4th-

6th Feb 2005. About 22 teams from across the

country participated in two events Science Contest

and Science Exhibition. Science contest was won

by Roots College, Science Exhibition in Electronics

category was won by GC Lahore and in Physics

category it was won by Jinnah College Peshawar. Till

now six successful All Pakistan Science Fairs havebeen organized.

Science Marathon is the biggest internal event

organized by GIKI Science Society. The purpose of

this event is to show the lighter side of science. Every

year a large number of teams participate. In this

event teams are given the clues to reach a final

place in the form of mathematical and physicalproblems. After solving these problems they reach

at their final destination where they are given a

practical problem. Team which completes all

these stages first is declared the winner. The winners

are given handsome cash prizes.

This event comprises of two rounds.

In the first round that is the

qualification round MCQ's based

general knowledge test is given. Top15 teams qualify for the final round.

In the final round teams have to

guess the personality of a scientist,

Event/Invention/Phenomena on the

basis of the hints provided. There is

also an other round called dumb

cha ra de in which one team

member has to act and the other

two have to guess. Winner is

decided on the aggregate score ofall three rounds. The winner is

awarded a trophy along with the

certificates and cash prize.

All PakistanScience Fair

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ScienceMarathon

Science Kasoty

Science Society Activities



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Invention Contest is a regular event organized by

GIKI Science Society. This event basically

comprises of two categories Wacky Inventions and

Serious Inventions. Participants have to give a

d em on st ra ti on ( if p os si bl e) o th er w is e a

presentation of their invention at the event. In

wacky invention the purpose is to utilize the scrap

material and make some thing useful from it. Ideas

for some wacky inventions are Sleeping glasses,

Message boards, Theta pads, Bubblegum holder, water Gun etc. while in the categor y of

serious/sober inventions scientific projects can be

presented. Some ideas are robots, automated

rooms, Invisible writing pad etc.

G I K I S c i e n c e S o c i e ty

The purpose of the Science Eureka is to

challenge and enhance the experimental

approach of the participants. This is a team

based event where each team comprises of

three students. Each team is given a problem

for which they have to design an experimentin which simplest approach and minimum

apparatus is used. Each team is given one

hour to design and perform the experiment.

The winner is decided on the basis of their

approach towards the problem solving and

the viva taken by the judges. The winners are

awarded with certificates and handsome

cash prize.

ScienceEureka

InventionContest

Astronomy night is the most

interesting event organized

by GIKI science Society.

Telescopes are brought to

GIKI to provide a chance to

t he s tu de nt s w ho a re

interested in astronomy to

see the planets and the

stars. At this event very

interesting lectures are also

arranged on astronomy

and space sciences which

are delivered by renowned

space scientists of the

country. There is always a

very active participation

from the students at thisevent.

AstronomyNight



A GIKI Science Society Publication

Science Aurora 2005

Documents

Transcript of Science Aurora 2005