Satellite archaeology
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Transcript of Satellite archaeology
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School of ComputingFaculty of Engineering
Satellite Archaeology
Anthony (Ant) Beck
Twitter: AntArch
IC ArchPro Workshop 1 - Airborne Remote Sensing
Vienna - 30th November 2011
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Some background – “I don’t like the term satellite archaeology”
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Overview
• The Satellite Platform
• Archaeological Prospection
• Landscape Survey in data poor environments
• Exemplar: Homs, Syria
• The Future
• Conclusions
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Overview
There is no need to take notes:
Slides –
Text – http://dl.dropbox.com/u/393477/MindMaps/Events/ConferencesAndWorkshops.html
There is every need to ask questions
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSensor Types – Active and Passive
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSynoptic Footprint and Spatial Resolution
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSpatial Resolution - 20cm Aerial Photography
Detailed mapping
Field backdrop
Small area
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSpatial Resolution - 1m Ikonos
Detailed mapping
Field backdrop
Large area
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSpatial Resolution - 30m Landsat
Landscape mapping• Soils
• Geology
• Vegetation
• Land use
• etc
Long history
Multi-spectral
Multi-temporal
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSpatial Resolution - 30m Landsat (geology bands)
Landscape mapping• Soils
• Geology
• Vegetation
• Land use
• etc
Long history
Multi-spectral
Multi-temporal
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Characteristics of the satellite platformTemporal Resolution
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Characteristics of the satellite platformTemporal Resolution
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Characteristics of the satellite platformSpectral Resolution
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Characteristics of the satellite platformA large archive
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Problems of the satellite platformAtmospheric Attenuation
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Problems of the satellite platformTopographic Distortion
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Problems of the satellite platformPixel Mixing
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Problems of the satellite platformClassification
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Characteristics of the satellite platformPerceived issues for archaeologists
Cost• It’s perceived to be expensive
Complexity• It’s perceived to be complex to
understand and process
Temporal constraints• Revisits are frequent.
• Times of collection are fixed
The ‘Google Earth’ effect
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Characteristics of the satellite platformMy issues with satellite applications
A solution searching for a problem • Does it have a place in well understood
landscapes?
Cropmarks • Unless you’ve got lots of money, why
would you want to prospect for spatio-temporally ephemeral cropmarks with a sensor with a large synoptic footprint
Everyone focuses on prospection at the expense of • The Landscape
• Integrated Cultural Resource Management
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
At the small scale: • The archaeological record can be
considered as a more or less continuous spatial distribution of artefacts, structures, organic remains, chemical residues, topographic variations and other less obvious
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
At the large scale: • The distribution is far from even, with
large areas where archaeological remains are widely and infrequently dispersed. There are other areas, however, where materials and other remains are abundant and clustered. It is these peaks of abundance that are commonly referred to as sites, features, anomalies (whatever!).
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
Discovery requires the detection of one or more site constituents.
The important points for archaeological detection are: • Archaeological sites are physical and chemical phenomena.
• There are different kinds of site constituents.
• The abundance and spatial distribution of different constituents vary both between sites and within individual sites.
• These attributes may be masked or accentuated by a variety of other phenomena.
• Importantly from a remote sensing perspective archaeological site do not exhibit consistent spectral signatures
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
Micro-Topographic variations
Soil Marks• variation in mineralogy and
moisture properties
Differential Crop Marks• constraint on root depth and
moisture availability changing crop stress/vigour
Proxy Thaw Marks• Exploitation of different thermal
capacities of objects expressed in the visual component as thaw marks
Now you see meNow you dont
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
We detect Contrast: • Between the expression of the remains
and the local 'background' value
Direct Contrast:• where a measurement, which exhibits a
detectable contrast with its surroundings, is taken directly from an archaeological residue.
Proxy Contrast:• where a measurement, which exhibits a
detectable contrast with its surroundings, is taken indirectly from an archaeological residue (for example from a crop mark).
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionWhat is the basis for detection
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Archaeological ProspectionSummary
The sensor must have:• The spatial resolution to resolve the feature
• The spectral resolution to resolve the contrast
• The radiometric resolution to identify the change
• The temporal sensitivity to record the feature when the contrast is exhibited
The image must be captured at the right time:• Different features exhibit contrast characteristics at different times
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical
Essentially large footprint vertical photographs
Lower spatial resolution than aerial (0.5 – 4m)
Panchromatic (higher spatial resolution)
4 band multi-spectral (lower spatial resolution)• Blue
• Green
• Red
• Near Infra-Red
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical
That’s it.
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical
Nothing more to say really
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical
Well there’s a bit more –
Image sources• Major providers (GeoEye, DigitalGlobe), archive and bespoke
• Declassified Cold War ‘spy’ photography
• Before modern ‘destructive modification’
Free viewers• Google, Yahoo, Bing
• No control over the data
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical – WorldView - 2
Has 8 bands
Cost for standard – • 4 band + pan $17 per square kilometer
• 8 band + pan $32 per square kilometer
• Minimum order of 25 square kilometers
Cost for bespoke – • 4 band + pan $23 per square kilometer
• 8 band + pan $38 per square kilometer
• Minimum order of $1800
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Satellite images archaeologists useHigh spatial resolution optical – WorldView - 2
New: good water penetration
New: Yellowness (crop)
New: Red-edge (crop)
New: NIR (crop/biomass)
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However, prospection is not everythingWhy use satellites when it’s already known!
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey
It's not just about finding stuff• It's about placing it in a context where it can be useful
Most countries do not have mature cultural management frameworks• e.g. Homs region of Syria or Vidisha area of India
• Archaeological inventory is significantly biased towards large and prominent landscape features
• What about the rest of the landscape?
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey
This is an inventory problem• OK we need to do more prospection!
• Bring on the planes!
• NO
If we were to start from the beginning would we do it all the same way again• Learn from our experiences
This is what I hope to show in the rest of the presentation
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey – Types of survey
Reconnaissance survey: (Detection)• primarily designed to detect all the positive and negative archaeological
evidence within a study area.
Evaluation survey: (Recognition)• to assess the archaeological content of a landscape using survey
techniques that facilitate subsequent field-prospection, statistical hypothesis building or the identification of spatial structure.
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey – Types of survey
Landscape research: (Identification)• to form theoretical understanding of the relationships between
settlement dynamics, hinterlands and the landscape itself.
Cultural Resource Management (CRM): (Management and Protection)• primarily designed for management of the available resources. CRM
applications are not necessarily distinct from other survey objectives although they may be conducted as part of a more general information capture system.
Improve Reconnaissance Survey and impact on all the others.
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey – Desk Based Assessments
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However, prospection is not everythingLandscape survey – Desk Based Assessments
Sources that are normally considered for reference during a DBA are: • Regional and national site inventories.
• Public and private collections of artefacts and ecofacts.
• Modern and historical mapping.
• Geo-technical information (such as soil maps and borehole data).
• Historic documents.
• Aerial photography and other remote sensing.
How can satellite imagery help in data poor environments.
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments
Artefacts
EcofactsSites
Hinterland
Ecological Setting
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Nature of the evidence – DBA resources
• Regional and national site inventories.
• Archaeological inventory is significantly biased towards large and prominent landscape features
• Public and private collections of artefacts and ecofacts
• Not well documented
• Modern and historical mapping.
• Not available, or available at inappropriate scales
• Geo-technical information (such as soil maps and borehole data).
• Not available, or available at inappropriate scales
• Historic documents.
• ?
• Aerial photography and other remote sensing.
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Understanding what form of derivatives are required
Sorry text heavy
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Understand the nature of the study area
• The geology and soil types in the study area
• The surface vegetation regimes
• The nature, range and size of the archaeological residues
• How these residues may contrast against a background value
• Residue or proxy detection
• Localised masking (i.e. crop, terraces)
• What conditions enhance the contrast between a residue and its background and when this is maximised
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Understand the nature of the study area
• How any of the above conditions may change during a year
• What resolution is required for detection
• Spatial
• Spectral
• Temporal
• Radiometric
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection
What has an impact on the derivatives you want to create: • Environment
• Topography
• Agriculture
• Land use
• Image fidelity
• Cloud Cover, Atmospheric Haze
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection
Rule of thumb: Landscape Themes• Stereoscopic or Radar imagery for the generation of Digital Terrain
Models (DTMs)
• Low spatial (>15 metres) and medium-high spectral resolution (>7 bands). This imagery will be primarily used for generating thematic data such as soil maps.
• medium-high spatial (4-15 metres) and medium spectral resolution (multispectral in the visible-near infrared and beyond). This imagery will be primarily used for generating thematic data such as topographic and land-use maps.
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection
Rule of thumb:• high spatial resolution (0.5-2 metres) and medium-low spectral
resolution (panchromatic and multispectral in the visible-near infrared wavelengths). Used for the location and mapping of fine spatial resolution archaeological features .
• Other
• There will always be a requirement for other data
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection – What to consult
On-line streaming• Bing Maps
• Yahoo Maps
• Google Maps
• Open Street Map
• Open Aerial Map
Use Caution – The ‘Google Earth’ effect
Strongly consider adding new data to the Open collection movements (OSM empowers local communities)
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection – What to consult
The libraries of free or low cost imagery• Spot maps
• Cheap ortho-rectified 2.5m imagery
• 2 euro per kilometer
• A good backdrop for rectification in lie of mapping or other ground control
• 10m RMSE
• They also do Elevation models
• Corona/Hexagon/Gambit
• Historic Imagery
• variable parameters
• 60's onwards
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Selection – What to consult
The libraries of free or low cost imagery• Landsat
• Family of sensors operating from 1973 onwards
• Multispectral
• ASTER
• DEM
• Multispectral
• SRTM
Bespoke
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Image Pre-processing
Atmospheric Correction
Geo-referencing
Co-referencing
Orthorectification
To what degree of accuracy • Fit for purpose
• To enable it to be confidently identified on the ground
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Theme Extraction - DTM
I assume most of this will be covered by Geert• Two sources
• Radar/LiDAR
• Photogrammetry/Computer vision
• Many free sources of data
• Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping: SRTM• 3 arc seconds
• c.90m
• ASTER• GDEM2 released October 17th 2011
• 1 arc seconds
• c. 30m
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Theme Extraction - DTM
I assume most of this will be covered by Geert• Photogrammetry
• Stereo pairs
• Corona (5m results) – beware of clouds
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Theme Extraction - Landscape
Satellite imagery has an established pedigree of doing this • Corine Land Cover
• NASA Global Maps
• Soil Maps
• Vegetation maps
Processing is dependent on • Type of theme
• Desired scale
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Theme Extraction - Landscape
Classification systems • Approaches generally segment the imagery into contiguous parcels with
different characteristics • colour (spectral response)
• texture
• tone
• pattern
• other association information
• These parcels are then 'identified' • Mapped to a classification system
• Recommendations • Established methodologies
• Established classification system (See previous)
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Archaeological Prospection – Positive Evidence
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Archaeological Prospection – Negative Evidence
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Archaeological Prospection – Image Enhancement
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Landscape Survey in data poor environments Archaeological Prospection – Documentation or KT
Knowledge Transfer is important
Good access is important
Consider Open approaches (OSM, Open Archaeology Map)• Ethics?
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Exemplar: Homs, Syria
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaOverview – SHR Project
To establish a framework to understand settlement dynamics and diversity in the Homs region, Syria.
C. 650 sq km
2 principal contrasting environmental zones• Basalt
• Marl
Initial program of surface/site survey
No sites and monuments record!• No aerial photography available (‘closed skies’)
• Satellite imagery evaluated as a prospection tool
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaPreliminary Enquiries
• The main agricultural season was between October (seeding) and May (harvesting).
• Establishing sites from crop marks would be difficult due to the perceived lack of negative features (i.e. ‘positive’ mud-brick construction as opposed to ‘negative’ postholes and ditches).
• Except for fluvial margins, the landscape could be considered as either completely bare soil or a combination of bare soil and crop throughout the year.
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaPreliminary Enquiries
• Site soil colour in the marl zones was significantly different to off-site soil colour when dry and similar when wet.
• Areas of high artefact density had a positive relationship with areas of light soil colour in the marl.
• The majority of walls in the basalt zone have a width of between 0.5 and 2m.
• Heavy mechanisation was introduced in the 70s
• Bulldozers
• Deep plough
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaImage Selection – implications from the zone
• Apart from the irrigated areas crop cover is only significant in the few months preceding harvest (May).
• Atmospheric dust, if applicable, will be at its lowest during the significant rains (December to May).
• Cloud cover could significantly impact imagery between December and May.
• Sites in the marl exhibit greater contrast during periods of (hyper) aridity from September to December.
• The smallest sites in the basalt zone will require very fine (high) resolution imagery with good image fidelity (i.e. low dust levels)
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaImage Selection
Ikonos 11 bit digital imagery (1999 - present)
1 m panchromatic/colour 0.45-0.9m4 m Multispectral: 0.45-0.52 m Blue
0.52-0.60 m Green
0.63-0.69 m Red
0.76-0.90 m NIR
Corona KH-4B photography (1970)
1.83 - 2.5 m panchromatic
Photogrammetrically scanned to 8 bit raster imagery
Landsat 8 bit 7 band (and ETM+) digital imagery (1974 - present)
0.45-0.52 m, 30 m
0.52-0.60 m, 30 m
0.63-0.69 m, 30 m
0.76-0.90 m, 30 m
1.55-1.75 m, 30 m
10.40-12.50 m, 120 m
2.08-2.35 m, 30 m
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaImage Selection
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaImage Pre-processing
Atmospheric correction
Geo-referencing Corona (using Ikonos as a backdrop)
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaLandscape Themes
Themes include• Land use and cover (topography)
• Communication networks (Ikonos, Corona, Landsat)
• Hydrology networks (Ikonos, Corona, Landsat)
• Settlements (Ikonos, Corona, Landsat)
• Field Systems (Ikonos, Corona)
• Vegetation
• Identification - Ikonos
• Presence - Landsat
• Soil/geology maps• Landsat
• DEM/DTM - Not discussed further
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaLandscape Themes – Classification Systems
Used standard classification system (USGS)• Designed with remote sensing in mind
• Similar to CORINE
• 3 Level Nested Hierarchy• Level 1 – USGS Coarse Classification (for Landsat)
• Level 2 – USGS Detailed Classification (for finer spatial/spectral data)
• Level 3 – Bespoke classification
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaLandscape Themes – Classification Systems
Segmented the imagery into contiguous parcels with different characteristics• Combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques
• Principal Component Analysis
• Unsupervised classification
• Band ratios
• Transparent overlays
• Visual interpretation
Insert classification ID
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaLandscape Themes
The USGS classification means these views can be refined at different scales• Vary field based on Classification ID
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt
Complex and intensive multi-period palimpsest of upstanding structural features that covers a large extent• Cairns
• Walls
• Structures
Smallest feature is c. 1m in size
Structures constructed from basalt
system
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt
Detected by:• Topographic effect (shadows)
• Spectral response
Requirements:• High spatial resolution
• High image fidelity
• High degree of georeferencing accuracy required to locate features on the ground (<10m RMSE)
• Try mapping all the basalt with aerial photography or GPS! One needs a metrically accurate system
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt, Image Enhancement
Internal Geometries of Ikonos imagery highly accurate• Therefore, few GPS points required for re-geo-correction
• Re-geocorrected using Handheld GPS readings
• Prolonged readings over an identifiable tie point
• Ikonos accuracy c. 5-8m
Corona geo-referenced to the Ikonos Basemap• Difficulty in selecting tie-points due to 30 year time difference
• Corona accuracy > c. 5-8m
Simple technique vastly increased utility of the imagery• Allowed cheaper desk-based analysis
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt , Image Enhancement
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt, Image Enhancement
Linear enhancements• Edge detection
• Crisp
• Generally unsuccessful
Image fusion/overlay• Fuse 1m pan with 4m MS for Ikonos
• Transparent overlay
• Very successful
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt
Simply a process of digitising results• Ikonos fused imagery
• Finer resolution (spatial and spectral) gave better interpretation
• More modern clutter
• Corona• Coarser resolution
• Less clutter
• More intact landscape
• Synergies from using both data sets
Adding an attribute for the source (so you know where the evidence came from)
Undertaking analysis
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Basalt
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl
Dispersed remains punctuated by soil marks and tells
Smallest feature is c. 10s of metres in area
Detected by• Spectral response
Requirements:• Hyper arid
• No need to improve Ikonos spatial accuracy
• Multi-spectral (see comparison later)
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl
Simply a process of digitising results
Adding an attribute for the source (so you know where the evidence came from)
Conducting field verification (including mapping and grab sample of diagnostic pottery)
Conducted validity determination – extensive fieldwalking
Undertaking analysis• Improved understanding of population dynamics over time
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
Soil Colour difference recorded between on and off site soils• Dry: On site soils lighter (an increase in chroma)
• Wet: Colour indistinguishable (indicating similar parent regolith)
Indicated that increased contrast would occur at periods of peak aridity (at least for optical region)
Wanted to understand the cause of the colour change so that we could model detection with other sensors
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
Factors influencing soil colour include:• Mineralogy
• Chemical constituents
• Soil moisture
• Soil structure
• Particle Size
• Organic matter content
Soil Moisture %
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
Soil samples were taken across a number of site transects
Analysed for:• Moist and dry spectro-radiometer readings
• Particle size measurement
• Magnetic susceptibility
• Geochemical analysis
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
Concluded difference in spectral reflectance principally due to variations in:
• moisture content
• grain size
• soil structure
Site soils share similar spectral curve to off site soils• Measurable relative reflectance difference (in this zone)
• NO unique archaeological spectral curve
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
This confirmed hypothesis about data collection during periods of peak aridity• Ikonos subsequently collected in January/February 2002
Although analysis in SWIR could detect these physical manifestions more effectively
Archaeological sites in this zone represent localised areas with increased reflectance• This information can be used to enhance visualisation of residues
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Lab Work
An anomaly Increasesmall stones (6-20mm)coarse sand (0.6 - 2mm)Decreasesilt (0.002-0.0063mm) Theoretically reflectance should increase in the visible/NIR as:Increased silicate to clay/silt ratio.Decreased moisture retention.
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Image Enhancement
Archaeological residues as localised background soil variations• subtracting an averaged background soil pixel for an area will
theoretically produce a positive value at an archaeological site
• Off-site values should produce a value approaching zero
Features enhanced• Archaeological residues
• Roads
• Buildings
• Crops
• Small water bodies
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Image Enhancement
Requirements• Moving average kernel
• What size?
• Trial and Error gave 200m
• processor intensive
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl, Image Enhancement
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl: evaluation
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl: evaluation
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaProspection – The Marl: evaluation
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaGeneral– multispectral helps
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaGeneral– Time change analysis
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Exemplar: Homs, SyriaGeneral– Image Interpretation Keys
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The FutureHigh resolution hyperspectral
I will talk about in more detail this afternoon
Better land-unit segmentation
Better understanding of when to order bespoke imagery (or fly)
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Conclusions
Satellite approaches offer a number of benefits• Landscape approaches
• Can help develop more interactive or discriminatory strategies
• Use this here (marl)
• Use that there (basalt)
• Suited to provide context
Aerial approaches in the medium term will always provide better spatial resolution and temporal flexibility
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Conclusions
Be selective• Choose stuff because it
• Adds value
• Solves a problem
• Just because you can doesn't mean you should
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Conclusions