Scalable Audio Feature Extraction -...

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Scalable Audio Feature Extraction Devon Leno Bryant A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of University of Colorado at Colorado Springs in Candidacy for the Degree of Master of Science in Computer Science Adviser: Dr. Rory Lewis April 2014

Transcript of Scalable Audio Feature Extraction -...

Scalable Audio Feature Extraction

Devon Leno Bryant

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of

University of Colorado at Colorado Springs

in Candidacy for the Degree of

Master of Science in Computer Science

Adviser: Dr. Rory Lewis

April 2014

c© Copyright by Devon Leno Bryant, 2014.

All rights reserved.

Recommended for Acceptance by

The Department of Computer Science

Dr. Rory Lewis Date

Dr. Jugal Kalita Date

Dr. Terrance Boult Date

Abstract

Feature extraction provides the foundation for many systems and research projects

dealing with machine learning. Extracting features from audio data can be compu-

tationally expensive and time consuming, particularly with larger sets of audio data.

This paper describes Safe, a system for scalable and efficient audio feature extrac-

tion in the Music Information Retrieval domain. The system builds upon previous

research in efficient audio feature extraction, taking advantage of both multicore pro-

cessing and distributed cluster computing to provide a scalable architecture for feature

extraction algorithms.

Lastly, the system’s performance is compared with current leading extraction li-

braries and a model for the system’s scalability is developed.

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Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

1 Introduction 1

2 Background and Related Work 3

3 System Description 6

3.1 Feature Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.2 System Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Efficient and Scalable Extraction 11

4.1 Efficient Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.2 Parallel Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.3 Distributed Feature Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.3.1 Localized Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.3.2 Distributed Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Evaluation and Results 21

5.1 System Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5.2 Dataflow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.3 Scalability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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5.3.1 Multi-Processor Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.3.2 Multi-Node Cluster Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 Conclusions 37

6.1 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

A Implemented Features 39

A.0.1 Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

A.0.2 Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

A.0.3 Fast Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

A.0.4 Power Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

A.0.5 Constant-Q Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

A.0.6 Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A.0.7 Spectral Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

A.0.8 Spectral Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A.0.9 Onset Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

B Evaluation Dataset 47

References 115

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List of Tables

4.1 Plan level parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.2 Feature level parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5.1 Evaluation Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.2 Evaluation Dataset Genre Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.3 Extraction Libraries and Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

A.1 CQT Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A.2 MFCC Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

A.3 Spectral Shape Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A.4 Spectral Flux Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

A.5 Spectral Onset Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

B.1 Full Evaluation Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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List of Figures

3.1 Safe Web Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.1 Sequential dataflow for MFCC, CQT, and Spectral Shape features . . 12

4.2 Optimal dataflow extraction plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.3 Safe Distributed Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1 Feature extraction times (1332 songs, 5120 minutes of audio) . . . . . 25

5.2 Feature extraction times for increasing number of songs . . . . . . . . 26

5.3 Feature extraction times for single audio files of increasing length . . 27

5.4 Performance increase from dataflow analysis (single-threaded) . . . . 28

5.5 Percentage of total time taken by individual sub-feature actors . . . . 32

5.6 Feature extraction processor speedup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5.7 Feature extraction processor scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5.8 Feature extraction cluster/node scalability (local audio files) . . . . . 35

5.9 Feature extraction cluster/node scalability (HDFS distributed audio

files) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

A.1 Sequential dataflow of the Constant-Q transform . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A.2 Sequential dataflow for Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients . . . . . 43

A.3 Sequential dataflow for Spectral Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A.4 Sequential dataflow for Spectral Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

A.5 Sequential dataflow for Spectral Onsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

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Chapter 1

Introduction

The Music Information Retrieval (MIR) domain spans a wide variety of disciplines

and applications. MIR techniques are being leveraged by businesses and academics for

recommendation systems, classification, identification, automatic transcription, simi-

larity searching, and more. Despite the seemingly different nature of these problems,

many of these systems actually leverage similar audio feature extraction algorithms

at their core. These feature extraction algorithms can range from low-level digital

signal processing techniques to high-level machine learning algorithms. Most of these

algorithms are computationally intensive, both in resource usage and running times.

The amount of audio data and music being produced today is significant. Com-

panies such as Spotify are adding over 20,000 songs per day to their existing catalog

of over 20 million songs [39]. The current Apple iTunes catalog has over 26 million

songs [33]. Most of the existing MIR libraries and algorithms are not easily scalable

to work with larger datasets such as these.

Numerous libraries exist for audio feature extraction and many have focused on al-

gorithmic optimizations for efficient extraction, often using C++ for its performance

benefits in numerical computing. However, as modern computing continues to shift

towards more parallel architectures [3], it is clear that different programming models

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and techniques are needed to take full advantage of these systems. Often, the im-

perative techniques used for optimal execution on a single processor are ill-suited or

difficult to transition to parallel environments [40].

Additional research has been done in extending existing libraries to work in dis-

tributed computing environments [28, 15, 5]. These systems are all based on a mas-

ter/worker division of nodes, which suffers from two main drawbacks. The primary

drawback is that a master node in any system provides a single point of failure, mean-

ing these systems do not address issues with fault-tolerance. The second drawback is

that a master node in a system often enforces bounds on the scalability; introducing

an upper bound when throughput is limited by the master node and forcing a lower

bound of two nodes from the master/worker separation.

This paper describes a high-performance concurrent system for audio feature ex-

traction based on modern techniques in parallel computing and reactive program-

ming. Scalability of the system is fault-tolerant and addresses both vertical scalability

through multicore processing and horizontal scalability through distributed cluster-

ing. While the primary focus of this research is on performance and scalability, there

is a strong secondary goal towards providing a general extensible MIR framework for

others to re-use and build upon.

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Chapter 2

Background and Related Work

There have been many MIR feature extraction libraries developed over the last decade,

each with different feature sets and focus. This section outlines some of the most

popular and relevant libraries in audio feature extraction, though many more exist.

One of the earliest libraries to provide audio feature extraction that is still used

today is Marsyas [41]. Marsyas is an efficient C++ framework for general dataflow

audio processing that has been used for various analysis and synthesis tasks. Marsyas

provides both a command-line interface and a graphical editor for building data flows.

Marsyas has also been extended to perform batch extraction in distributed environ-

ments [5]. The distributed model relies on a custom dispatcher node sending audio

clips over TCP to known worker nodes for feature extraction.

Yaafe [27] is a fast and efficient library for audio feature extraction written mostly

in C++ with a Python interface. The focus of Yaafe is on efficiency, utilizing dataflow

graphs to eliminate redundant calculations between different features. Yaafe is mostly

a command line tool and supports output in CSV or HDF5 formats.

jAudio [30] is a Java-based audio extraction framework developed primarily for

MIR researchers. The framework provides a GUI for selecting features and filling out

parameters. Results can be exported to XML or Weka’s ARFF format for further

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experimentation or machine learning. jAudio also provides a mechanism for describ-

ing dependencies between features, similar to Yaafe, for the purpose of eliminating

duplicate calculations.

OMEN [28] is a distributed extraction framework that leverages jAudio as its base

extraction engine. The distribution model for OMEN is based on a hierarchy of differ-

ent node types: a master node provides the overall coordination, library nodes store

collections of audio data, and worker nodes perform the actual feature extraction. All

communication in OMEN is handled through SOAP-based web services.

Sonic Annotator [8] is a command-line tool for running batch feature extraction

on large numbers of audio files. Sonic Annotator is based on VAMP [19] plugins, a

general framework and C++ API for audio feature extraction algorithms. Numerous

VAMP plugin libraries have been developed by different research groups and are

available for use. Sonic Visualiser, a complimentary tool to Sonic Annotator, provides

a helpful user interface for feature exploration and many different graphical displays

for visualizing features. Unfortunately, algorithms and results in VAMP cannot be

shared between plugins which leads to some inefficiencies during extraction.

iSoundMW [15] is a distributed feature extraction framework and similarity search

engine. The distribution model uses a single master node that sends small segmented

frames of audio data to registered client worker nodes for feature extraction.

MIRtoolbox [26] is a Matlab-based MIR feature extraction library that takes ad-

vantage of existing visualizations and algorithms available in the Matlab ecosystem.

MIRtoolbox provides some explicit mechanisms for composing features in stages from

lower-level or intermediary calculations. However, memory management is an issue

since the entire file and all feature calculations are held in memory. MIRtoolbox pro-

vides some parallel extraction capabilities, allowing concurrent extraction of separate

files.

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openSMILE [17] is a C++ based library focused on real-time Speech and MIR fea-

ture extraction. Batch extraction capabilities are provided as well as multi-threaded

support for parallel extraction on a single machine. openSMILE is based on a com-

plex shared data memory system which allows single-component writes and multi-

component reads of matrix data and leverages ring-buffers to manage memory. Dif-

ferent output formats are provided including CSV, ARFF, LibSVM, and HTK.

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Chapter 3

System Description

3.1 Feature Representations

The primary abstraction for any extraction library is the description of a Feature.

Within the Safe system, each feature is described by a set of required and optional

parameters needed to perform its calculations. Features in audio processing are often

built on top of other features or share common steps in their calculations. For exam-

ple, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is generally a shared step for any algorithms

working in the frequency domain. For that reason, each feature also describes its own

dataflow as a sequence of smaller computational steps. This dataflow representation

provides two major benefits. The first benefit is algorithm reuse; new algorithms can

leverage existing code for common calculations. The second benefit is that duplicate

calculations between features can often be eliminated through simple dataflow analy-

sis on the provided feature sets. Section 4.1 describes this dataflow analysis technique

in more detail. For a full list of implemented features, parameter descriptions, and

dataflow sequences see Appendix A.

Externally, features are described through a simple syntax similar to the syntax

used by Yaafe [27]. Listing 1 shows a simplified Backus-Naur Form (BNF) of the

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feature extraction syntax used by the system and listing 2 shows an example entry of

this syntax. Each entry contains three primary sections:

1. name - A unique name for the feature extraction.

2. feature - The feature to be extracted and any feature parameters such as the

step size, window type, etc.

3. output - Optional output parameters such as the directory to write to or the

precision of the results.

Listing 1 Simplified Feature Syntax BNF

〈identifier〉 |= { A . . .Z | a . . . z | 0 . . . 9 }〈name〉 |= 〈identifier〉〈feature〉 |= 〈identifier〉

〈parameter〉 |= 〈identifier〉 ”=” ( 〈quoted string〉 | 〈number〉 )

〈parameters〉 |= 〈parameter〉 { ”,” 〈parameter〉 }〈feature definition〉 |= 〈name〉 ”:” 〈feature〉 [ 〈parameters〉 ] [ ”-out” 〈parameters〉 ]

Listing 2 MFCC Feature Extraction Description

mfcc: MFCC frameSize=256, stepSize=256, windowType=”hamming”

3.2 System Interfaces

Within the system, there are two primary interfaces for running feature extraction

over existing datasets. The first interface provides command-line execution for run-

ning bulk extraction on a single machine. Listing 3 outlines the syntax and parameters

used in the command-line interface.

The two required parameters for any extraction are:

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Listing 3 Command Line Syntax

− i < f i l e > | −−input < f i l e >input path ( f i l e or d i r e c t o r y ) f o r audio f i l e ( s ) to p roce s s

−r | −−r e c u r s i v ef l a g to proce s s audio data in sub−d i r e c t o r i e s ( d e f a u l t = f a l s e )

−p < f i l e > | −−plan < f i l e >path to f e a t u r e e x t r a c t i o n plan f i l e

−f <value> | −−f e a t u r e <value>d e s c r i p t i o n and parameters f o r a s i n g l e f e a t u r e to e x t r a c t

−s <value> | −−sample−r a t e <value>sample ra t e in Hz o f a l l audio f i l e s ( d e f a u l t = 44100)

−o < f i l e > | −−output−d i r < f i l e >d i r e c t o r y to wr i t e f e a t r e output to ( d e f a u l t = ’ . / ’ )

−m | −−metr i c sf l a g to capture / p r i n t metr i c s ( d e f a u l t = f a l s e )

1. Input - The individual audio file or directory containing audio files to run ex-

traction on.

2. Plan File or Feature - A file containing the feature set and parameters or an

inline description of the feature and its parameters.

The remaining command-line parameters are optional and use the specified de-

faults if no input is provided. One particular parameter of interest is the sample

rate. Safe currently requires all audio data to be encoded with the same sample rate.

This limitation exists because several features use the expected sample rate to pre-

compute values for use in their calculations. For example, the Mel-Frequency Cepstral

Coefficients (MFCC) algorithm uses the sample rate along with other parameters to

pre-compute and cache its mel filter bank. In cases where a dataset contains audio

with different sample rates, the audio data needs to be pre-processed and re-sampled

into a common rate.

The Safe system also has the ability to capture and print out metrics for a given

extraction run. If enabled, Safe will capture the following metrics for every sub-feature

computation:

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• Total Messages - The total number of times the sub-feature calculation was

called during extraction.

• Total Time - The accumulated total time spent calculating the sub-feature.

• Min, Max, Median, Mean Times - The minimum, maximum, median, and mean

times spent in a single calculation of the sub-feature.

The second system interface, used primarily for controlling extraction in dis-

tributed environments, is a web-based user interface. The web interface uses REST

[18] communication for executing extraction and monitoring the progress and system

status. Each extraction request is assigned a unique id that can be used for querying

the status of the extraction. There are three possible responses for extraction status

queries:

1. Ongoing - Specifies the number of audio files that have been processed along

with the total number of files.

2. Failed - Gives a description of any failures that occurred during extraction.

3. Finished - Specifies the total number of files processed and the time taken to

run the extraction (in milliseconds).

Figure 3.2 below shows a screenshot of the web interface for the system. This

example screenshot shows the three different status results for extraction requests.

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Figure 3.1: Safe Web Interface

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Chapter 4

Efficient and Scalable Extraction

The primary goal of this research is to provide an efficient framework for audio feature

extraction that can easily scale in both vertical and horizontal directions. This is

achieved by extending the techniques and algorithms used in other MIR libraries

and adapting them to work with functional, asynchronous and reactive programming

models. Safe is implemented in Scala [25] and leverages the Akka [2] library for

parallel and distributed computing.

4.1 Efficient Feature Extraction

As mentioned in chapter 3, features can often be described by dataflow sequences of

smaller computational steps or sub-features. Figure 4.1 shows an example of the step

sequences for calculating three different features: Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients

(MFCC) [12], Constant-Q Transform (CQT) [6], and Spectral Shape [21].

By breaking down features into smaller steps, efficiencies can be gained by elim-

inating shared calculations. A set of multiple features in the system is combined

to form a Feature Plan. When shared calculations between feature sequences are

eliminated in a feature extraction plan, the plan naturally forms a directed acyclic

dataflow graph. This is a common technique in dataflow analysis that is used by other

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MIR feature extraction libraries [29, 27] to eliminate redundant calculations. This

technique is similar to the problem of Common Subexpression Elimination [10] in

compiler optimization. Figure 4.2 below shows an example of the optimized dataflow

extraction plan for the same three features described earlier.

Audio in Frame Window FFT Mag MFCC

Audio in Frame Window FFT CQT

Audio in Frame Window FFT MagSpectralShape

Figure 4.1: Sequential dataflow for MFCC, CQT, and Spectral Shape features

CQT

FFT

Mag

MFCC

SpectralShape

WindowFrameAudio in

Figure 4.2: Optimal dataflow extraction plan

Feature extraction plans in Safe are encoded using adjacency lists. Each plan holds

a single feature or sub-feature computation and zero or more downstream plans to

pass results to. Algorithm 1 shows the basic data representation for feature extraction

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plans. Algorithm 2 shows the heuristic algorithm that is used to combine multiple

features or plans into optimal dataflow graphs.

Algorithm 1 Feature Extraction Plan Representation

case class Plan(feature: Feature, children: Seq[Plan])

Algorithm 2 Dataflow Graph Optimization

def dataflow(plans: Seq[Plan]): Seq[Plan] =

plans.foldLeft(Nil)((merged, plan) => merge(merged, Seq(plan)))

def merge(as: Seq[Plan], bs: Seq[Plan]): Seq[Plan] = {

val merged = for {

a <- as

b <- bs if (a.feature == b.feature)

} yield Plan(a.feature, merge(a.children, b.children))

(as ++ bs).filterNot(

p => merged.exists(_.feature == p.feature)) ++ merged

}

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4.2 Parallel Feature Extraction

With the processing model expressed as a directed acyclic dataflow graph, audio data

can be streamed through the pipeline to extract the various features. This approach

lends itself to numerous levels of parallelism:

• File Level - Extraction can be run concurrently on multiple files.

• Plan Level - Any time a plan branches into separate paths, each path can run

concurrently on the results of the parent calculation.

• Feature Level - When audio data is split into separate chunks (frames), each

stage of a feature extraction sequence can concurrently operate on a different

section of the data.

File level parallelism is a fairly self-explanatory concept and is the approach used

in [26]. It is the most obvious form of parallelism and requires little to no coordination

between processes. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 show examples of plan level and feature level

parallelism where each row represents a different processor and each column repre-

sents possible computations over time. With plan level parallelism, different steps can

run concurrent calculations on the same data outputs of a parent step. For example,

table 4.1 shows that the CQT and Magnitude calculations can run concurrently on

the output of the FFT. With feature level parallelism, a given calculation may be

executing on a section of audio data concurrently with downstream calculations run-

ning off previous results. In table 4.2, the example highlights that a Window function

can pass its output to the FFT function and immediately begin working on the next

frame. Note: These tables are used for illustrative purposes of where parallelism can

occur and do not represent the actual thread scheduling and division within the sys-

tem. In the actual running system, some steps will take much longer than others and

a single thread may finish multiple steps in the time another thread takes to execute

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one. Additionally, different combinations of file, plan, and feature level concurrency

may occur together.

FFT(window1) Magnitude(fft1) MFCC(mag1)CQT(fft1) Spectral Shape(mag1)

Table 4.1: Plan level parallelism

frame1 Window(frame1) FFT(window1) CQT(fft1)frame2 Window(frame2) FFT(window2)

frame3 Window(frame3)frame4

Table 4.2: Feature level parallelism

Managing these different levels of concurrency with traditional thread scheduling

and lock management would be complicated and difficult. Instead, an Actor model

[1] for concurrency is used.

Actors are objects that encapsulate state and behavior and communicate exclu-

sively through messaging. Messaging between actors is never direct. Instead, com-

munication occurs through the use of recipient mailboxes. Each actor has exactly one

mailbox and messages are dequeued and processed by the actor in a serial fashion.

This serial processing guarantee helps eliminate synchronization and locking concerns

within the actor’s actual processing logic. Conceptually, actors can be thought of as

having their own light-weight isolated threads. It is the responsibility of the actor

container to manage the actual scheduling and execution against real threads.

Actors also provide a rich hierarchy and supervision system. Each actor can create

any number of child actors to execute sub-tasks. When an actor creates another actor,

it becomes a supervisor and is responsible for delegation and control of the child actor.

When a child actor fails for any reason, the supervisor (parent) is notified of the failure

and is responsible for handling the failure. When a subordinate fails, the supervising

actor has the option to resume the subordinate (keeping any existing state), restart the

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subordinate (clearing out any previous state), terminate the subordinate, or escalate

the failure (failing itself).

Actor models, being asynchronous and message-based, provide a natural encoding

for stream based dataflow processing. Within Safe, each computational step in the

dataflow graph is represented by an actor and the intermediary results (messages)

between actors are immutable. By encoding the feature extraction dataflow graphs

as actor hierarchies in this fashion, all three levels of parallelism mentioned (file, plan,

and feature) are provided with no additional components required. The dynamic

nature of Akka’s actor system make it simple to create complex fault-tolerant feature

extraction hierarchies. Within a feature extraction plan, each actor usually takes on

one of four common messaging roles described in [24]:

• Splitter - Actors that take a single message or result and split the work into

smaller pieces for downstream processing. Splitters provide much of the par-

allelism in feature extraction. File level parallelism is provided by splitting a

message with multiple file locations (or a directory) into individual messages

for each file. Feature level parallelism is provided by a Frame actor, splitting

an individual file into smaller chunks (frames) to perform further computations

on.

• Transform - The most common actor type in a feature extraction plan is a

transform actor. These actors provide simple mapping functions from one type

to another and send the result on for further processing. Examples of transforms

are Windowing functions, FFT, Power Spectrum, MFCC, Spectral Shape, etc.

• Resequencer - Actors that take a stream of potentially unordered messages and

send them out in an ordered sequence. Sequencing is important when writing

out frame-based extracted features. For example, when writing out to a CSV

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file the features need to be in the same order as the frames in the source audio

file.

• Aggregator - Aggregators are used to calculate features that go across multiple

frames in an audio file or across an entire dataset. Some example aggregate

functions are Spectral Flux or any max/min/average/total/etc. calculation

across audio files.

By default, a single actor is created for each node in the dataflow graph and the

actor messaging hierarchy mirrors the arcs in the graph. For many systems, the con-

currency provided by the file, plan, and feature level divisions is sufficient. However,

for highly concurrent systems (systems with a large number of processors), the Split-

ter and Transform actors can be replaced with actor pools and a round-robin routing

strategy. This strategy allows concurrent execution of the same computational step on

different frames. For example, multiple FFT calculations could be run concurrently

on different frames. In the current system, Resequencers and Aggregators cannot be

placed into pools because they need to maintain a temporary state across multiple

messages. Because of this requirement, scalability is often limited by features that

require aggregate calculations.

4.3 Distributed Feature Extraction

The distribution model for the system leverages Akka’s clustering framework [9].

Akka’s cluster system provides a fault-tolerant decentralized membership service

based on Amazon’s Dynamo [14] store. The cluster architecture uses gossip pro-

tocols [42] to manage node membership within the cluster. Using the gossip protocol,

the current state of the cluster is gossiped between nodes and preference is given to

members that have not yet seen the latest version. Initiation into a cluster is handled

by a node sending a join message to one of the existing nodes in the cluster. In order

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to provide a fault-tolerant solution, failures in the cluster need to be detected and

communicated to the rest of the system. For this, Akka uses a Phi Accrual Failure

Detector [23].

While previous research in distributed audio feature extraction exists [28, 15, 5],

they are all based on a master/worker division of nodes. By leveraging a decentralized

and masterless clustering framework, there is no single point of failure or single point

bottlenecks in the system. Since the clustering framework is Actor based as well, it

is simple to scale the feature extraction framework from a single machine to multiple

nodes.

4.3.1 Localized Data

The simplest form of distributed feature extraction assumes that a collection of audio

files is already distributed across the cluster onto the local file systems. This config-

uration is similar to the library node concept used by OMEN [28]. From there, bulk

extraction can be performed across the cluster through a simple broadcast message

to all nodes in the cluster. While this provides a simple and scalable solution, this

approach is not fault-tolerant or flexible. This distribution model couples the extrac-

tion execution to the machines containing the data. If a node is down or fails, there

is no way to run extraction over the audio data stored on that node.

In this case, the time taken to extract all features will be limited by the longest

running node in the cluster. For optimal extraction times, the data needs to be evenly

balanced across the cluster and nodes within the cluster should be homogeneous, i.e.

each machine should have an equal number of computing resources.

4.3.2 Distributed Data

A more robust and fault-tolerant model for distributed extraction requires a dis-

tributed file system such as Hadoop HDFS [38]. Hadoop provides a whole suite of

18

capabilities for distributed analysis and transformation of data using the MapReduce

[13] paradigm. However, Safe’s cluster extraction only leverages the distributed file

system from Hadoop.

In HDFS, there are two types of nodes: NameNodes and DataNodes. NameN-

odes provide the overall management and coordination of directory hierarchies and

location of the data within HDFS. File content is split into chunks, typically 128 mb

in size, and those chunks are stored on the local file systems of DataNodes. Fault-

tolerance in HDFS is provided through replication. Individual chunks are replicated

and distributed onto multiple DataNodes. In a standard configuration NameNodes in

a hadoop cluster provide a single point of failure, though a High Availability (HA) fea-

ture is provided that allows redundant NameNodes to be configured for fast failover.

HDFS clients typically access files through a TCP protocol, but a short-circuiting

mechanism [34] is provided for cases when the data and processing are co-located on

the same machine.

Figure 4.3.2 shows the distributed deployment architecture of the system using

HDFS. Since the Safe cluster is masterless, any number of nodes in the cluster can

be configured to serve http requests. Safe nodes can be co-located with HDFS nodes

or run on separate clusters.

When an extraction request is made to one of the nodes in the Safe cluster, the

receiving node will query the NameNode for all the paths of the audio data and route

extraction of individual audio files to different nodes in the cluster. The primary

routing logic uses a Round-Robin routing strategy to distribute the extraction work-

load across the cluster. Some experimentation with routing strategies that take data

locality into account was also performed. In this case, the routing logic favors sending

extraction requests to the same machine where the data is located, taking advantage

of the HDFS short-circuit reads. When different nodes in a cluster are unbalanced,

i.e. some nodes have a larger heap, more CPU, etc., an adaptive load balancing router

19

Figure 4.3: Safe Distributed Deployment

should be used instead to distribute feature extraction. Akka provides a probabilistic

router based on weighting from the following metrics:

• Heap - Remaining JVM heap capacity.

• Load - System load average over the past minute.

• CPU - Percentage of CPU utilization.

20

Chapter 5

Evaluation and Results

5.1 System Evaluation

In order to evaluate the system’s performance and scalability, a large dataset of music

audio was required. The dataset used for testing was a private collection of 1,332

songs, approximately 5,120 minutes of audio. All files were encoded in CD-quality

44.1 KHz 16-bit stereo WAV format. The overall dataset was split into smaller subsets

to allow for testing on varying sized datasets. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show some general

statistics about the datasets used in testing. For a full listing of all the songs, see

Appendix B.

Safe was compared with three other feature extraction libraries for performance:

Yaafe, openSMILE, and Sonic Annotator. Yaafe and openSMILE in particular were

chosen because of their strong performance characteristics. Table 5.3 shows the ver-

sions of each library used for this evaluation. Initial evaluations also included MIR-

Toolbox, though its performance was significantly worse and the results have been

left out of these benchmarks.

21

Audio Files Total (minutes) Max (minutes) Min (minutes) Avg (minutes)1 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.52 5.0 2.5 2.5 2.54 10 3.49 1.51 2.59 20 4.04 1.09 2.2217 40 4.56 0.92 2.3535 80 4.56 0.59 2.2961 160 5.91 0.59 2.62107 320 6.98 0.41 2.99200 640 11.35 0.41 3.2371 1280 11.35 0.41 3.45707 2560 15.72 0.23 3.621332 5120 32.25 0.11 3.84

Table 5.1: Evaluation Dataset

Genre Song CountProgressive Metal 19

Folk Rock 2Pop Rock 3New Wave 32Indie Rock 223

Metal 79Jazz 171Punk 386Swing 22

Stoner Metal 27Alt-Country 10

Folk 30Rockabilly 3

Rock 31Alternative 213

Blues 6Hip-Hop 74

Table 5.2: Evaluation Dataset Genre Statistics

Library VersionYaafe 0.64openSMILE 2.0-rc1Sonic Annotator 1.0Safe 0.1

Table 5.3: Extraction Libraries and Versions

22

The benchmark used for comparing the different libraries was a measure of the

total time taken to extract six different features and output the results to CSV files.

The six features picked for the benchmark were:

• Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (13 coefficients, 40 filters)

• Spectral Flux

• Spectral Centroid

• Spectral Spread

• Spectral Skewness

• Spectral Kurtosis

This particular feature set was chosen because each library has support for these

features and the algorithms are fairly standard and not likely to vary between imple-

mentations. For all features, the frame size was 1024 samples and the step (hop) size

was 512. All of the scripts and configuration used for this evaluation are available

online [37]. In the interest of fairness, attempts were made to provide configurations

for optimal performance with each library.

Yaafe was compiled with FFTW [20] for fast FFT calculations. Since Yaafe per-

forms dataflow analysis to optimize execution, no other special configuration was

required. Since openSMILE has support for multi-threaded concurrency, experimen-

tation was performed to find an optimal number of threads for the test. Ultimately,

openSMILE was configured to run with a single thread because all tests with multi-

threaded configurations appeared to degrade the performance. For openSMILE, the

dataflow graph is encoded explicitly into the configuration since there is no dataflow

analysis support. For Sonic Annotator, the LibXtract [7] plugins were used to calcu-

late the spectral shape features (centroid, spread, skewness, and curtosis), while the

23

BBC plugins [11] and Queen Mary University plugins [32] respectively were used to

calculate the Spectral Flux and MFCC features. Sonic Annotator does not provide

any support for dataflow optimizations, so many of the algorithms are running re-

dundant calculations. For this benchmark Safe was configured using Akka’s default

Fork-Join executor, which calculates its thread pool size based on the number of

processors p and a parallelism factor ν (default 3.0):

poolsize = dpνe (5.1)

All evaluations were run on a Macbook Pro, OS X 10.7.5, with a 2.5 GHz Intel

Core i7 processor 8 GB 1333 MHz DDR3 RAM. For each evaluation, the mean time

and standard deviation were calculated from ten iterations. The standard deviation

for each library was relatively small. In many of the plots, the standard deviation is

left out because the bars are indistinguishable from the plotted points.

Figure 5.1 shows the overall time taken by each library to run extraction over the

full dataset. Figure 5.2 shows a plot of each libraries performance as the number

of songs increases. Yaafe, openSMILE, and Safe (single-threaded) are all very close

in terms of performance. In this benchmark, the multi-threaded version of Safe is

roughly four times faster than the other solutions.

24

Sonic Annotator Yaafe openSMILE Safe-1 Safe

20

40

60

80

100

120112.39

89.24 88.09

79.81

23.56

Extr

acti

onT

ime

(min

ute

s)

Figure 5.1: Feature extraction times (1332 songs, 5120 minutes of audio)

In order to verify that the parallelism in Safe is not limited to concurrent extraction

of multiple files, a benchmark was setup to measure extraction times on single audio

files of increasing length. Figure 5.3 shows the results of this benchmark. For this

benchmark, Safe was configured to use Akka’s fixed thread pool dispatcher with five

threads. These results indicate that the Safe system has a more significant fixed

startup cost than the other libraries but better variable performance with increasing

recording lengths.

25

101 102 103 104

10−1

100

101

102

Minutes of Audio

Extr

acti

onT

ime

(min

ute

s)

openSMILEYaafe

Sonic AnnotatorSafe

Figure 5.2: Feature extraction times for increasing number of songs

26

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Minutes of Audio

Extr

acti

onT

ime

(sec

onds)

openSMILEYaafe

Sonic AnnotatorSafe

Figure 5.3: Feature extraction times for single audio files of increasing length

27

5.2 Dataflow Analysis

In order to test the benefits of dataflow analysis, Safe’s performance was measured

both with and without dataflow optimizations. Testing was performed using the

same dataset and feature set described previously in section 5.1. For the sequential

case, each audio file was loaded only once but the individual extraction algorithms

were run independently with no shared calculations. This setup is very similar to the

way many feature extraction libraries (including Sonic Annotator) work. Figure 5.4

shows the extraction times both with dataflow optimizations and without (sequential).

For this particular feature set, we see a 33% decrease in the overall extraction time

when dataflow optimizations are applied. However, the benefits can vary significantly

depending on the selected feature sets and input parameters.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

Minutes of Audio

Extr

acti

onT

ime

(sec

onds)

SequentialDataflow

Figure 5.4: Performance increase from dataflow analysis (single-threaded)

28

5.3 Scalability Analysis

The techniques used to measure and describe scalability of the system are all based

on Gunther’s Universal Scalability Law (USL) [22]. Within this model, one of the

primary measurements for parallelism in a system is the system’s speedup factor.

Speedup is defined as the ratio of elapsed time on a single processor T1 to the elapsed

time on p processors Tp.

S(p) =T1Tp

(5.2)

Speedup measurements are taken by executing a fixed workload on increasing

numbers of processors (or machines). The result is a quantification of the reduced

execution time for adding more processors to the system. Another important measure-

ment of a system’s parallelism, based on speedup, is efficiency. Efficiency measures

the average speedup per processor, which is defined as:

E(p) =S(p)

p(5.3)

In theory, a system that is perfectly parallel will have linear speedup T1/p. In

practice, however, there are other factors that make linear speedup in systems un-

realistic. The Universal Scalability Model was developed to take these additional

factors into account and give a realistic description of a systems true scalability. The

two primary factors involved in this model are:

• Contention (σ) - The serial fraction of the total execution. This represents the

portion of an algorithm that cannot be split up and needs to run serially.

• Coherency (κ) - The additional overhead of managing extra processors and

interprocessor communication.

29

Taking these factors into account, the Universal Scalability equation for system

capacity C(p) is defined as:

C(p) =p

1 + σ(p− 1) + κp(p− 1)(5.4)

Equation 5.4 describes a concave function. Under this model, most systems will

have a maximum capacity at p∗. Adding more processors beyond p∗ will only degrade

performance. The maximum capacity can be obtained through the following equation:

p∗ =

⌊√1− σκ

⌋(5.5)

The σ and κ parameters in the USL are calculated by performing regression anal-

ysis on the measured system throughput X(p). The full procedure for calculating

these parameters is outlined in [22].

All scalability testing of the system was performed on the University of Colorado

at Colorado Springs virtual cloud infrastructure [31] running a VMWare vSphere

5 hypervisor. The particular cluster used consisted of 8 physical HP machines w/

2.4GHz Intel Xeon E5530 CPUs. The total available resources in the cluster consisted

of:

• 64 Processor Cores

• 153 GHz total CPU

• 512 GB Memory

• 55 TB Connected Storage

All virtual machines used in testing were running a 64-bit CentOS 6.4 operating

system.

30

5.3.1 Multi-Processor Scalability

In addition to providing a simple model for developing concurrent applications, the

Actor model provides a simple theoretical foundation for estimating scalability. Since

each actor processes messages from its inbox serially, the contention factor σ in an

actor system can be estimated by running the system with a single processor (or

single-threaded) and measuring the percentage of time spent in each actor. The

largest percentage of time spent in a single actor should be very close to the overall

contention factor.

Using the same features and dataset described in section 5.1, figure 5.5 below shows

the percentage of time spent computing each step (sub-feature) for different pool sizes.

In the case where a single actor is dedicated to each sub-feature computation (pool

size of 1), reading in the input audio and creating the frames takes approximately 21%

of the time on a single processor. Therefore, the theoretical serial contention factor

σ1 should be ≈ 0.21. In the current system, features that require aggregation (such as

Spectral Flux) cannot be pooled and only a single actor is created regardless of pool

size. Therefore, these features will often become the dominant factor in scalability

when pooling is used. With this feature set, the Spectral Flux calculation takes

approximately 13% of the time on a single processor. For pool sizes of two or more,

the contention factor σn should be ≈ 0.13.

In order to test the system’s actual multi-processor scalability, the same extraction

test was run on virtual machines with an exponentially increasing number of single-

core processors p = 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . , 64. Multiple tests were run to capture the impact

of increasing actor pool sizes. Figure 5.6 shows the measured system speedup. As

expected from the theoretical model, no performance increases were seen for pool

sizes greater than two.

Figure 5.7 shows the measured throughput and modeled curve fits based on the

USL calculations. From these equation parameters, our maximum capacity p∗ for

31

Fr (I/O) FFT MFCC Shape Flux CSV (I/O)

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22 21

16

12

10

13

6

12

87

5

13

6

9

5 54

13

6

%O

fE

xtr

acti

onT

ime

Pool 1 Pool 2 Pool 3

Figure 5.5: Percentage of total time taken by individual sub-feature actors

this particular feature set is 20 processors for a pool size of one (single actor per

sub-feature computation) and 28 processors for a pool size of two. The calculated

contention factors σ1 = 0.203 and σ2 = 0.123 were very close to the theoretical

expected values of 0.21 and 0.13.

5.3.2 Multi-Node Cluster Scalability

The same USL model used to evaluate Safe’s multi-processor scalability was used

for measuring the distributed cluster scalability. Instead of increasing the number of

processors on a single virtual machine, tests were run on increasing numbers of virtual

machines. Each node (VM) in the cluster was given the same number of resources

32

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

Number of Processors

Sp

eedup

Fac

torS

(p)

Pool Size 1Pool Size 2

Figure 5.6: Feature extraction processor speedup

(processors, disk space, etc.). In most hosted VM environments, multiple VM’s will

often share and compete for physical resources such as disk space and processors. In

an attempt to minimize this contention for these tests, each VM was mapped to a

separate physical hard drive and processor. Since the physical cluster only provided

six separate disk partitions and eight separate processors, the maximum number of

nodes tested was six.

The first test, as outlined in section 4.3.1, relied on the dataset being distributed

evenly across the cluster onto the local drives. For this test, the audio files were

distributed across the cluster and placed in the same directory location on each node.

Communication between nodes in this configuration is minimal and only relies on

the initial broadcast message to perform extraction and the final aggregation step

determining when all nodes have finished.

33

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

σ1 = 0.203, κ1 = 0.001949

σ2 = 0.123, κ2 = 0.001101

Number of Processors

Extr

acti

onT

hro

ugh

put

(sec

ofau

dio

/se

c)

Pool 1 (measured)Pool 1 (USL model)Pool 2 (measured)

Pool 2 (USL model)

Figure 5.7: Feature extraction processor scalability

Figure 5.8 shows the measured and USL calculated scalability of this model. As

expected, because of the minimal coordination between nodes, the scalability is close

to linear. Based on the calculated contention and coherency, the maximum capacity

p∗ of this configuration is 82 nodes.

While the previous localized data configuration has close to ideal scalability, it is

a poor choice for fault-tolerance or flexibility in the distribution model. The second

test, as described in 4.3.2, relied on the audio data being distributed through HDFS.

The HDFS configuration for these tests specified a replication factor of 3 and a block

size of 128 MB. For CD quality wav files (44.1 KHz, 16-bit stereo), 1 minute of

audio is approximately equal to 10 MB. Therefore, most songs under 12 minutes in

length were stored in a single block. Each node ran an instance of the Safe software

34

1 2 3 4 5 61

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

σ = 0.0113, κ = 0.000144

Number of Nodes

Extr

acti

onT

hro

ugh

put

(min

ofau

dio

/se

c)

MeasuredUSL model

Linear

Figure 5.8: Feature extraction cluster/node scalability (local audio files)

and doubled as an HDFS data node. With each new node added, the cluster was

re-balanced to more evenly distribute the audio files.

Initial testing leveraged a cluster-aware router that attempted to route extraction

of individual files based on data locality. In this case, preference was given to nodes

where the physical audio files and processing were co-located in an attempt to take

advantage of HDFS short-circuit local reads. However, testing revealed that the

HDFS re-balancing algorithm did not provide a truly even distribution of the data,

causing the distributed workload to become unbalanced. Instead, a standard round-

robin routing strategy was used which gave better overall performance.

Figure 5.9 below shows the measured and USL calculated scalability of the HDFS-

based distribution. Not surprisingly, the contention and coherency factors are slightly

higher in this configuration, but the fault-tolerance and flexibility make this a more

35

appealing option for most systems. With this model, the maximum capacity p∗ is 28

nodes.

1 2 3 4 5 61

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

σ = 0.0133, κ = 0.001234

Number of Nodes

Extr

acti

onT

hro

ugh

put

(min

ofau

dio

/se

c)

MeasuredUSL model

Linear

Figure 5.9: Feature extraction cluster/node scalability (HDFS distributed audio files)

36

Chapter 6

Conclusions

Many of the current frameworks for audio feature extraction have focused on algo-

rithms and optimization techniques for serial execution. Dealing with larger datasets

requires a more scalable model for extraction. In this paper, the Safe system for

high-performance concurrent audio feature extraction was outlined. In comparison

benchmarks with current leading MIR extraction libraries, Safe outperformed the

existing solutions for all datasets with more than 3 minutes of audio.

Scalability analysis provided models for the system’s multi-processor and multi-

node cluster scalability. The actor model of concurrency used in Safe provides a simple

theoretical model for predicting the vertical (processor) scalability with any given

feature set. Further scalability testing demonstrated that the measured contention

factors lined up with the expected theoretical values.

Two different models for multi-node cluster scalability were evaluated. The first

model relied on the dataset being distributed across the cluster onto the individual

node’s local file systems. The second, more flexible and fault-tolerant model, lever-

aged a true distributed file system. Using the Universal Scalability Law to estimate

the system’s contention and coherency factors, the local file system based approach

37

was shown to have close to ideal scalability. Although slightly less performant, the

system’s scalability using the distributed file system was still very strong.

All of the source code for Safe is available online [35] and released under the

Eclipse Public License version 1.0 [43].

6.1 Future Work

In addition to adding more algorithms and features to Safe, there are certain areas

where scalability of the system can be improved. Many of the current aggregation

features in the system are un-necessarily limited to a single actor. In cases where

aggregation is performed on a per-file basis, a smarter routing component can use the

origin file information to appropriately route messages. More specifically, a consistent

hashing router can be used that takes the origin file’s path as the hash key.

All of the cluster scalability tests were performed on a homogenous cluster. Ad-

ditional research into smarter distributed routing for unbalanced or inhomogeneous

clusters would help in optimizing extraction times. Akka provides an adaptive prob-

abilistic load balancing router that can be leveraged or extended for this task.

Lastly, future enhancements should address more aspects of fault-tolerance within

the system. While minimal support for fault-tolerance is built into the system through

the libraries being used, additional logic needs to be incorporated for handling failures

during extraction. Ideally, the extraction system should be able to recover from node

failures or network partitions.

38

Appendix A

Implemented Features

A large portion of this research consists of analyzing MIR feature extraction algo-

rithms and breaking them down into smaller sequential components for dataflow

analysis. The following sub-sections describe the various feature extraction algo-

rithms implemented in the system, along with any common or shared sub-feature

computations.

A.0.1 Frame

The framing function produces an iterator of fixed-size, potentially overlapping,

frames from an audio input stream. Each frame is normalized based on the encoding

bit-depth and multiple channels are combined to produce a single frame of normalized

audio. The following algorithm shows the combination for a single sample S based

on the number of channels n and bit-depth d:

S =

∑ni=1 si

(2d − 1)n(A.1)

39

A.0.2 Window

Safe provides a common set of windowing functions, including Hann (A.2), Hamming

(A.3), Blackman (A.4), Blackman-Harris (A.5), and Bartlett (A.6) windows.

w(n) = 0.5(

1− cos(

2πn

L− 1

)), 0 ≤ n < L (A.2)

w(n) = 0.54− 0.46 cos(

2πn

L− 1

), 0 ≤ n < L (A.3)

w(n) = 0.42− 0.5 cos(

2πn

L− 1

)+ 0.08 cos

(4π

n

L− 1

), 0 ≤ n < L (A.4)

w(n) = a0 − a1 cos( 2πn

L− 1

)+ a2 cos

( 4πn

L− 1

)− a3 cos

( 6πn

L− 1

), 0 ≤ n < L

a0 = 0.35875, a1 = 0.48829, a2 = 0.14128, a3 = 0.01168 (A.5)

w(n) =

2nL−1 0 ≤ n ≤ L−1

2

2− 2nL−1

L−12≤ n < L

(A.6)

A.0.3 Fast Fourier Transform

The FFT algorithm used in Safe is a JVM-optimized version of the standard Cooley-

Turkey algorithm. The standard Cooley-Turkey algorithm is described as:

Xk =

N/2−1∑m=0

x2me−2πiN/2

mk + e−2πiN

k

N/2−1∑m=0

x2m+1e− 2πiN/2

mk (A.7)

40

Further information on the implementation and optimization techniques used can

be found online [36].

A.0.4 Power Spectrum

Safe provides various spectrum functions, including Power P (k), Magnitude A(k),

and Phase φ(k). Each function is based on the spectral coefficients ak and bk computed

by the FFT.

P (k) = a2k + b2k (A.8)

A(k) =√a2k + b2k (A.9)

φ(k) = tan−1bkak

(A.10)

A.0.5 Constant-Q Transform

The Constant-Q transform (CQT) is similar to the Fourier transform, but uses log-

arithmic spacing instead of linear spacing. This is beneficial in audio analysis since

notes in western music are spaced logarithmically. The basic CQT algorithm is given

by:

Xk =1

Nk

Nk−1∑n=0

wk,nxne−j2πQnNk (A.11)

The CQT algorithm used in Safe is based on the Brown and Puckette [6] algorithm,

which leverages the standard FFT algorithm for faster computations. Figure A.1

shows the dataflow for the CQT algorithm.

41

Audio in Frame Window FFT CQT

Figure A.1: Sequential dataflow of the Constant-Q transform

Name Description Default Value

sampleRate Target (expected) sample rate of audio inputs 44100stepSize The step size (number of samples) for the fram-

ing function512

windowType Windowing function (bartlett, blackman, black-manHarris, hamming, hann)

hann

binsPerOctave The number of CQT bins/octave (default 24 =quarter-tone spacing)

24

maxFreq Maximum frequency (hz) to look for (default isG10, MIDI note 127)

12543.854

minFreq Minimum frequency (hz) to look for (default isC1, MIDI note 12)

16.351599

threshold Minimum threshold 0.0054

Table A.1: CQT Parameters

A.0.6 Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients

The mel-frequency cepstrum provides a description of an audio signals power spectrum

based on the mel scale, a perceptually driven frequency scale. In this scale, the mel

representation m of a frequency f (hz) is given by:

m = 1127 loge

(1 +

f

700

)(A.12)

The MFCC computation is based on the Davis and Mermelstein [12] algorithm,

which is described as:

Yk =

N/2−1∑f=0

A(k)wk(f) (A.13)

MFCCn =K−1∑k=0

log Yk cos

((2k + 1)nπ

2K

)

42

Where Yk represents the application of K overlapping triangular (mel-scale

spaced) filters on the magnitude spectrum of the signal A(k) and n number of MFCC

coefficients are calculated through a discrete-cosine transform on the log-energy

outputs of Yk. Figure A.2 shows the dataflow for the MFCC algorithm.

Audio in Frame Window FFT Mag MFCC

Figure A.2: Sequential dataflow for Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients

Name Description Default Value

sampleRate Target (expected) sample rate of audio inputs 44100frameSize Frame size (number of samples) for the framing

function1024

stepSize Step size (number of samples) for the framingfunction

512

windowType Windowing function (bartlett, blackman, black-manHarris, hamming, hann)

hann

numCoeffs Number of cepstral coefficients to extract 13melFilters Number of mel filter banks to use 40minFreq Minimum frequency (hz) for the filter bank 130.0maxFreq Maximum frequency (hz) for the filter bank 6854.0

Table A.2: MFCC Parameters

A.0.7 Spectral Shape

Spectral shape is an aggregate of four separate spectral features: Centroid, Spread,

Skewness, and Kurtosis. The calculations for these features are described in [21], and

are defined by the following equations:

Scentroid = µ1 (A.14)

Sspread =√µ2 − µ2

1 (A.15)

43

Sskewness =2µ3

1 − 3µ1µ2 + µ3

S3spread

(A.16)

Skurtosis =−3µ4

1 + 6µ1µ2 − 4µ1µ3 + µ4

S4spread

− 3 (A.17)

Where µi =∑N−1k=0 kiA(k)∑N−1k=0 A(k)

and A(k) represents the magnitude spectrum of the signal.

Figure A.3 shows the dataflow sequence for the spectral shape algorithm.

Audio in Frame Window FFT Mag Shape

Figure A.3: Sequential dataflow for Spectral Shape

Name Description Default Value

sampleRate Target (expected) sample rate of audio inputs 44100frameSize Frame size (number of samples) for the framing

function1024

stepSize Step size (number of samples) for the framingfunction

512

windowType Windowing function (bartlett, blackman, black-manHarris, hamming, hann)

hann

Table A.3: Spectral Shape Parameters

A.0.8 Spectral Flux

The spectral flux algorithm is based on the algorithm for measuring change in the

power spectrum described by Dixon in [16]. The algorithm computes the flux between

consecutive frames (n, n − 1) as the summation of the positive differences between

the magnitude at each frequency bin, as shown in the following equation.

SF (n) =N−1∑k=0

H(|X(n, k)| − |X(n− 1, k)|

)(A.18)

44

In this equation, H represents a half-wave rectifier function where H(x) = x+|x|2

.

Figure A.4 below shows the dataflow for the spectral flux extraction algorithm.

Audio in Frame Window FFT Mag Flux

Figure A.4: Sequential dataflow for Spectral Flux

Name Description Default Value

sampleRate Target (expected) sample rate of audio inputs 44100frameSize Frame size (number of samples) for the framing

function1024

stepSize Step size (number of samples) for the framingfunction

512

windowType Windowing function (bartlett, blackman, black-manHarris, hamming, hann)

hann

diffLength Compare frames spaced n length apart, 1 = con-secutive frames

1

Table A.4: Spectral Flux Parameters

A.0.9 Onset Detection

Safe implements the spectral onset detection described in [4]. The algorithm extends

the standard spectral flux calculation by applying a logarithmically spaced filter-bank

(similar to the Constant-Q transform spacing). The onset detection function is given

by:

O(n) =

k=N/2∑k=1

H(|X log

filt(n, b)| − |Xlogfilt(n− 1, b)|

)(A.19)

Peaks in the onset detection function are selected if all of the following conditions

are satisfied:

1. ODF (n) = max(ODF (n− w1 : n+ w2)

45

2. ODF (n) ≥ mean(ODF (n− w3 : n+ w4)) + δ

3. n− nlast onset > w5

Where δ is a fixed threshold value and w1, w2, . . . , w5 are various tunable param-

eters. Figure A.5 shows the dataflow for the onset detection algorithm.

Audio in Frame Window FFT Mag

Filter Fiux Onsets

Figure A.5: Sequential dataflow for Spectral Onsets

Name Description Default Value

sampleRate Target (expected) sample rate of audio inputs 44100frameSize Frame size (number of samples) for the framing

function1024

stepSize Step size (number of samples) for the framingfunction

512

windowType Windowing function (bartlett, blackman, black-manHarris, hamming, hann)

hann

ratio Minimum activation ratio for windowing func-tion

0.22

threshold Minimum threshold (δ) for peak-picking 2.5

Table A.5: Spectral Onset Parameters

46

Appendix B

Evaluation Dataset

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leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

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erD

ayD

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rIm

ages

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Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Cat

sin

aB

owl

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leB

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Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

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Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

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re19

28D

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Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Tea

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Ezr

aD

elu

xe

Alt

ern

ati

ve4830e3

b50e5

2b

15d

223b

dd

c284e1

4605

Ste

pp

inS

ton

eB

lack

Lab

elS

oci

ety

Han

gov

erM

usi

cV

o..

.M

etal

149e0

45fd

7870f7

c029e6

08fe

341d

d8f

70

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Su

icid

eM

essi

ahB

lack

Lab

elS

oci

ety

Mafi

aM

etal

1fc

82f2

1c0

2aa19cc

e1d

72666fd

c87a2

Th

eN

inja

Cac

oph

ony

Sp

eed

Met

al

Sym

ph

ony

Met

al

acb

2e5

f7f5

8cc

3180315560aeb

8803d

b

Bac

kw

ards

Gu

itar

Cat

her

ine

Wh

eel

Ju

dy

Sta

rin

gA

tT

...

Alt

ern

ati

ve7ac8

2837d

e46e4

11e4

21e6

8ec

5b

2c9

bc

Col

lid

eosc

opic

Cat

her

ine

Wh

eel

IW

ant

To

Tou

chY

ou

Alt

ern

ati

ve7e0

21cc

b528cd

95b

5756a340c1

84b

243

Des

cen

din

gB

abe

Cat

her

ine

Wh

eel

Ma

Soli

tud

a[D

isc

1]

Alt

ern

ati

ve6b

ae2

c49d

16516cc

5b

ab

1ab

e0458e4

c5

Div

ers

Bra

idT

he

Age

of

Oct

een

Ind

ie86140658751af7

ece3

1c9

14d

e4e6

c374

Hea

l(L

ive

Xfm

)C

ath

erin

eW

hee

lB

roke

nN

ose

[Dis

c2]

Alt

ern

ati

vefa

92e8

61b

44fa

aea

e243fa

963acc

0941

Kil

lin

gA

Cam

era

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idL

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yT

oB

eA

live

Ind

ie4b

03ec

ce71b

e25a068b

12944d

e3d

0116

Mas

ters

Of

War

Bob

Dyla

nT

he

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ewh

eeli

n’

...

Folk

8ab

9c3

6e5

b549d

a62877ee

fc6a8fb

cbd

Mou

thfu

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fA

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ath

erin

eW

hee

lL

ike

Cats

An

dD

ogs

Alt

ern

ati

veaee

2773d

cb0ef

06a0783e3

de1

53970a9

Nev

erW

ill

Com

eF

orU

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raid

Fra

me

&C

anva

sIn

die

d864b

a86b

cbc9

7a82e3

fdff

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43d

7c

Tex

ture

(Liv

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lB

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nN

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[Dis

c1]

Alt

ern

ati

ve1c9

389f4

b75547a0aec

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502

Th

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hin

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h..

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ran

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he

Holi

day

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nk

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264f3

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d0a8f6

c9b

657fe

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gue

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kA

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d(E

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ati

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fdb

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na

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dy

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win

ga96391251a887fc

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02

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all

Of

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Big

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Vood

oo

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dy

How

Big

Can

You

Get

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50f7

2f2

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3b

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tud

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rian

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had

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mil

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0b

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life

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ern

ati

ve1d

7d

6b

309b

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268b

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You

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rT

oC

lose

dIn

die

4fd

5270

fc4797d

e8f2

30a6d

9b

8471d

53

71

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Coff

aro’

sT

hem

eB

ill

Fri

sell

wit

hD

...

Bil

lF

rise

llw

ith

...

Jazz

70ee

aa21093f7

086b

c79e2

9d

0b

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8

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ain

Or

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lie

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iday

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lie’

sB

est

Jazz

09aae6

e14962d

ab

9b

963059f3

4ea

f7b

0

God

son

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gB

ill

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sell

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e,Ju

stL

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a..

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1390c8

3974256d

8ec

499002e5

011e1

8b

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py

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lin

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arn

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win

gor

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t...

Jazz

d6b

9a57098ef

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617a1670d

db

5

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tle

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gB

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Jazz

84d

3cc

8c8

84d

6f6

39f5

424cc

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pen

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ouB

arn

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ner

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57b

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19b

c649af8

90f3

3e0

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otT

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Dyla

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ighw

ay61

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isit

edF

olk

1e2

a0775855425ea

dd

86e3

98137a1747

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gO

fS

win

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igB

adV

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oo

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dy

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oo

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dy

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32e1

e622861c7

31d

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seB

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man

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man

Jazz

451b

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18737e0

2a2611ec

ad

7159d

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sfa

rmB

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yla

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rin

gin

gIt

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d9e9

1d

304ea

0a2b

36d

ff34acb

9b

801d

9

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iqu

eB

obD

yla

nD

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eF

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854d

47e

870c8

c3f6

4f5

795d

5d

14b

c53c

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ci..

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noth

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of

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2c7

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5248a88d

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8b

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vil

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bd

7292a3d

18acb

6ab

7518e1

f47f6

6986

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ion

sof

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ann

aB

obD

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nB

lon

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3d

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53122352d

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olk

7740d

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16cb

b6959e8

7b

210aaae0

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372a5

92A

vail

4A

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rid

ayP

un

k32e6

d44

9b

6f3

404353ab

bf0

fe40ea

8ef

72

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Dre

amer

Atm

osp

her

eW

hen

Lif

eG

ives

Y..

.H

ip-H

op

ab

4ad

954acc

06d

d92ec

564804f5

15b

40

Gu

ns

and

Cig

aret

tes

Atm

osp

her

eL

ucy

Ford

,T

he

At.

..H

ip-H

op

1105732d

cd789988a5117a566d

40ce

12

Blu

eB

eard

Ban

dO

fH

orse

sIn

fin

ite

Arm

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die

8253fc

b5c6

c8afa

658d

795ce

2aa3f9

51

Bea

uti

ful

Atm

osp

her

eS

ad

Clo

wn

Bad

Win

...

Hip

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de1

7776

4d

819841485d

7a267a6d

76fd

b

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akY

our

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me

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ron

au

tH

ou

ston

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...

Pu

nk

165ca

85e5

23b

6d

99d

1c0

dcf

cd1c6

b5e9

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ken

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igio

nT

he

Pro

cess

Of

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k5a49305d

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6298639f7

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1

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pli

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3

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die

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ush

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ese.

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die

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c09628731d

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9156c0

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par

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esP

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62455491d

75296f1

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vit

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on

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nk

1835aeb

2af8

356092522508a25b

c080a

73

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Refl

ecti

ons

Atm

osp

her

eS

even

’sT

ravel

sH

ip-H

op

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f935ae3

43182161e2

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f33

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ease

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eH

oun

ds

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od

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nk

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bd

2b

2d

5b

1d

3811ff

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ship

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f3939d

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52f1

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714a6a749999ea

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49405993700a509982494e8

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74

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

How

Lon

gH

asT

his

B..

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arn

eyK

esse

lK

esse

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lays

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Song

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Song

Artist

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MD5

Let

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ny

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man

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ny

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leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Cou

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Me

Ou

tB

ane

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ing

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100

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Str

uck

Dow

nB

yM

eB

ane

ItA

llC

om

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101

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

IA

mT

he

Law

Anth

rax

Am

on

gT

he

Liv

ing

Met

al

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nk

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102

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Can

dy

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avit

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gain

stT

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ow’s

Sky

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Song

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MD5

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Song

Artist

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Genre

MD5

Bu

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Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Su

per

son

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106

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Song

Artist

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Genre

MD5

Cop

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alin

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gA

lkal

ine

Tri

oA

lkali

ne

Tri

o,

Ho..

.P

un

kcc

52e8

2a4631b

58154e8

858d

9125e3

29

Hel

pM

eA

lkal

ine

Tri

oA

gony

An

dIr

ony

Pu

nk

7ed

ae0

48961160628051411ff

905b

8f3

Th

rash

Un

real

Aga

inst

Me!

New

Wav

eP

un

k6a7a523876a194fb

27e4

2d

9b

7e6

f6c9

0

Bli

nd

Fol

ds

and

Pad

...

Aga

inst

Tom

orr

ow’s

Sky

Th

eL

ost

Tap

esIn

die

8aec

ab

b9e0

faaee

1e6

0817557401d

0d

0

Con

dit

ion

ing

Aga

inst

All

Au

thori

tyD

estr

oyW

hat

Des

t...

Pu

nk

29b

c07a

e80e3

c1d

6e2

c6840ef

c879774

107

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Fea

rO

fF

lyin

gA

lex

Skol

nic

kT

rio

Tra

nsf

orm

ati

on

Jazz

5e1

1e9

d4c1

acd

6e7

b8aec

596c7

cd13d

6

Mid

sum

mer

Nig

ht

Al

Di

Meo

la,

Paco

D..

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he

Gu

itar

Tri

oJazz

2f5

ff4a0f4

f060ae9

79b

50f8

044ef

8e3

Mu

tiny

onth

eE

lecr

...

Aga

inst

Me!

As

Th

eE

tern

al

Co..

.P

un

kce

bb

9d

7165b

70fa

9d

2b

4c6

a3b

d21ed

82

Poi

son

Tes

ter

Aga

inst

Tom

orr

ow’s

Sky

Ju

mp

Th

eH

edges

F..

.In

die

3529f2

29c4

a62f8

ee11e6

6d

c9c1

16301

Ju

stin

Aga

inst

Me!

Sea

rch

ing

for

aF

...

Pu

nk

363ac4

23ef

e72af8

c2737233ea

f36883

We

Lau

ghat

Dan

ger

...

Aga

inst

Me!

Rei

nve

nti

ng

Axl

Rose

Pu

nk

56ef

99a3b

e326b

78e0

ab

82a96d

49c1

33

IW

ann

aG

etA

Moh

aw..

.A

FI

An

swer

Th

at

An

dS

...

Pu

nk

cc19d

2979f6

ecb

be0

2b

0d

923a38a6e7

b

Kee

pT

ryin

gA

gain

stA

llA

uth

ori

tyA

llF

all

Dow

nP

un

kc8

c706401e6

847fd

41c5

1a5c0

8f6

b5cf

Mal

leu

sM

alefi

caru

mA

FI

Bla

ckS

ail

sIn

Th

...

Pu

nk

8a24a1314ec

8a4d

e11c2

268a602ac3

4e

Sil

ver

An

dC

old

AF

IS

ing

Th

eS

orr

owP

un

k11ef

0a529533f5

29b

c32f5

381e9

88b

b7

Tot

alim

mor

tal

AF

IA

llH

all

ow’s

E.P

.P

un

k06579371f3

6fa

504ea

85b

8992a7c7

442

Wil

liam

sB

lake

Ove

r...

AW

ilh

elm

Scr

eam

Mu

teP

rint

Pu

nk

5169725b

bc9

a9b

b506fc

d5c5

99a6f5

d4

God

Lov

esa

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rA

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hel

mS

crea

mR

uin

erP

un

k6f2

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a70169588971e1

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9fd

f

Jaw

s3,

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ple

0A

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hel

mS

crea

mC

are

erS

uic

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Pu

nk

0939170876214ab

753e1

a7c3

108a71a9

Per

fect

Fit

AF

IV

ery

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ud

Of

Ya

Pu

nk

76d

de3

e86e0

811231ce

bb

e49492242e8

Sm

art

En

ough

To

Run

88F

inge

rsL

ou

ieB

ehin

dB

ars

Pu

nk

1e4

82cd

4504e4

526c9

b34893d

c771446

Ore

stes

AP

erfe

ctC

ircl

eM

erd

eN

om

sM

etal

5b

bd

795f4

1d

a562d

69625a19ec

94f3

3b

Skid

Rock

AW

ilh

elm

Scr

eam

AW

ilh

elm

Scr

eam

Pu

nk

c5a604536c5

6141a51ea

3d

65922d

46c6

Gir

lsB

east

ieB

oys

Lic

ense

dT

oIl

lH

ip-H

op

9d

01d

2a75ae6

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ad

5c2

2fe

4f6

739d

4c

You

Los

e7

Sec

ond

sT

he

Cre

wP

un

k189728103b

a8837fc

950ad

668f2

8c3

33

108

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Mon

soon

...A

nd

You

Wil

lK

no..

.S

ou

rce

Tags

&C

od

esIn

die

54567a6cf

5829154674f9

1a6e9

6714b

b

Pey

ote

Atm

osp

her

eS

ad

Clo

wn

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Fal.

..H

ip-H

op

956af7

1450300d

af0

43c7

6587b

079850

Bec

ause

Of

Th

eS

ham

eA

gain

stM

e!W

hit

eC

ross

esP

un

k3a73b

23f3

f6d

073724cd

54eb

13b

4285c

C’m

onA

tmos

ph

ere

Lea

kA

tW

ill

Hip

-Hop

e4783543f0

63640691d

728d

b47108571

Ygm

Atm

osp

her

eS

tric

tly

Lea

kage

Hip

-Hop

687f5

b59b

0fc

0ed

0d

879b

e292f4

31ac4

Am

ong

Th

eL

ivin

gA

nth

rax

Am

on

gT

he

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ing

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al

ce7b

f99b

1d

0a96951b

91b

8b

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45b

Be

All

,E

nd

All

Anth

rax

Sta

teO

fE

up

hori

aM

etal

e63e5

2584945a19984f2

1828e6

e1d

fd0

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nge

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alin

eT

rio

God

dam

nit

Pu

nk

9fa

f97d

49f5

f144ee

df2

4b

42eb

c16fd

c

Div

isio

nA

llE

lse

Fai

lsT

he

Ch

ase

Of

Gain

Pu

nk

edd

e840b

88e1

9ea

cab

eda9c7

6e7

7fe

66

Good

bye

For

ever

Alk

alin

eT

rio

Alk

ali

ne

Tri

oP

un

k1974d

5407d

ebb

0a1b

d78f7

b0589ec

28d

Gri

nd

Ali

ceIn

Ch

ain

sA

lice

InC

hain

sA

lter

nati

ve761fd

5388cd

bf4

b221a4c6

0ed

40d

b0c9

Kee

p’E

mC

omin

gA

lkal

ine

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oM

ayb

eI’

llC

atc

h..

.P

un

ka0eb

d3d

f9e0

83d

33acf

d95e2

65b

089d

b

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yard

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All

anH

old

swort

hA

llN

ight

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ng

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0ac0

0cb

a14e3

cba0aad

3d

f1d

b47188ca

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tsh

ell

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ceIn

Ch

ain

sM

TV

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plu

gged

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ern

ati

ve444b

538

4a3e5

25a51cc

a0b

791ec

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vate

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alin

eT

rio

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mH

ere

toIn

fi..

.P

un

k8b

cb0c2

8f0

a0f3

33b

846b

b44028643f1

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ten

Ap

ple

Ali

ceIn

Ch

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sJar

Of

Fli

esA

lter

nati

ve1e5

65fb

418975ea

391b

a022374a6e5

9b

Th

emB

ones

Ali

ceIn

Ch

ain

sD

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ern

ati

ve13e0

1175265149b

58317ec

b4c1

53f5

ec

Th

isA

dd

icti

onA

lkal

ine

Tri

oT

his

Ad

dic

tion

Pu

nk

18857886c1

8d

f863b

2b

5d

f049b

54cf

3e

Th

isC

ould

Be

Lov

eA

lkal

ine

Tri

oG

ood

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rnin

gP

un

kd

92f2

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6d

c2e4

82f0

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ree

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toth

e...

All

anH

old

swort

hR

oad

Gam

esJazz

92904a3d

ab

52ae4

af0

541546ef

bee

d95

109

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Tim

eT

oW

aste

Alk

alin

eT

rio

Cri

mso

nP

un

k549ce

3c8

365a908443478f0

e8b

ba1293

Was

teB

igw

igA

nIn

vit

ati

on

To

...

Pu

nk

bb

58d

847e7

efc1

62fe

e8cc

7f4

2ce

b8fc

We

Die

You

ng

Ali

ceIn

Ch

ain

sF

ace

lift

Alt

ern

ati

ved

1d

332e8

675375e9

7e6

c38f0

6601185c

Wor

ld’s

On

Her

oin

All

Mass

Ner

der

Pu

nk

4c1

ee1d

96d

416e7

0e6

d2e7

266199b

5a4

Cal

lin

gA

llS

kele

ton

sA

lkal

ine

Tri

oD

am

nes

iaP

un

k765e4

557a749e6

aed

ae5

6c5

a38845035

Qu

een

ofP

ain

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alin

eT

rio

Alk

ali

ne

Tri

o,

Ho..

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un

ke4

a82e5

77d

bab

3a679845a689e1

e0f8

1

Cal

lin

gA

llS

kele

ton

sA

lkal

ine

Tri

oA

gony

An

dIr

ony

Pu

nk

97f1

91fb

9736eb

dd

ece8

c69081c1

b6ff

Up

Th

eC

uts

Aga

inst

Me!

New

Wav

eP

un

kf9

d7018

88e6

e49ee

a336b

062d

e8b

67f7

Bey

ond

the

Mir

age

Al

Di

Meo

la,

Paco

D..

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he

Gu

itar

Tri

oJazz

640b

35c

9afe

fc85d

b6aa47301d

dd

1f2

7

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che

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evar

aA

gain

stM

e!A

sT

he

Ete

rnal

Co..

.P

un

k0765d

6939b

ed976e3

4c6

2a979c1

af4

10

Ele

ctri

cE

ye

Ale

xS

kol

nic

kT

rio

Tra

nsf

orm

ati

on

Jazz

415d

59ff

d07d

75781342463798d

65b

a0

No

Rea

son

Aga

inst

All

Au

thori

tyD

estr

oyW

hat

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t...

Pu

nk

a04c4

669d

055ed

b2e6

8d

27d

83f6

b217e

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sP

lan

ZA

gain

stT

omorr

ow’s

Sky

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eL

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esIn

die

f015cb

9cf

50682c5

d517187d

f6e6

eef4

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row

ing

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ken

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Aga

inst

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orr

ow’s

Sky

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mp

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eH

edges

F..

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die

1f8

d9ed

3d

b93ac4

14d

5a9ae1

1b

9eb

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Med

iocr

ity

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sY

ou..

.A

gain

stM

e!S

earc

hin

gfo

ra

F..

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un

k2eb

6631

6212d

41561642fa

66933a0ef

5

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eP

olit

ics

ofS

ta..

.A

gain

stM

e!R

einve

nti

ng

Axl

Rose

Pu

nk

768b

7ab

b853b

e6f8

3277e1

59707b

c934

An

chor

En

dA

Wil

hel

mS

crea

mM

ute

Pri

nt

Pu

nk

cef5

0cb

8ae0

00b

f79b

f4e7

2d

a357f1

e9

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edB

lack

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IS

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eS

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owP

un

k8373a879f3

7d

ab

a3ce

d662a1aae8

744f

Exsa

ngu

inat

ion

AF

IB

lack

Sail

sIn

Th

...

Pu

nk

7a66fc

b247d

64f4

66b

694d

6d

ca4d

454a

Ju

stifi

cati

onA

gain

stA

llA

uth

ori

tyA

llF

all

Dow

nP

un

k90d

e01e

d01733cd

b9c1

71597d

0c1

5439

110

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

Th

eB

oyW

ho

Des

troy

...

AF

IA

llH

all

ow’s

E.P

.P

un

k03c3

560b

0a45c0

7f4

8cc

247ec

44f1

ec8

Yu

rfR

end

enm

ein

AF

IA

nsw

erT

hat

An

dS

...

Pu

nk

87e5

41a0608a46ee

05aa7f1

3fe

81e6

23

Cu

ltS

tatu

sA

FI

Ver

yP

rou

dO

fY

aP

un

k96d

baac4

a869cc

43d

1d

48d

f5912c4

006

Die

Wh

ile

We

reY

oun

gA

Wil

hel

mS

crea

mC

are

erS

uic

ide

Pu

nk

863e6

48b

77474c9

fad

80d

59376169b

a0

Had

My

Ch

ance

88F

inge

rsL

ou

ieB

ehin

dB

ars

Pu

nk

1fe

7c3

c289574d

d76605b

8357d

44d

0e4

Th

eS

oft

Sel

lA

Wil

hel

mS

crea

mR

uin

erP

un

k350297477c9

24a7f8

a738568742b

8248

Ju

dit

hA

Per

fect

Cir

cle

Mer

de

Nom

sM

etal

55e3

74e4

7f4

a7fb

2ca

5c6

4a41e4

3c9

fb

Bu

llet

pro

ofT

iger

AW

ilh

elm

Scr

eam

AW

ilh

elm

Scr

eam

Pu

nk

6e6

f81608261b

9c8

ef1d

4f4

6552910d

e

Str

aigh

tO

n7

Sec

ond

sT

he

Cre

wP

un

k7c6

fd7b

6e1

88354c5

7514fa

de3

e9108d

Hea

rtIn

Th

eH

and

O..

...

.An

dY

ouW

ill

Kn

o..

.S

ou

rce

Tags

&C

od

esIn

die

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e6b

235b

809ab

cd1ef

e4ec

44e4

3d

822

IW

asA

Tee

nag

eA

na.

..A

gain

stM

e!W

hit

eC

ross

esP

un

kd

fe06b

3f1

24f8

93d

83d

d82a0715001ef

New

Wav

eA

gain

stM

e!N

ewW

ave

Pu

nk

7b

21e4

bff

f344b

62d

602b

f2c9

d5d

ccc4

Eag

erA

gain

stT

omorr

ow’s

Sky

Ju

mp

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eH

edges

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.In

die

601fa

b833fc

588f3

f4544e3

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cab

14

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iba

Al

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la,

Paco

D..

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he

Gu

itar

Tri

oJazz

48d

0fd

f5fe

cbb

3f1

ad

fb8ee

86f8

45795

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leof

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elli

onA

gain

stA

llA

uth

ori

tyD

estr

oyW

hat

Des

t...

Pu

nk

38857d

4b

ed8d

552e2

86744f0

2a4f5

eea

Lu

llab

yeL

eagu

eA

gain

stT

omorr

ow’s

Sky

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eL

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esIn

die

f098b

b40ae6

fcfa

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3b

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eE

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ka7f4

c5325c0

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8103328a076f4

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atio

nA

lex

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nic

kT

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on

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c2756fe

99aacb

1546799aaff

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nk

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8ce

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tsof

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inn

ess

M..

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gain

stM

e!R

einve

nti

ng

Axl

Rose

Pu

nk

728c8

b8b

21f0

9130b

b39d

7d

6e3

483356

111

Tab

leB

.1–FullEvaluationDatasetContinued

Song

Artist

Album

Genre

MD5

12:0

0A

MA

gain

stA

llA

uth

ori

tyA

llF

all

Dow

nP

un

kb

7a9ae6

922d

e955952f3

3312b

e840e7

c

Fam

ous

Fri

end

sA

nd

...

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ilh

elm

Scr

eam

Mu

teP

rint

Pu

nk

f77658c6

edd

12ad

bfc

bed

92ae2

fdd

fb6

Hal

f-em

pty

Bot

tle

AF

IA

nsw

erT

hat

An

dS

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Pu

nk

16f5

4d

678c8

e4f2

e7973f1

3b

70c0

c2e1

Hal

low

een

AF

IA

llH

all

ow’s

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un

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21988e0

356504fb

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lin

gIt

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ilh

elm

Scr

eam

Ru

iner

Pu

nk

134422285eb

d2d

cc8a9f0

26fb

886f8

cf

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phyri

aA

FI

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ckS

ail

sIn

Th

...

Pu

nk

4fc

f656e5

7eb

8589d

b03a4b

77880a442

Th

eL

eavin

gS

ong

Pt.

2A

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Sin

gT

he

Sorr

owP

un

kca

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7b

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erA

vail

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eat

the

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un

ka2b

5a9f

08f0

0c0

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21a7400b

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