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Transcript of Schermerhorn Mgmt9 Ch14
PowerPoint Presentation
to Accompany
Management, 9/eJohn R. Schermerhorn, Jr.
Chapter 14:
Prepared by: Jim LoPresti
University of Colorado, Boulder
Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chapter 14: Motivation – Theory and Practice
Planning Ahead — Chapter 14 Study Questions
� How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� What are the process theories of
motivation?
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 2
motivation?
� What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
� What are the alternative approaches to
job design?
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Types of content theories:
�Hierarchy of needs theory
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 3
�ERG theory
�Two-factor theory
�Acquired needs theory
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Motivation and individual needs� Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
� Needs
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 4
� Needs
� Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of
an individual.
� Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.
� Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
� Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need
satisfaction.
Study Question 2: What are the different types of
individual needs?
� Hierarchy of needs theory
� Developed by Abraham Maslow.
� Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes.
Lower-order needs:
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 5
� Lower-order needs:
� Physiological, safety, and social needs.
� Desires for physical and social well being.
� Higher-order needs:
� Esteem and self-actualization needs.
� Desire for psychological growth and development.
Study Question 2: What are the different types of
individual needs?
�Hierarchy of needs theory
� Deficit principle
� A satisfied need is not a motivator of
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 6
� A satisfied need is not a motivator of
behavior.
� Progression principle
� A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level need
is satisfied.
Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in
Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 7
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� ERG theory
� Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
� Three need levels:
� Existence needs — desires for
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 8
� Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.
� Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
� Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.
Study Question 2: What are the different types of
individual needs?
� ERG theory
� Any/all needs can influence behavior at
one time.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 9
one time.
� Frustration-regression principle.
� An already satisfied lower-level need
becomes reactivated when a higher-level
need is frustrated.
Study Question 2: What are the different types of
individual needs?
� Two-factor theory
� Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
� Hygiene factors:
� Elements of the job context.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 10
� Elements of the job context.
� Sources of job dissatisfaction.
� Satisfier factors:
� Elements of the job content.
� Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 11
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Acquired needs theory
� Developed by David McClelland.
� People acquire needs through their life experiences.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 12
experiences.
� Needs that are acquired:
� Need for Achievement (nAch)
� Need for Power (nPower)
� Need for Affiliation (nAff)
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Acquired needs theory
� Need for Achievement (nAch)
� Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 13
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
� People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
� Involves individual responsibility for results.
� Involves achievable but challenging goals.
� Provides feedback on performance.
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Acquired needs theory� Need for Power (nPower)
� Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 14
responsible for other people.
� Personal power versus social power.
� People high in (nPower) prefer work that:� Involves control over other persons.
� Has an impact on people and events.
� Brings public recognition and attention.
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
� Acquired needs theory
� Need for Affiliation (nAff)
� Desire to establish and maintain friendly
and warm relations with other persons.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 15
and warm relations with other persons.
� People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
� Involves interpersonal relationships.
� Provides for companionship
� Brings social approval.
Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence
motivation?
�Questions for summarizing the
content theories of motivation:
� How many different individual needs
are there?
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 16
are there?
� Can a work outcome or reward satisfy
more than one need?
� Is there a hierarchy of needs?
� How important are the various needs?
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Process theories of motivation …� How people make choices to work hard or not.
� Choices are based on:
� Individual preferences.
� Available rewards.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 17
� Available rewards.
� Possible work outcomes.
� Types of process theories:� Equity theory.
� Expectancy theory.
� Goal-setting theory.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Equity theory
� Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
� When people believe that they have
been treated unfairly in comparison to
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 18
been treated unfairly in comparison to
others, they try to eliminate the
discomfort and restore a perceived
sense of equity to the situation.
� Perceived inequity.
� Perceived equity.
Figure 14.3 Equity theory and the role of social
comparison.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 19
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Equity theory
� People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing …
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 20
� Work inputs.
� Rewards received.
� Comparison points.
� Situation.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Managerial implications of equity theory—
� Underpaid people experience anger.
� Overpaid people experience guilt.
� Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 21
outcomes.
� Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.
� Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace.
� Gender equity.
� Comparable worth.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Expectancy theory
� Developed by Victor Vroom.
� Key expectancy theory variables:
� Expectancy — belief that working hard
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 22
� Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.
� Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards.
� Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes.
Figure 14.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of
motivation.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 23
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Expectancy theory
� Motivation (M), expectancy (E),
instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are
related to one another in a
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 24
related to one another in a
multiplicative fashion:
M = E x I x V
� If either E, I, or V is low,
motivation will be low.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Managerial implications of
expectancy theory—
� To maximize expectancy, managers
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 25
should:
� Select workers with ability.
� Train workers to use ability.
� Support work efforts.
� Clarify performance goals.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Managerial implications of
expectancy theory—
� To maximize instrumentality, managers
should:
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 26
should:
� Clarify psychological contracts.
� Communicate performance-outcome
possibilities.
� Identify rewards that are contingent on
performance.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Managerial implications of
expectancy theory—
� To maximize valence in a positive
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 27
� To maximize valence in a positive
direction, managers should:
�Identify individual needs.
�Adjust rewards to match individual
needs.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process:� Set specific goals.
� Set challenging goals.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 28
� Set challenging goals.
� Build goal acceptance and commitment.
� Clarify goal priorities.
� Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
� Reward goal accomplishment.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
� Goal-setting theory
� Developed by Edwin Locke.
� Properly set and well-managed task goals can
be highly motivating.
Motivational effects of task goals:
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 29
� Motivational effects of task goals:
� Provide direction to people in their work.
� Clarify performance expectations.
� Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
� Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management.
Study Question 2: What are the process theories of
motivation?
�Goal-setting theory
� Participation in goal setting
� unlocks the motivational potential of goal
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 30
setting.
� management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation.
� when participation is not possible, workers
will respond positively if supervisory trust
and support exist.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
� Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …
� Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of
external environmental consequences on
behavior.
Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 31
� Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on
future behavior.
� Operant conditioning:
� Developed by B.F. Skinner.
� Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
�Operant conditioning strategies:
� Positive reinforcement
� Increases the frequency of a behavior
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 32
through the contingent presentation of a
pleasant consequence.
� Negative reinforcement
� Increases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent removal of an
unpleasant consequence.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
�Operant conditioning strategies:
� Punishment
� Decreases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent presentation of
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 33
through the contingent presentation of
an unpleasant consequence.
� Extinction
� Decreases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent removal of an
pleasant consequence.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
� Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
� Law of contingent reinforcement —
Reward delivered only if desired
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 34
�Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited.
� Law of immediate reinforcement —
�More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
� Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:� Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
� Maintain a diverse inventory of
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 35
� Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
� Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards.
� Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.
� Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement
play in motivation?
� Guidelines for using punishment:
� Tell the person what is being done
wrong.
Tell the person what is being done
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 36
� Tell the person what is being done
right.
� Match the punishment to the behavior.
� Administer punishment in private.
� Follow laws of immediate and
contingent reinforcement.
Figure 14.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case
of total quality management.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 37
Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play
in motivation?
� Schedules of reinforcement:
� Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.
� Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 38
� Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous reinforcement.
� Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more permanent.
� Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Job.
� A collection of tasks performed in support of
organizational objectives.
� Job design.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 39
� Job design.
� The process of creating or defining jobs by
assigning specific work tasks to individuals and
groups.
� Jobs should be designed so that both
performance and satisfaction result.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Job simplification.� Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks.
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 40
� Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth.
� Automation.� Total mechanization of a job.
� Most extreme form of job simplification.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Potential advantages of job simplification:
� Easier and quicker training of workers.
� Workers are less
� Potential disadvantages of job simplification:
� Productivity suffers.
� Cost increases due
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 41
� Workers are less difficult to supervise.
� Workers are easier to replace.
� Development of expertise in doing repetitive tasks.
� Cost increases due to absenteeism/ turnover of unhappy workers.
� Poor performance may result from worker boredom/ alienation.
Figure 14.6 A continuum of job design alternatives.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 42
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Job rotation and job enlargement:
� Expands job scope.
� Job rotation.
� Increases task variety by periodically shifting
workers among jobs involving different task
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 43
workers among jobs involving different task
assignments.
� Job enlargement.
� Increases task variety by combining two or
more tasks previously assigned to separate
workers.
� Horizontal loading.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Job enrichment.
� Building more opportunities for
satisfaction into a job by expanding its
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 44
satisfaction into a job by expanding its
content.
� Expands both job scope and job depth.
� Frequently accomplished through
vertical loading.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Critical psychological states:
� Experienced meaningfulness of work.
� Experienced responsibilities for work
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 45
� Experienced responsibilities for work
outcomes.
� Knowledge of actual results of work
activities.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Core job characteristics:
� Skill variety.
� Task identity.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 46
� Task identity.
� Task significance.
� Autonomy.
� Feedback.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Moderating variables:
� Growth-need strength (GNS).
� People with high GNS will respond most
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 47
� People with high GNS will respond most
positively to enriched jobs.
� Knowledge and skills.
� Context satisfactions.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Improving core job characteristics:
� Form natural units of work.
� Combine tasks.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 48
� Combine tasks.
� Establish client relationships.
� Open feedback channels.
� Practice vertical loading.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Checklist for enriching jobs:
� Remove controls that limit people’s discretion
in their work.
� Grant people authority to make decisions
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 49
Grant people authority to make decisions
about their work.
� Make people understand their accountability
for results.
� Allow people to do “whole” tasks or complete
units of work.
� Make performance feedback available.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Compressed workweek.� Any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts.
� Benefits — more leisure time, lower
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 50
� Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance.
� Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Flexible working hours.
� Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily
work hours.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 51
work hours.
�Core time — all employees must be at work.
�Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Potential benefits of flexible working
hours:
� People have greater autonomy in work
scheduling while ensuring maintenance
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 52
scheduling while ensuring maintenance
of work responsibilities.
� Organizations can attract and retain
employees who have special non-work
responsibilities.
� Worker morale may be improved.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Job sharing.
� One full-time job is split between two
or more persons.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 53
�Work sharing.
� An agreement between employees to
cut back their work hours to avoid
layoffs or termination.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Potential advantages of work sharing:
� Trained and loyal workers can be retained
while temporarily cutting labor costs.
� Continued work but with reduced earnings
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 54
� Continued work but with reduced earnings
for those who would otherwise be laid off.
� Potential disadvantages of work sharing;
� Employees who might otherwise be protected
by seniority may suffer an income loss.
Figure 14.7 Job design and individual work outcomes
using the core characteristics model.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 55
Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Telecommuting.
� A work arrangement that allows a
portion of scheduled work hours to be
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 56
portion of scheduled work hours to be
completed outside of the office.
� Hoteling.
� Virtual offices.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Potential advantages of telecommuting:� Freedom from
� Constraints of commuting.
� Fixed hours.
� Special work attire.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 57
� Direct contact with supervisors.
� Increased productivity.
� Fewer distractions.
� Being one’s own boss.
� Having more personal time.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:� Working too much.
� Having less personal time.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 58
� Having less personal time.
� Difficulty in separating work and personal life.
� Less time for family.
� Feelings of isolation.
� Loss of visibility for promotion.
� Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Part-time work.
� Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 59
employee.
� Contingency workers
� Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often on a long-term basis.
� Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce.
Study Question 4: What are the alternative
approaches to job design?
� Implications of part-time work:
� Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 60
cyclical labor demands.
� Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive.
� Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits.
Figure 14.8 A sample flexible working hours
schedule.
Management 9/e - Chapter 14 61
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