Sarah Chang(2)
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Transcript of Sarah Chang(2)
Overview
Decision Trees Basic analytical tool of decision making Non-strategic decisions Strategic decisions
Decision rules follow from decision trees The concept of economic profit
Decisions Degree of interdependence
Non-strategic Direct consequences of your decision depend only upon your own behavior, not that of others
Strategic Agents’ actions interact to determine direct consequences for all
Uncertainty Low Linkages between actions and consequences are well
understood and completely specified High Linkages are partially understood and/or incompletely
specified
Types of Decisions
Degree of Uncertainty
Low High
Deg
ree
of I
nter
depe
nden
ce
with
oth
ers’
act
ions
High
Low
Market entry
Extreme sports
What to wear
What to have for lunch
How hard to study
Whether to do an MBA
Which MBA
What to bid
Decision Trees
The basic tool for decision making is a decision tree
Idea: a traveller comes to a fork in the road. She must make a decision whether to go right or left.
R
L
Example (non-strategic under certainty)
= Decision Node: indicates a point at which an action must be taken(one path for each possible action)
CBD $120,000
$150,000Brunswickopen a restaurant
don’t $0
Entry decision
Location decision
Chang’s Dilemma in 2003
Sarah Chang is the owner of a small electronics company. There is a proposal for the provision of an electronic timing system for the 2004 Olympic Games. For several years, Chang’s company has been developing a new microprocessor, a critical component in a timing system that would be superior to any product currently on the market.
Progress has been slow and Chang is unsure about whether the new product will be developed on time. If the R&D succeeds, then there is an excellent chance her company will win the $1m Olympic contract; awarded solely on the basis of quality. If it does not succeed, they might still win the contract with their original, but inferior, system for which there are closer substitutes.
The costs involved in continuing R&D are $200,000. Developing a proposal itself will cost Chang’s company $50,000. Finally, the costs of producing the product – should they win the contract – will be $150,000.
Should Chang continue R&D or not?
Framing the Decision: Step I Chang’s decision is between two alternatives
– to continue R&D or to abandon the project
Abandon
Continue
Perhaps make proposal with inferior technology at an additional cost of $50,000
Take risk on developing the new technology at an additional cost of $200,000 and reconsider proposal
Step II
Abandon
Continue
Not
Proposal
$0
Expend $50,000 and perhaps win
Uncertainty in a decision tree
Chang must assess the probability of success Objective based upon data or specific knowledge Subjective based upon experience & judgement
Suppose the probability of winning the contract with the old product is only 5% = 0.05
This implies probability of losing is 95%
= Random Event Node: point at which “Nature” takes an action of her own (one path for each possible outcome)
Step III
Abandon
Continue
Not
Proposal
$0
Win
Lose
0.05
0.95
$800,000
-$50,000
Abandon
Continue
Not
Proposal
$0
Win
Lose
0.05
0.95
-$50,000
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$800,000
Expend $50,000 and perhaps win
Expend $50,000 and have a good chance of winning
Step IV
Step V
Abandon
Continue
$0
W
L
0.05
0.95
-$50,000
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$800,000
No
Prop
-$200,000
W
L
0.9
0.1
-$250,000
$600,000
-$200,000
W
L
0.05
0.95
-$250,000
$600,000
No
Prop
No
Prop
Optimal decision plan
While we built the tree by adding branches …the way to “solve” it is to start at the end and
‘roll back.’
Looking forward and working backwards is a key skill in economic decision-making
Example (non-strategic under certainty)
First, solve a node furthest to the right Decision node: Pick the best choice Nature node: Calculate the average value
Solve next node to the left Continue …
CBD $120,000
$150,000Brunswickopen a restaurant
don’t $0
Solving at a node with uncertainty: Expected value
Chang wants to know, is R&D a risk worth taking? Easy to solve, so long as Chang is risk-neutral;
Risk-neutral agents prefer decisions with highest average payoff Good assumption when agent is a firm, poor for individuals
(investors can diversify their own portfolios)
Example: Flip a coin, Heads you get $2.10 Tails you lose $1.00
1000 flips: roughly 500 heads, 500 tails an average of ? per flip.
Expected value: = (Probability of heads)(Payoff if heads) + (Prob of tails)(Payoff if tails)
= ½ x 2.1 + ½ x (-1.00)= ½ x (2.1 – 1.00)= $ 0.55
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Not
Proposal
$0
Win
Lose
0.05
0.95
$800,000
-$50,000
?
Expected value =
0.05 ($800,000) + 0.95 (-$50,000)
= - $7,500
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Not
Proposal
$0
-$7,500
?
Choose the branch with the best payoff
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$0
Not
Proposal
-$200,000
Win
Lose
0.9
0.1-$250,000
$600,000
Not
Proposal
-$200,000
Win
Lose
0.05
0.95-$250,000
$600,000
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$0
Not
Proposal
-$200,000
Win
Lose
0.9
0.1-$250,000
$600,000
Not
Proposal
-$200,000
-$207,500
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$0
Not
Proposal
-$200,000
$515,000
-$200,000
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
Succeed
Fail
0.5
0.5
$0
$515,000
-$200,000
Solving the Tree
Abandon
Continue
$0
$157,500
1. Never make proposal if don’t have newer technology
2. Choose to take risk and continue R&D
Indy’s ChoiceExample (from Dixit & Nalebuff): Indiana Jones in the climax of the movie Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.
Indiana Jones, his father, and the Nazis have all converged at the site of the Holy Grail. The two Joneses refuse to help the Nazis reach the last step. So the Nazis shoot Indiana’s dad. Only the healing power of the Holy Grail can save the senior Dr. Jones from his mortal wound. Suitably motivated, Indiana leads the way to the Holy Grail. But there is one final challenge. He must choose between literally scores of chalices, only one of which is the cup of Christ. While the right cup brings eternal life, the wrong choice is fatal. The Nazi leader impatiently chooses a beautiful gold chalice, drinks the holy water, and dies from the sudden death that follows from the wrong choice. Indiana picks a wooden chalice, the cup of a carpenter. Exclaiming “There’s only one way to find out” he dips the chalice into the font and drinks what he hopes is the cup of life. Upon discovering that he has chosen wisely, Indiana brings the cup to his father and the water heals the mortal wound.
Framing the Decision What alternatives does Indy have?
Give drink to Snr
Drink himself
Framing the Decision Do you need more information?
Give drink to Snr
Drink himself
Right
Wrong
Jnr & Snr Live
Jnr & Snr Die
Right
Wrong
Jnr & Snr Live
Snr Dies but Jnr Lives
Uses of Decision Trees Decision Trees are used in situations that may be too
complex to think through in your mind
In Decision Analysis: used in situations where there is uncertainty, multiple decisions
In “Managerial Economics”: used in situations where The payoffs are not so obvious The alternative choices are not so obvious Several players have to make choices
Being systematic helps you to see though complexity and to remember all your alternative choices
Economic Cost = opportunity foregone
The true cost of one choice is giving up the benefits associated with your next-best choice
Example: What is the cost of doing an MBA? Besides the price, there is an opportunity cost =
what you would have earned, using the resource (your time) for another opportunity
Costs that do not change with your decision are irrelevant
Consider this situation
Mita runs petrol stations and express stores at several highway exits. Until recently, she didn’t sell any drinks. She brought in a new line of drinks, Fizzies, which have proved unpopular.
She has 10,000 Fizzies left. She thinks she can sell half of the remaining drinks for $1.00, but only 15% of the drinks at the standard price of $2.50. If she paid $0.30 per drink, how much should she charge? What about if she paid $1.05 per drink?
Mita cannot return unsold stock of Fizzies, but must throw the stock out.
Definition: Sunk CostA cost is considered sunk with respect to a specific decision if, no matter what you decide, that cost does not change
On a decision tree, a sunk cost appears on all leaves (payoffs)
sell at $2.50 $3750 - costMita sell at $1.00 $5000 - cost
Economic benefit of charging $1 rather than $2.5 is $1,250(cost is the same in all cases … it is sunk & irrelevant)
Definition: *** Economic Profit *** The economic profit of a decision is the cash you earn from one
decision, minus that from the best alternative decision
Decision tree: $ from best choice, minus $ from next best choice
sell at $2.50 $3750 - costMita sell at $1.00 $5000 - cost
Economic profit = $1,250