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The Foundations of Consultation
and Collaboration
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The Promise of Consultation and
Collaboration A cornerstone activity for members of the
helping professions
Attempt to alleviate current problems whilepreventing the their future occurrence
Attempts to promote the psychological well
being of society though indirect methods
Often viewed as an alternative to direct
methods such as one-on-one and group
counseling/psychotherapy
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Consultation Defined A process in which a human services professional
assists a consultee with a work-related (or
caretaking-related) problem with a client system,
with the goal of helping both the consultee and
the client system in some specific way
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Consultation Defined contd
Consultation deals
exclusively with
consultees work-related or
caregiving-related
problems
Consultant and
consultee work
together in solvingthe problems
defined by
consultation
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Role of human service
professional
Problem-solvingprocess
Triadic in nature
Helping relationship
Internal or external
Voluntary for all
parties
Relationship of peers Collaborative
Temporary
Remedial or
developmental
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Consultative Relationship
Relationship between the consultee and
consultant is one of peers, of two equals
Though the two roles are equal in termsof power, it is the consultee who has the
greatest need within the consultative
relationship
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Consultation and ConsultantsWho are consultants?
Who are consultees?
Who is the client system?
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Consultants and Consultees
Priority can be
given to either
consultee or clientsystem depending
on the approach
used by theconsultant
Consultant
provides indirect
service to theclient system by
providing direct
service to theconsultee
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Rights of Consultation
Participants
Participation in consultation is voluntary
for all parties involved
Consultees free to do whatever theywish with consultants suggestions and
recommendations
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Length of ConsultationThough consultation relationship is
temporary, the length of
consultation may range from asingle session to weekly sessions for
more than a year
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Triad of Consultation
Consultee
Client System
Consultant
Figure 1.2 The triadic relationship in consultation
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Collaboration Defined Collaboration is very similar to consultation in
that it follows the same problem-solving process
Collaboration involves the interactive exchange ofresources, interdependence, and a focus on
decision making
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Collaboration contd Collaboration is a service in which the helper
accepts responsibility for the mental health
aspects of a case.
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Client System
Collaborator
# 2
Collaborator
# 1
The Relationships of the Parties in
Collaboration
Figure 1.3 The Relationships of the Parties in Collaboration
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A Distinguishing Difference Between
Consultation and Collaboration
In consultation, the consultee retains
responsibility for the outcome, is considered to
be the determiner of the suitability of possibleinterventions, and is responsible for adequate
implementation of the intervention (i.e.,
ensuring treatment integrity)
(Zins & Erchul, 1995)
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Multicultural Limitations of
Consultation and Collaboration
Developed from Eurocentric models
Limitations make person-in-environmentperspective important
Cultural competence in service delivery essential
Some multicultural models available (e. g.,
Ingraham)
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Multicultural Consultation Consultant, in a culturally sensitive manner,
adjusts services to accommodate and value
cultural differences
Through employing multicultural framework,
consultants are in better position to provide
services with multicultural competence
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Multicultural Framework
a) consultant knowledge, skills and dispositions related
to cultural competence in consultation
b) understanding consultee needs for development in
knowledge, skill, confidence and objectivity
c) cultural variations in the parties involved in
consultation (e. g., consultant-consultee similarity)
d) contextual influence (e. g., organizational culture)
and power influences (difference in power among
parties in the consultation relationship)
e) methods for supporting consultee success in
multicultural situations
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Levels of Prevention
Preventive vs. remedial perspectives
Primary prevention Secondary prevention
Tertiary prevention
Universal
Selected
Indicated
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Historical Overview Prototypic roles: healer and technological adviser
Started in modern times as a clinical expert role
Currently, focus is on facilitation of consulteesprofessional development in current and future
situations
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Compared to Other
Human Service Activities Counseling and psychotherapy
Supervision
Mediation
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Consultants, Consultees,
and Collaborators
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Skill Areas for Consultants
and Collaborators Interpersonal skills
Communication skills
Problem-solving skills
Skills in working with organizations
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Skill Areas for Consultants
and Collaborators contdSkills in dealing with cultural diversity
Group skills
Ethical and professional behavior skills
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Roles of the Consultant
Nature of the
problem
Purpose and
desired outcomesof consultation
Skills of the
consultant
Skills of the
consultee
The consultant can take on a variety of
roles depending on several factors:
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Directive
*
Advocacy
Expert
Trainer/Educator
Collaborator
Fact FinderProcess Specialist
*
Non-directive
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Emergence of AdvocacyThe use of advocacy has received
increasing attention
There has also been an increase in theuse of the advocacy role in consultation
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Roles contd Expert role is NOT opposite of collaborative role
The collaborative role in consultation is not the
same as the service of collaboration
It is useful to think of the collaborative role being
implemented on a continuum from nondirective
to directive
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Internal/External
Consultants
Consultant can either be separate from (external)
or part of (internal) system in which consultation is
to occur
There are both advantages and disadvantages to
being internal or external
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Orientation to Models of
Consultation Mental health
Behavioral
Organizational
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Consultee as a Variable Consultee variables include:
knowledge
skills attitudes
personal characteristics
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Consultation research suggests that
consultation has efficacy even though
consultation practice has outpaced itsbody of research.
Research in Consultation
and Collaboration
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Research contd The research on collaboration is very limited
Increase in the use of qualitative and mixed
methods Behavioral research most heavily researched
School-based also heavily researched
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The Generic Model of
Consultation and Collaboration
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Stage I: Entry
Phase One: Exploring organizational needs
Phase Two: Contracting
Phase Three: Physically entering the system
Phase Four: Psychologically entering the system
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Stage II: Diagnosis Phase One: Gathering information
Phase Two: Defining the problem
Phase Three: Setting goals
Phase Four: Generating possible interventions
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Stage III: Implementation Phase One: Choosing an intervention
Phase Two: Formulating a plan
Phase Three: Implementing the plan Phase Four: Evaluating the plan
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Stage IV: Disengagement Phase One: Evaluating the process of
consultation
Phase Two: Planning post-consultation matters
Phase Three: Reducing involvement and
following-up
Phase Four: Terminating
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Putting the Generic
Model into Practice Equal attention should be paid to what you are
doing and to how you are doing those things
Very important to get supervised practice inconsultation
Implement in a collaborative manner
whenever possible
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Multicultural Competence
Using the Generic Model
It is key to effective implementation that the
generic model be adapted with cultural
competence in order to be relevant to the
needs of consultees and their clients systems
Designed to take consultees where they are
and can be adapted to their style of problemmanagement and cultural context
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Consultee Readiness for
Change Stages can assist consultants to assess
consultees stage of change and increase
likelihood of a successful consultation
experience
Success of generic model is tied to consultee
readiness for change
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Resistance to Consultation Resistance: The failure of a consultee or
organization to participate constructively in the
consultation process
Reluctance:The hesitancy of the consultee to
engage in consultation
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Types of Resistance Systems-level
When unhealthy is due to lack of insight regarding the
need to change
Consultee
There are a variety of sources of resistance (e. g., a
consultees misconception concerning the nature of
consultation)
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Dealing Effectively
with ResistanceThere are several things consultants can
do to minimize resistance: Create strong relationship to build trust and alleviate
fear
Demonstrate cultural competence and sensitivity
Collaborate whenever possible
Create conditions so that a consultation has asatisfying outcome and is worth the effort
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Personalizing the
Generic ModelAs consultant or collaborator, you are
your best intervention
Who you are as a person can affect the
outcome of consultation or collaboration as
much as what you do when you engage in
these services
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Entry Stage
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Stage I: Entry
Phase One: Exploring organizational needs
Phase Two: Contracting
Phase Three: Physically entering the system
Phase Four: Psychologically entering the system
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Phase One: Exploring
Organizational NeedsTo consult or not to consult:
Why am I here?
Who are you?
What is likely to happen?
What will be the result?
What can go wrong?
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Phase Two: Contracting
Reason forcontracting:
To clearly defineexpectations ofboth consultantand consultee
Elements of acontract:
Goals
Time frame
Responsibility ofconsultant andagency
Boundaries
Review andevaluation
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Phase Three: Physically
Entering the System
Moving into work space
Getting to know employees of organization
Adapt to organizations schedule
Have those affected by consultation informed
about the consultants role
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Phase Four: Psychologically
Entering the System
The gradual acceptance of consultant by
members of the organization in which
consultation is being performed Consider the process level (how organization
functions) and personal interaction (how people
within an organization function)
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During Phase Four a
Consultant Should. . .
Create trustworthiness by:
Demonstrating understanding
Using power appropriately
Respecting confidentiality
Exhibiting credibility
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Interpersonal Influence
in Consultation Consultation can be seen as process of socially
influencing consultees
Trick is for consultants to impact consultee interms of gaining cooperation while maintaining a
relationship among equals
Consultants need to use some social influence
strategies but avoid more ethically-
questionable coercive types
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Multicultural Implications:
Entry Stage
Be aware of others value systems
Use effective communication and interpersonalskill
Determine comfort level in dealing with any
cultural or ethnic issues related to problem
Be aware of how cultural differences mayimpact outcome of consultation
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Application of Multicultural
Implications for Entry
Certain minority cultural groups may be
concerned about interpersonal orientation of
consultant who is from a majority culture Consultee from a majority culture may be more
interested in the assistance-value of a consultant
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Diagnosis Stage
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Stage II: Diagnosis Phase One: Gathering information
Phase Two: Defining the problem
Phase Three: Setting goals
Phase Four: Generating possible interventions
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Phase One:
Gathering Information
Deciding to proceed
Selecting dimension
Deciding who will be involved in data collection
Selecting the data collection methods
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Types of Data Genetic data
Current descriptive data
Process data
Interpretive data
Consultee-client system relationship data
Client system behavior data
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Means of Collecting Data
Interviews
Surveys
Questionnaires
Observation
Documents/Records
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Phase Two:
Defining the Problem
How many factors affect the problem?
How has the problem developed over time?
What past events are causing the current
problem?
How are future expectations related?
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Phase Three:
Setting Goals
The process of shaping a movement toward
concreteness and specificity from a broader,
more general perspective
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Goal Setting Steps
Specify objective
How will objective be
measured?
Specify target
Specify time span
Prioritize goals
Rate goals
Determinecoordination
requirements
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Phase Four: Generating
Possible Interventions
Intervention:A force that attempts to modify
some outcome
Actions or activities that, when put together in a
systematic manner, make up a plan to achieve a
goal
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Multicultural Implications:
Diagnosis Stage
Be aware of differences in gathering data
Be aware of perceptions of what needs to be
accomplished held by consultee
Cultural differences can play a role in
interventions proposed
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Application of Multicultural
Implications for Diagnosis
Consultee from a high context culture may prefer
interviewing and observation
Those from a low context culture may prefersurveys or document research
Some cultural groups may see the focus of
diagnosis as being the group, and some may see
focus as being the individual
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Implementation Stage
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Stage III: Implementation
Phase One: Choosing an intervention
Phase Two: Formulating a plan
Phase Three: Implementing the plan
Phase Four: Evaluating the plan
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Phase One:
Choosing an Intervention
Select one or two interventions that have high
probability of being successful
Take advantage of decision consultation
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Increasing Focus on
Evidenced-Based Interventions Evidenced-based interventions are validated
by research and/or data-based decision making
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Types of Interventions
Individual interventions
Dyadic and triadic interventions
Interventions for use between groups Interventions for the entire organization
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Phase Two:
Formulating the Plan
Plan:A detailed step-by-step method, formulated
before hand, for doing something
Considerations:
What (objective)
Where (locale of implementation)
When (time frame) How (methods, procedures, sequence)
Who (who is responsible for what)
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Phase Three:
Implementing the Plan
Help consultee be flexible
Reassure and prepare consultee
Offer technical assistance during this time
Exercise caution toward dependency
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Treatment Integrity Treatment integrity has typically been
presumed but not assessed
Important in drawing conclusions about
interventions success
Sometimes referred to as treatment fidelity
In its simplest form refers to the degree to
which the intervention is implemented asintended
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Treatment Integrity contd Treatment integrity has two dimensions
First dimension focuses on how effectively the
consultee carries out the intervention
The traditional focus on treatment integrity in
consultation
Second dimension is consultation procedural
integrity (CPI)
Refers to how well the consultant carries out consultation
process in which the intervention is embedded
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Treatment Integrity contd Recently, methods for assessing treatment
integrity have received attention
Interviews, observation and monitoring of
implementation, training in the intervention, anduse of scripted intervention plans can assess
treatment integrity
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Phase Four:
Evaluating the Plan
Evaluation:The collection of data/information
about implementation to determine
effectiveness in meeting specified goal Implementation evaluation
Outcome evaluation
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Techniques Used in
Outcome Evaluation
Individualized goal attainment measures
Standardized outcome assessment devices
Consumer satisfaction survey
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Multicultural Implications:
Implementation Stage
Cultural differences can impact perception of
the type of intervention selected
These differences should be taken into accountwhen selecting and implementing an intervention
The question of responsibility during
implementation may be based on cultural
differences
During evaluation, it is important to have
multicultural input
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Application for Multicultural
Implications during Implementation
Some cultural groups choose to focus on using
groups rather than focusing on time factors
Some cultural groups may see efficiency of the
plan as most beneficial during evaluation
Other groups may evaluate social impact of plan
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Disengagement Stage
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Stage IV: Disengagement
Phase One: Evaluating the process of
consultation
Phase Two: Planning post-consultation matters
Phase Three: Reducing involvement and
following-up
Phase Four: Terminating
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Phase One:
Evaluating Process Determine process and effects of consultation
Assess accountability and improvements in
service
Add knowledge to the field of consultation
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Types of Evaluation
Summative
the evaluation of outcomes or products
Formative evaluation of the process of consultation
perform evaluations at the end of each
phase of consultation
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SummativeEvaluation Summative evaluation refers to the evaluation
of outcomes or products
Often referred to asproduct evaluation
Assesses how well consultation worked
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Types of
Summative Evaluation Pre-post method
Group comparison method
Single case method
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The Use of Qualitative
Methods in Consultation
Quantitative approach can get at cause and
effect
Qualitativeapproach can help explain why
the cause and effect relationship exists, for
whom it exists, and how to sustain any effects
that were observed
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Types of
Qualitative Methods Triangulation
Member checks
Recursive data collection
Case study method
Focus groups
Ethnographic interviews
i
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Phase Two: Planning Post-
Consultation Matters
Review planning process:
Determine objectives
Establish procedures
Define steps
Assign responsibility
Test for feasibility, cost effectiveness and capabilities
PhaseThree: Reducing
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Phase Three: Reducing
Involvement and Following-up
Reducing Involvement:Gradual reduction inconsultants contact
with consultee andorganization, whichprevents abrupttermination
Follow-up: Process ofperiodically checkinghow well results of
consultation are beingmaintained over timeand how theorganization isperforming post-
consultation efforts
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Phase Four: Terminating Terminating provides closure in a formal yet
personal manner
Leave consultee satisfied in process and
accomplishments Tie up unresolved issues before leaving
Beware of the issues of dependence and depression
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Multicultural Implications:
Disengagement Stage
Be aware of the cultural social needs of consultee
involving time factor involved with disengagement
Dependency during follow-up phase may beinfluenced by cultural factors
A li i f M l i l l
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Application of Multicultural
Implications for Disengagement
Some consultees may require longer
follow-up period before termination as a
result of degree of dependency orimportance of relationships
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Pragmatic Issues Recent changes in society and organizations The influence of organizational theory
Bureaucratic model
Systems theory
The ecological perspective
Organizational change
P i I d
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Dealing with organizational culture Issues in assessment in organizations
Culturally sensitive organization
Time constraints
Pragmatic Issues contd
B i S i t l Ch
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Basic Societal Change
Affecting New Workers Diminishing percentage of young people
entering workforce
New workers less skilled than previousgenerations
A significant proportion of new workers
are from minority groups
Women make up at least 60% of new
workers
Organizational Changes
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Organizational Changes
Affecting the Workplace Increased complexity and diversification
Managers of agencies/organizations more
familiar with organizational change concepts Organizations/agencies more concerned with
ethics
Greater competition among all types of
organizations
O i ti l
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Organizational
Theory Defined The study of the structures and processes
of organizations and the behavior of
groups and individuals within them.
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The Bureaucratic Model Designed by Max Weber as the ideal of
organizational effectiveness
Means to ends in nature Each unit under direct control of higher unit
Organizations meant to be efficient, effective,
and equitable
Open Systems
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Open Systems
Organizational Theory Two types of systems: closed and open
Closed systems:
Not affected by their environments Have a finite amount of energy
When energy is used up, system runs down
Open systems:
Have permeable boundaries Can obtain energy from and send energy back to the
environment
Organizations can be viewed as open systems
F C t t
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Four Components to
Systems TheoryA framework (pattern of activities)
Goals
Methods and operations
People
Basic Assumptions of
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p
Systems Theory Organizations are open systems
Subject to internal and external influences
Considers organizations a totality Interdependence among its parts
Assumes that an organization is more than a sum
of its parts
Organizational behavior is seen as dynamic andcyclical
Nine Characteristics
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Nine Characteristics
of SystemsImportation of energy
The throughput
The outputSystems are cycles and events
Negative entropy
Information input, negative feedback, and the coding
processThe steady state and dynamic homeostasis
Differentiation
Equifinality
Fi S b t
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Five Subsystems
within an OrganizationThe technological or production subsystem
The support subsystemThe maintenance subsystem
The adaptive subsystem
The managerial subsystem
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The Ecological Perspective Emphasizes behavior as function of interaction
of characteristics of the environment and the
characteristics of the individual
Behavior needs to be examined in its givencontext
Interventions therefore need to focus on realigning
fit between environment and individual by changing
one or both
E l i l P ti
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Ecological Perspective
contd Often contrasted with medical model, which examines
problems as residing in the individual
Promotes environmental wellness factors that leadto individual self-esteem and competence as well as
the effort to lower incidence of environmental
stressors on individuals that may lead to negative
outcomes
Approaches to
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Approaches to
Organizational ChangeEmpirical-rational approach
Normative-reeducative approach
Power-coercive approach
Top-down approach
Bottom-up approach
Shared approach
Cultural Attributes of a
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Cultural Attributes of a
Successful OrganizationUniqueness in their philosophy
A focus by management on maintaining the philosophy
Deliberate attempts to integrate the philosophythroughout the organization
Involvement by all staff in communicating and
reinforcing an organization-wide view of events and
decisions
C lt rall Competent
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Culturally Competent
Organization Views diversity as a value-added opportunity
Proactive in responding to the constant diversity-
related, economic, political and social conditions Effectively provides services cross-culturally
Goal for consultants is to help to develop and maintain
an organization that is culturally competent in its
functioning through a variety of interventions atdifferent levels within the organization
S i l J i
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Social Justice Goal for consultants is to help to develop and maintain
an organization that is culturally competent in its
functioning through a variety of interventions at different
levels within the organization
Mental health professionals realize they must movebeyond one-on-one helping and assist with ecological and
systems interventions that promote positive human
development and remove barriers such as equal
opportunity for all organizational members
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Time Constraints Organization members increasingly asked to do more
with less
Time a precious commodity in organizations
Methods to create time for effective consultationinclude:
Scheduling meetings in advance as much as possible
Doing as much data gathering as possible early on in the
consultation process
Training prospective consultees in the problem-solving
process prior to consultation
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Models of Consultation
and Collaboration
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Mental Health Consultationand Collaboration
Basic Characteristics of
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Mental Health Consultation
Method used by professionals in respect to a lay client
or program for clients
Problem is mental health related
Consultant had no professional responsibility for theoutcome of the case
Consultee can accept or decline the suggestions of the
consultant
The relationship between consultant and consultee isto coordinate
Basic Characteristics of Mental
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Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
The consultant is external
Consultation often takes place in short set of interviews
Consultants use problem/response method during
consultation, not predetermined answers Goals of consultation are to help consultee improve
handling or understanding of the current work difficulty
and to increase capacity to deal with future problems
Basic Characteristics of Mental
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Basic Characteristics of Mental
Health Consultation (cont.)
Consultation continues indefinitely
Aim of consultation is to improve job performance
Consultation does not focus on personal problems or
feelings of consultee Consultation is a professional function of specialist
MHC is a method of communication between mental
health specialist and other professionals
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Psychodynamic Approach
Fosters concept that behavior is a product of
unconscious motivation and that most personal
issues result from early childhood experiences,
resulting in conflicts that affect behavior and causeuse problems
MHC has become eclectic since this original
psychodynamic approach
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Transfer Effect
The concept that what is learned in one situation
should be useable in similar, future situations
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One-Downsmanship A valuable relationship building technique that
a consultant can use to ensure relationship
remains on equal footing
Types of Mental
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Health Consultation Client-centered case
Consultee-centered case
Program-centered administrative
Consultee-centered administrative
The Client Centered
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The Client-Centered
Case Process
Focus is clients case giving the consultee difficulty
Consultant functions as expert
The consultee acts as link between client and
consultant as well as professional collaborator
Application for
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Application for
Client-Centered Process
Create list of questions about both client and
consultees situations and options
Answer questions by gathering information fromconsultee
Write report for consultee outlining observations
and recommendations
Consultee-Centered
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Consultee-Centered
Case Process
Goal is improvement of consultees ability to work
on particular case and cases in the future
Consultant plays roles of detective, expert, andeducator
Application for Consultee
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Application for Consultee-
Centered Process
Determine what reason the consultee is having a
problem:
Lack of knowledge Lack of skill
Lack of self-confidence
Lack of professional objectivity
L k f Obj i i
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Lack of Objectivity Simple identification: Identifies with client
Transference: Transfers onto client feeling and attitudes
from key relationships in past
Characterological distortions: Personality problem thatinterferes with effective delivery of human services
Theme interference: Special type of transference in
which consultee experiences an unexplainable block
in progressing on case
Process of Program-Centered
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Process of Program Centered
Administrative Consultation
Assessment of mental health aspects of some
program or internal functioning of organization
Consultant should be knowledgeable and
experienced in:
Organizational theory and practice
Program development
Fiscal policy
Administrative procedures
Personal management
Administrator acts as principle consultee
Program-Centered
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Program-Centered
Administrative ProcessApplication:
Scanning: General overview of organization and its
functions
Gather and interpret additional data
Consultant makes interim recommendations
Formal report of recommendations for bothshort-term and long-term goals and methods of
implementation
Consultee-Centered
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Consultee Centered
Administrative Consultation
Process:
Consultant works with organizations administrative-
level personnel to help solve problems in personal
management or implementation of organizational policy Administrator has job of helping consultant decide
whether additional forms of consultation are required,
whether there are to be other consultees and how
involved they are to be in the consultation process
Consultee Centered
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Consultee-Centered
Administrative Consultation
Application:
Beginnings follow same methods as other
consultation processes Determine who consultees will be
Study organizations social system and identify
problems and issues
Trends in Mental
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Move toward eclecticism
Emergence of mental health collaboration
Major implication of Caplan and Caplans recentideas for practicing consultants seems to be
necessity for members of helping professions to
determine at outset of helping relationship whether
consultation or collaboration is in order
Trends in Mental
Health Consultation
Trends contd
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Trends contd
Consultee-centered consultation has evolved beyond
Caplans original conceptualization
Factors such as constructivist theory impact it
Process employs a constructivist approach thatemphasizes cognition and constructing conceptual
change
How consultee and consultant understand and view the
problem
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Multicultural Aspects Client-centered allows for minimal disclosure on
part of consultee
Consultee-case suitable for consultees wanting
assistance from a knowledgeable authority figure Increased breadth and flexibility allow for
sensitivity to cultural variables
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Behavioral Consultation andCollaboration
Behavioral
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Behavioral
Consultation Defined
Relationship whereby services consistent with
behavioral orientation are provided either
indirectly to a client or system or directly bytraining consultees to enhance skills with clients
and/or systems
Characteristics of
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Characteristics of
Behavioral Consultation
Use of indirect service delivery models
Reliance on behavioral technology principles
Diversity of intervention goals
Changes aimed at various targets in different
settings
Key Concepts in
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Key Concepts in
Behavioral Consultation
Scientific View of behavior
Emphasis on current influences on behavior
Principles of behavior change
Focus on problem solving
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The Consultation Process
Behavioral case consultation
Behavioral technology training
Behavioral systems consultation
Behavioral Case
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Consultation
Consultant provides direct, behavior-based service
to consultee concerning management of client or
group of clients assigned to consultee Consultants use system problem-solving process
to assist consultee with clients
VerbalizationTechnology
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Verbalization Technology Control of consultants and consultees
verbalizations by consultant for full benefit and
effectiveness for consultation process to occur
Four aspects: Message source
Message content
Message process
Message control
4 Stages of Problem
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g
Identification for BCC
Problem identification stage
Problem analysis
Plan (treatment) implementation stage
Problem (treatment) evaluation stage
Behavioral
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Behavioral
Technology Training
Used when consultees seek to increase general
usage of behavioral technology principles when
working with clients Often used in schools
TheTraining
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The Training Consultant trains consultees in general behavior
principles or specific behavioral technology skills
Can be formal or informal
Individual or group Education/training model (chap. 11) is similar to
this training
Behavioral Systems
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Behavioral Systems
Consultation
Behavioral technology principles applied to a
social system
Consultant uses principles to analyze and changeinteractions among various sub-systems of larger
social system or between two or more interactive
systems
The Consultants
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The Consultant s
Function and Roles
Expert in behavioral systems consultation,
systems theory, and behavioral ecology
Guides consultee through systematic problem-solving process
Consultation relationship is collaborative
Implications for
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Implications for
Consultation
Behavioral systems consultation assumes that all
or part of a system is experiencing functional
difficulty Consultation consists of the following:
System definition
System assessment
System intervention
System evaluation
Conjoint Behavioral
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j
Consultation Uses parents and teachers as conjoint consultees
Designed to bridge gap between school and home
and maximize spread of effects from one settingto another
Process parallels that of behavioral case
consultation while taking into consideration
ecological factors
CBC contd
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CBC cont d
Concepts of CBC are compatible with culturally-competent practice
Sheridan and Kratochwill (2008) recommend the
following practices to maximize CBCs
effectiveness with diverse families: Practice cultural sensitivity
Build trusting relationships
Address diversity issues directly
Enhance communication
Implement a family-centered approach
Collaboration from a
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Behavioral Perspective Use of behavioral collaboration can be increased
by organizations making effective use of
behavioral technology training
Multicultural Aspects Related
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p
to Behavioral Consultation Appealing to cultural groups that do not freely
express feelings
Valuable to cultural groups that want concrete
and predictable outcomes
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Organizational Consultationand Collaboration
Organizational
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g
Consultation Defined Process in which professional provides assistance
of a technical, diagnostic/prescriptive, or
facilitative nature to individual or group from
organization to enhance organizations ability to
deal with change and maintain or enhance
effectiveness in some designated way
Key Concepts in
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y p
Organizational Consultation Organization as client
Process is as important as content
Edgar Scheins
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g
Model of Consultation
Purchase of expertise
Education/training consultation
Program consultation
The doctor/patient model
The process model
The Purchase of
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Expertise Model
Consultee knows what problem is, what needs to
be done and who can help solve it
Consultant comes in as expert to simply solveproblem
Education/Training
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g
Consultation Most frequently used purchase of expertise
consultation
Consultant provides education/training services inany number of areas and settings
Critical Skills for Education/
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Training Consultation Assessing training needs
Developing and stating measurable objectives
Understanding learning and change process
Designing learning experience
Planning and designing educational events
Critical Skills for Educational/
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Training Consultation Using heuristic laboratory methods
Using multiple learning stimuli
Functioning as group teacher or trainer Helping others learn how to learn
4 Steps of Educational/
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p
Training Consultation
Needs assessment
Planning education/training activities
Performing education/training
Evaluation
Program Consultation
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Program Consultation Form of purchase expertise consultation in which
organization in some way uses consultant to help
plan new program or revise or deal with factors
that affect existing program Goal is to provide an organization technical
assistance so a given program can be successful
The Doctor/Patient Model
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The Doctor/Patient Model Consultee knows something is wrong, but does
not know what is wrong
Consultant is given power to make diagnosis and
prescribe solution
Goal is to define problem and recommend
realistic interventions
Critical Skills for the
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Doctor/Patient Model Diagnostic skills
Prescriptive skills
In-depth knowledge of organizational theory Ability to read organizations
Data collection skills
Date interpretation skills
Human relations skills
The Process Model
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The Process Model Consultants expertise should include skills to
involve consultee in defining the problem, to form
team with consultee and to ensure that
consultation process focuses on consultees needs Consultant makes consultee more effective
problem solver
Seven Steps to
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Process Consultation Making initial contact
Defining relationship
Selecting a setting and method of work Gathering data/making diagnosis
Intervening
Reducing involvement
Terminating
P C lt ti td
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Process Consultation contd Prevention is key goal
Process consultation considers how persons, settings
and events become resources for positive
developments within an organization
Consultant uses humble and critical inquiry, by
which consultant makes no assumptions in order to
get to the notions about what consultee really wants
Collaboration from an
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Organizational Perspective Aim is same as organizational consultation
Enhanced functioning of the organization
Emergence of internal consultant role has createdmany opportunities for collaboration in organizations
Multicultural Aspects Related
t O i ti l C lt ti
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to Organizational Consultation Cultural groups that prefer structured, expert-
based consultation will find purchase of expertisemodel attractive
Cultural groups preferring assistance in problemdefinition will find doctor/patient model attractive
Cultural groups for which relationship is essentialwill prefer process model
Trends in Organizational
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g
Consultation Major trends are linked to several societal factors:
Impact of living and working in an information society
Ever-increasing pace of change in all aspects of life Growing awareness that quality change requires
systemic thinking
Realization that change can be successfully
accomplished only through social influence
Increasing internationalization and diversity within
organizations
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School Based Consultationand Collaboration
School-Based Consultation
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and Collaboration Consultation and collaboration are effective in
providing psychological services in schools
As mental health and instructional needs ofstudents have become of increasing concern,
interest in consultation and collaboration has
increased
School-Based Consultation
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and Collaboration contd Increased importance due to:
Revisions to the Individuals with Disabilities Act
School violence
No Child Left Behind Act
Emphasis on school reform and restructuring
Increased school accountability and high stakes
testing School-based consultation can be focused on
primary prevention, secondary prevention or
tertiary prevention
School-Based Consultation
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and Collaboration contd Consultants have ability to significantly impact
mental health and development of children by
improving skills and knowledge of parents and
those professionals who work with children atschool
Manner in which consultation and collaboration
take place in schools varies according to the
model being employed
Consulting and Collaborating
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with School Administrators Schools leadership is powerful force in
determining extent to which consultation and
collaboration are considered acceptable services
Consultants will want to remember that
administrator support and acceptance of
programs is essential for change to occur
Administrators have priorities and pressures for
which they may actively seek consultation
Organizational
Development Consultation
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Development Consultation Series of planned and sustained efforts to apply
principles of behavioral science to improve
functioning of the school
Not an event of itself, but a process of changing thesystem
Way of making carefully planned, predictable
change in school
Goal is to enhance schools effectiveness by helpingschool personnel understand and effectively act on
problems
Consulting and
Collaborating with Teachers
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Collaborating with Teachers School-based consultants assist teachers with both
academically and behavioral challenged children
as well as those with lesser concerns
School consultation and collaboration can beeffective and efficient ways to help teachers
enhance professional skills
Consultants work strategically to address both
student presenting issues and consultee behaviorand cognition
Teachers contd
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Consultants have engaged in collaboration withteachers as method of providing service to
students and families
Consultation has benefited teachers in variety of
areas Conducting effective parent conferences
Managing student behavior
Choosing instructional methodologies
Meeting unique needs of children of military
children
Adlerian Consultation:
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Consultation with Teachers Four basic assumptions:
Teachers cannot take responsibility for student
behavior
Teachers should be more involved with
encouragement than with praise
Teachers cannot always prevent failure on part of
student
Teachers need to try to meet affective and cognitive
needs of students
C-Group
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Consultation
Collaboration
Clarification
Caring
Confrontation
Communication
Cohesion
Commitment
Change
Concern
Confidentiality
Forces of the group:
C-Group contd
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Group consists of four to six teachers and
consultant
Meets once a week
Six to eight sessions
Teacher presents problems with individualstudent and group discusses them
Instructional Consultation
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Collaborative process in which problem is
identified and interventions are selected and
made
Instructional consultation (IC) is important model
for helping teachers modify instructional behaviorand more effectively create learning environment
for students
Goal of IC is to increase student and staff
performance regarding student academic andbehavioral issues
Steps of Instructional
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Consultation
Establishing collaborative relationship
Identifying problem
Observing classroom
Assessing curriculum-based learning
Planning instructional intervention
Terminating
Instructional
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Consultation contd Three ecological components make up
instructional triangle and are assessed:
a) Current competencies and skill sets of studentb) Tasks expected to be accomplished by student
c) Teachers management and instructional behavior
Instructional
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Most common roles of instructional consultant
appear to be those of collaborator and
educational trainer
May also include being advocate for particular
instructional technique or service for student
Recent developments in this model include
concept of instructional consultation teams andecological perspectives
Consultation contd
Consulting and
Collaborating with Families
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Collaborating with Families Schools are consciously attempting to assist children
and increase parental/guardian involvement
Families influence students academic, social, and
behavioral competencies
Consultation and collaboration with families are
essential and has been on the rise
Research has shown that parent consultation can be
effective in assisting with school-based behavioral and
emotional problems of students
Parent Case Consultation
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Parents may seek out consultation for a variety ofreasons
Their childs moving into or out of the school
Their childs academic, emotional, or social behavior
Can be Adlerian, behavior, or mental health
Goal is to promote increased positive involvement
by parents in school life of their child and improve
family relationships
Home School Collaboration
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Goal is to create effective partnerships betweenschool-based professionals and parents to enhance
student learning
In collaborating with parents, school-based
professionals ensure parents are true partners, areviewed as experts on their children, and have
some responsibility for the outcomes
Home-School
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Collaboration contd Parent involvement typically one-way flow of
information from school to parent
Home-collaboration: a two-way communication effort
based on joint efforts to assist the child
Sometimes referred to as home-school partnerships
or school-family partnerships
From an ecological perspective, often helpful tothink of school and parents together rather than
only separately
Home-School
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Collaboration contd Allows parent to exercise their roles, rights and
responsibilities related to childs welfare
School personnel can learn detailed informationabout child and family and engage parents in
jointly defined goals
Reciprocal influences of home and school on
student learning is maximized
Home-School
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Collaboration contdBasic considerations in home-school collaboration
include:
A preventive, problem-solving approach Both educators and families are critical in
socializing learners
Broad opportunities for parent participation are
essential Building relationships with parents can take time
and effort
Cross-Cultural
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ConsiderationsWhen working with parents: Culture directly influences family in significant
manner
Consultants can ensure schools remove barriersfor non-mainstream parents
Consultants will want to exercise caution inmaking any generalizations regarding
characteristics of a given culture
Cross-Cultural
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Considerations contd
Difference can impact the way consultant works
with parents about the school-related issues child is
facing Diversity within culturally diverse groups (i.e.,
individual differences) needs to be taken into
account
Cross-Cultural
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Considerations contd
Consultants will want to involve parents by taking
on collaborative role to tap knowledge base and
expertise on their children as method of
consulting with cultural competence
Cross-Cultural
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Considerations contd
Holcomb-McCoy (2009) and Holcomb-McCoy &
Bryan (2010)
Discuss emerging framework for parent
consultation involving advocacy and empowerment
that leads to a more supportive, culturally-
responsive climate at school
Consultation in this form considers and deals with
existing cultural differences and acknowledgesinterdependence of parents and their
environmental contexts
Interagency Collaboration
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Rationale: Problems of children effect all aspects of childs
life
Shared responsibility for case shifts focus from
what the school can do to what the communityshould do to provide services
Interagency contd
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Agencies collaborate to help children and theirfamilies, promote community mental health
reform, or develop systems-level programs to
promote student success and well-being
School, health services, social services, the childevaluation center, family services organizations, and
often the family itself
Interagency collaboration and school-community
partnerships can be effective in improving accessto services for citizens as well as to meet their
complex needs
Interagency contd
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Collaboration requires cultural competence
Shared responsibility necessitates solid agreement
on roles and responsibilities of individual
collaborators Collaborating professionals will want to recognize
that their team will have distinct personality
that will impact how the team will function
Interagency contd
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Five elements of interdisciplinary collaboration:1. Interdependence
2. Progress in collaboration involves building
interventions with the contributions of each
collaborator3. Flexibility in collaborative process to
accommodate power sharing and role adaptation
4. Collective ownership of goals
5. Discussion of progress and feedback to fellowcollaborators
Multicultural
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School Consultation Approach to consultation that takes into account how
cultural issues affect consultation process and how
related adaptations can be implemented at individual,
group or system-wide levels Ethnic and linguistic minority children constitute the
most rapidly growing segment of the youth population
in the U.S.
Consultants take into account individual differencesand cultural issues
Multicultural School
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Consultation contdIngraham (2000) points out several components of
multicultural school consultation:
Domains for consultant learning and development(e.g., understanding cultural context for
consultation)
Domains of consultee learning and development
(e.g., avoiding overemphasis on culture)
Cultural variations in consultation constellation
(e.g., taking into account cultural differences
among consultant, consultee, and client system)
Multicultural School
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Consultation contd Ingraham (continued):
Contextual and power influences (e.g., minimizing
power differentials between consultant andconsultee)
Hypothesized methods for supporting consultee
and client success (e.g., using consultation
methods matched with consultees style)
Multicultural contd
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Lopez and Truesdales six underlying principles thatfacilitate framing multicultural consultation:
1. Consultants are sensitive to cultural differences
2. Consultants and consultees acquire knowledge about
their clients cultural backgrounds
3. Consultants are mindful of cultural differences in
communication
4. Cultural differences influence interpersonal
relationships between consultants and consultees.
5. Multicultural issues are addressed throughout everystage of the consultation process
6. Consultants acknowledge how systemic issues impact
the cultural context of consultation
Multicultural contd
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Multicultural consultation has increasing empiricalsupport for its effectiveness but more is needed
Practical Matters
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Consultation/collaboration and special education Response to intervention (RTI)
Systems view of the school
Developing a framework for prevention and
intervention
Time constraints
Practical Matters:
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Special Education
Contributors to increased opportunities for
consultation and collaboration in areas related to
special education:
Federal legislation
Advances in the field of special education
National organizations related to school-based
professionals
Dictates an awareness of special education literatureincluding classifications as well as assessment methods
and related ethical, professional and legal issues
Practical Matters:
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RTI
RTI is a systemic intervention and change
Consultants often needed in its implementation
Practical Matters:
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RTI vs. Consultation
RTI and consultation are both problem-solving
activities but not one in the same
Consultation focuses on teacher-consultee while RTI
focuses on student client Consultants can be internal or external to school whereas
professionals implementing RTI are school-based
Consultation is less likely to be team-based like RTI
Consultation focuses on more areas and can be moregeneral than RTI
Participation in consultation is voluntary while
participation in RTI may not be
Practical Matters:
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Systems View of Schools
Individual interventions often not adequate in dealing
with issues related to educational and psychological
well-being of students
Systems view allows for capacity building within
schools that includes development of supportive
environments for all stakeholders
Allows for the use of ecological and preventive
perspectives and their related interventions
Can reflect a postmodernism point-of-view
Practical Matters:
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Systems View of Schools
Consultants take on broad framework for consultation
because of complexity of organizational factors and
how they can be changed
Consultants and consultees can intervene at severalecological levels including individual client level
Takes focus of a reactive approach for dealing with
issues of individual students to broader approach that
promotes prevention and well-being of all students
Practical Matters:
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Systems View of Schools
System-level change demands that all aspects of
education be examined in terms of multiple levels and
be based multiple partnerships among stakeholders
All students receive services that match their needs
Idea is that consultant will use existing structures and
processes within school to target, initiate and maintain
system level changes including evaluating and
sustaining change initiatives
Practical Matters:
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Systems View of Schools
One concern is that not all teachers are comfortable
with systems approaches
Some want more concrete ways of approaching
perceived problems
Many school consultants have not been trained in
systems methods
View typically dictates that consultants examine child
in interaction with a variety of levels of the ecosystemsuch as home, school, and community
Complicates nature of consultation relationship
Practical Matters:
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Developing Framework forPrevention and Intervention Prevention programs seeing resurgence in schools
Many have been designated as evidenced-based Focus of prevention is to build capacities in
systems (e.g., a school or other organization) so
overall development of members of that system in
things such as mental health, social skills, andhealth is optimized relative to the mission of the
system
Practical Matters:
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Developing a Framework Interventions include:
Tier 1: Universal
Target the entire population
Tier 2: Selective
Target segment of the population at risk
Tier 3: Indicated
Target students who need individualized and intense
intervention
Each of the three tiers provides great
opportunities for consultation
Practical Matters:
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Time Constraints Time constraints are large and real issue for
conducting effective consultation and
collaboration
Limitation of school consultation and
collaboration is that both take time to do well
Effective time management on the part of school
professionals is one obvious help in creating timefor consultation and collaboration
Practical Matters:
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Time Constraints
Consultants can have more positive impact on
consultation process by using their limited time to
observe and assess the problem, model and coach
Other strategies:
Early release/late arrival of students
Use of substitutes
Teaching strategies that free up personnel
Use of telephone and/or other technologies such as VoIPand e-mail for task accomplishment
Engaging in peer consultation
Use of group methods.
School Consultationst
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in the 21st
CenturyConsultation and collaboration will:
Focus more on positively impacting all students
Develop culturally sensitive interventions Engage in system-level initiatives
Use data-driven decision making
Use the ecological approach more often
School Consultation inst
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the 21 Century contd
Use of telephone, texting, the web and e-mail to
accomplish tasks (such as follow-up) increasing
Use of consultation and collaboration teams will
continue to increase
Role of consultants and collaborators in gifted
education receiving increased attention
School-based consultants will help their schools create
positive climate with regard to school reformmovements continuing impact on public education
School Consultation inst
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the 21 Century contd
Infusion of positive psychology to increase well-being
of individuals in school through mental health and
behavioral consultation also receiving more attention
Positive behavior support (PBS) movement willprovide an approach that allows consultant to help
develop support and interventions at individual,
classroom or school-levels
Multiple issues brought about by high-stakes testing,such as teacher burnout, will be fertile areas for
consultation
School Consultation inst
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the 21 Century contd
School-based consultants may well be called upon to
serve as cultural mediators between school and
community
School-based consultants will be increasingly calledupon to promote childrens health and collaborate
with medical/health professionals to meet childrens
health needs
School-based consultants are increasingly called on toact as organizational consultants during a disaster or a
national or local crisis
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Case Study Illustrations
Case Study Illustrations
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Purpose of this chapter is to assist in applying
theory to practice and obtaining a more realistic
picture of what transpires in consultation
ACME Human Services Center
Typescript of consultation and collaboration
sessions
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Ethical and Legal Issues
Ethics Defined
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Standards of moral and professional conduct Code of ethics: Written ethical guideline followed
by professionals
Discourages inappropriate practice
Protects recipient of services
Promotes exemplary behavior
Making Ethical Judgments
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Identify problem
Identify potential
issues
Review ethicalguidelines
Consult colleagues
Consider courses of
action
Consider
consequences for
various decisions
Determine best course
of action
Values Beliefs and principles held by a person that have
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p p y p
been formed by his or her life experiences
Consultant should know what his or her values are
Consultant should not expect others to hold the
same values
Consultant should be aware of specific values held
by cultural and ethnic groups
Competence
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Providing services and accepting jobs for which
one is qualified
Maintain high levels of professionalism
Know ones professional limitations
Know when to decline and refer
Avoid situations in which personal concerns could
affect professional performance
Multicultural Issues
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Ethical practice dictates that consultants take
cultural context of consultees and client systems
into account
To practice ethically, consultants need to
demonstrate sensitivity to and respect for cultural
differences when they provide services whether to
families, in schools, or in any other organization
Consultant-Consultee-
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Client
RelationshipWork-related focus
Dual relationships
Freedom of choice
Rights of Consultees
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Confidentiality: Protecting the identities of parties
involved in consultation
Informed consent: To inform consultees about the
nature and goals of consultation, their right to
privacy, the voluntary nature of participation and
the complete freedom they have in following
suggestions made by the consultant
The Consultant
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and the Group Consulting with groups with caseloads
Intervention Areas
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Involving Ethical Issues
Individual vs. systems-level
Use of assessment data
Empirical validity of interventions
Issues in Disaster/Crisis
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Consultation Consultants bear in mind acute vulnerability of
client system in crisis and disaster situations
Resulting chaotic environment will heightenethical considerations
Consultants assure that cultural competence is
exhibited when engaging in crisis consultation in
that responses to a crisis vary to a given culture
Ethical Issues in
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Organizational Consultation Typical ethical issues exacerbated by complexity
or organization
Aspirational ethics
Virtue ethics
Consulting
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Over the Internet Relationship development
Confidentiality
Location-specific factors
Collaboration
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and Ethical Issues Not all collaborators may have freedom to participate
in team effort
Confidentiality is assumed in consultation
In collaboration, pertinent material may have to be
distributed among team members
In consultation, consultee can accept or refuse
consultants recommendations
In collaboration, such freedom is not presumed due toeach team members unique knowledge and skills to
which other team members typically defer
Legal Issues: Malpractice
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Behaviors often leading to legal entanglements: Misrepresenting ones training
Failing to respect integrity and privacy
Using improper diagnosis and assessment
Collecting fees improperly Libel and slander
Breech of contract
Failing to keep adequate records