DIFFERENCES IN BODY SATISFACTION AND REPORTED DIETARY INTAKE IN WOMEN

ACROSS THE LIFECYCLEErin L. Jennings, MS, RD; Leah Beaird, MS, RD; Maureen Mason, MS, RD; Christine Reese, MS, RD; Kathleen Woolf, PhD, RD, FASCM

Department of Nutrition, Food Studies and Public Health,

Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development, New York University, New York

ABSTRACTBackground: Body image is a multi-faceted concept describing the internal experience

of the physical self. Internalization of the thin feminine ideal contributes to body

dissatisfaction, which is associated with eating pathology. Research examining the

effects of body image on dietary intake is lacking, particularly in older women.

Objective: The purpose of the current study was to examine differences in body image

across the adult female lifecycle and differences in eating patterns in participants

reporting body satisfaction versus dissatisfaction.

Design: 140 young, midlife, and older women (BMI <30.0 kg/m2) completed validated

psychological questionnaires, seven-day weighed food records, and body composition

assessments in this cross-sectional study. The independent effect of age on body

satisfaction (adjusted for % body fat) was determined by ANCOVA. Participants were

divided into two groups based on level of body dissatisfaction. Chi-square tests

examined differences in achievement of dietary recommendations between the

satisfied/dissatisfied groups. Linear regression examined the impact of independent

variables on body dissatisfaction.

Results: Younger women reported significantly more body dissatisfaction compared to

the older women (Body Shape Questionnaire [BSQ] [p<0.01]). Age, restraint,

disinhibition, difference between actual silhouette and ideal silhouette, and difference

between actual and ideal body weight predicted body dissatisfaction; these predictors

accounted for 56% of the variance in BSQ score. No significant differences between the

satisfied/dissatisfied groups in achievement of dietary recommendations were observed.

Conclusions: Though previous literature supports stability in body image across the

lifecycle, these findings suggest a decline in body dissatisfaction as women age. Results

indicate that cognitive/behavioral factors have a greater influence on body satisfaction

than dietary intake. Further research examining body image across the lifecycle will

facilitate understanding of psychological adaptation throughout adulthood and elucidate

nutritional concerns unique to particular life stages.

INTRODUCTIONFor women, body image is a complex and multi-faceted concept that describes

a person’s internal experience of the physical self, particularly regarding body

appearance1. Numerous physical, psychological, and sociocultural factors,

including notably the youthful and thin feminine cultural body ideal pervasive in

modern industrialized societies, influence self-perception of appearance2. High

consumption of media messages promoting the desirability of thinness may

negatively impact body image and influence eating behavior2. Much of the

research on body image has focused on the psychological impact, especially

as a risk factor for the development of eating disorders3 . However, disruptions

in body image also concern nutrition professionals given the potential influence

of body dissatisfaction on dietary intake. Furthermore, only limited research

has examined the associations between body image and dietary intake to date.

The current consensus in the literature suggests that body dissatisfaction

remains relatively stable through life for women, with midlife and older women

typically reporting similar levels of body dissatisfaction as younger women.2,4

The current body of research focuses on negative body image, whereas less is

known about the effect of positive body image and body satisfaction on risk

factors for eating pathology. Recently, Tiggemann and McCourt (2013) reported

a significant positive linear relationship between age and body appreciation,

suggesting that older women appreciated their bodies more than younger

women1. Given that negative body image increases the risk for disordered

eating, body satisfaction may have a protective effect on eating attitudes,

feelings, and behavior. The present study aims to examine differences in body

satisfaction in young, midlife, and older adult women. Secondly, this study

examines differences in dietary intake between body satisfied and dissatisfied

participants. Finally, the study examines predictors of body satisfaction. It is

imperative for nutrition professionals to understand body image concerns of

women due to the potential consequences on nutritional status.

REFERENCES1. Tiggemann M, McCourt A. Body appreciation in

adult women : Relationships with age and body

satisfaction. Body Image. 2013;10(4):624.

2. Cash TF, Pruzinsky T. (Eds.), Body Images: A

Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical

Practice NY: Guilford Press.

3. Stice E. Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset

and maintenance of eating pathology : A

synthesis of research findings. Journal of

Psychosomatic Research. 2002;53(5):985.

4. Tiggemann M. Body image across the adult life

span: Stability and change. Body Image.

2004;1(1):29-41.

METHODSParticipants

• 207 women were recruited from the local community

• Participants were included in the final analysis if they were nonsmoking,

weight stable BMI <30.0 kg/m2, denied use of over-the-counter weight

loss products, and were free of chronic disease

• Participants’ ages were targeted to fit into discrete groups: young = 20-30

years old, midlife = 40-50 years, and older ≥60 years.

• 140 women were included in the final analysis: 126 non-Hispanic white

women, 3 African American women, 4 Asian American women, 4 Hispanic

women, and 3 women who did not identify with a race/ethnic group.

Anthropometric and Health History Assessments

• All participants completed a health history questionnaire and were

interviewed about their use of medications and dietary supplements

• Weight and height were measured and rounded to the nearest 0.25 lb,

0.25 inch, respectively

• Body composition was assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

Assessment of Body Image and Eating Behaviors

• Participants completed validated questionnaires to assess body image

and eating behaviors (Three Factor Eating Inventory, Body Shape

Questionnaire, Eating Disorder Inventory, and Contour Drawing Figure

Rating Scale).

Assessment of Dietary Intake

• Participants completed 7-day food records and were provided with a food

scale.

• Five weekdays and two weekend days were utilized to assess usual

eating patterns

• The food records were analyzed using the Food Processor Nutrition and

Fitness Software program

Statistics

• One-way analysis of covariance adjusted for % body fat examined

differences in body satisfaction and eating behaviors across each age

group.

• Linear regression examined the impact of the independent variables of

age, restraint, disinhibition, difference between ideal and actual silhouette,

and actual minus ideal body weight on Body Shape Questionnaire score.

• Chi-square tests examined differences in achievement of dietary

recommendations between the satisfied/dissatisfied groups.

RESULTS•Young women reported significantly more hunger

than midlife and older women (p=0.04).

•Young women reported significantly more body

dissatisfaction than older women (p<0.01).

•The five independent predictors (age, silhouette

difference, restraint, disinhibition, and actual

minus ideal body weight) accounted for 56% of

the variance in BSQ score.

•Disinhibition had the greatest impact on BSQ

score of these five predictors (0.42).

•No significant differences between the body

satisfied and dissatisfied groups in achievement of

dietary recommendations were observed.

DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS SORTED BY AGE

GROUP

BODY IMAGE ACROSS THE LIFECYCLE

CONCLUSIONSThe findings of this study provide evidence that

changes in body image across the lifecycle are

multi-faceted and not well understood, therefore

meriting continued research. The current study

supports an increase in body satisfaction across

the lifecycle, which opens the door to additional

related research questions. Continued study of

middle age and older population regarding body

image will facilitate a more complete

understanding of psychological adaptation across

the lifespan. Additional focus on body image and

dietary intake is needed to reveal potential

nutritional implications in both normal and eating

disordered populations.

PREDICTORS OF BODY DISSATISFACTION

aOne-way analyses of covariance were used to adjust for %body fat.

*Significant at P<0.05 based on one-way analysis of variance of normality-adjusted scores tested for

differences by age group. x,y Medians with different superscripts are significantly different from one another.

aBody Shape Questionnaire used as dependent variable.

*Coefficient statistically significant at p< .01.

*Significant at P<0.05 based on one-way analysis of variance tested for differences by age group. Post hoc tests (Bonferroni)

were used to determine which means differed significantly between groups. x,y,zMeans with different superscripts are significantly different from one another.

Characteristic Young (n=42) Midlife (n=52) Older (n=47) P value

<------------------------- mean standard deviation -------------------------->

Age (y) 25 3x 44 3y 69 5z <0.01*

Height (cm) 166 7x 165 6 162 6y 0.03

Weight (kg) 61 9 64 8 64 8 0.31

Body Mass Index (kg/m2) 22.2 2.6x 23.4 2.7 24.3 2.6y 0.01

Fat-Free Mass (%) 69 9x 66 9 62 8y 0.02

Body Fat (%)b 32 9x 34 9 38 8y 0.02

Body Satisfaction Measure Young (n=41) Midlife (n=52) Older (n=47) P value

<------------------ mean standard deviation ------------------>

Restraint 9.2 4.7 9.2 4.8 10.1 4.3 0.45

Disinhibition 5.8 3.5 4.9 3.4 5.4 3.8 0.14

Hunger 4.9 2.9x 3.4 2.7y 3.5 3.0y 0.04*

Body Shape Questionnaire 84.3 28.5x 75.0 26.8 70.2 22.9y <0.01*

Body Dissatisfaction 9.2 7.6 7.7 7.0 10.2 7.7 0.29

Silhouette Difference 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.1 1.7 1.2 0.32

VariableMean Standard

Deviation

Standardized

Partial Regression

Coefficient

Body Shape Questionnairea 76.1 26.5

Restraint 9.5 4.6 0.16*

Disinhibition 5.3 3.6 0.42*

Silhouette Difference 1.6 1.3 0.27*

Actual minus Ideal Weight 11.9 14.6 0.13*

Age 46.8 17.8 -0.22*

R Squared

All Predictors 0.557