Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communicaton and Journalism, University of Mumbai 1 Studying...

Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communicaton and Journalism, University of Mumbai

1

Studying Indian StatesStudying Indian States

India, Economic Development and India, Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Book by Jean Social Opportunity, Book by Jean

Drèze, Amartya Sen; Oxford Drèze, Amartya Sen; Oxford University Press, 1995University Press, 1995

Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communicaton and Journalism, of Communicaton and Journalism, University of MumbaiUniversity of Mumbai

22

The Government, the State and The Government, the State and the Marketthe Market

What a government can do, and will What a government can do, and will in fact do, must depend on the in fact do, must depend on the naturenature of that government. of that government.


33

Unfortunately, the history of the Unfortunately, the history of the modern world is no less full of tales modern world is no less full of tales of tyrannies and tortures than the of tyrannies and tortures than the medieval chronicles of the barbarity medieval chronicles of the barbarity of those times. of those times.


44

The terrifying success that the Khmer The terrifying success that the Khmer Rouge had in Cambodia in quickly Rouge had in Cambodia in quickly disposing off a million people on disposing off a million people on extraordinary ideological grounds is an extraordinary ideological grounds is an obvious example. Idi Amin's Uganda obvious example. Idi Amin's Uganda provides an illustration of brutality of provides an illustration of brutality of another kind -- less ideological but not another kind -- less ideological but not much less vicious. much less vicious.

That this is not a simple 'third world' That this is not a simple 'third world' phenomenon is easily illustrated by the phenomenon is easily illustrated by the enormity of the Nazi atrocities and enormity of the Nazi atrocities and genocide in twentieth-century Germany. genocide in twentieth-century Germany.


55

The implicit belief, expressed in The implicit belief, expressed in some writings, that government some writings, that government interventions are, by and large, interventions are, by and large, guided by the demands of social guided by the demands of social progress is surely a gigantic folly. progress is surely a gigantic folly.


66

Even when the government's objectives Even when the government's objectives are not as vicious as they were in Pol Pot's are not as vicious as they were in Pol Pot's Cambodia, or in Amin's Uganda, or in Nazi Cambodia, or in Amin's Uganda, or in Nazi Germany, there is still a question as to Germany, there is still a question as to who is trying to achieve what through the who is trying to achieve what through the mechanism of governmental activities. mechanism of governmental activities.

The implicit faith in the goodness and the The implicit faith in the goodness and the good sense of the government that good sense of the government that underlies much reasoning in favour of underlies much reasoning in favour of government-led economic development government-led economic development cannot, frequently, stand up to scrutiny. cannot, frequently, stand up to scrutiny.


77

The distinction between the state The distinction between the state and the government may be of some and the government may be of some significance in this context. significance in this context.


88

The state is, in many ways, a broader The state is, in many ways, a broader concept, which includes the concept, which includes the government, but also the legislature government, but also the legislature that votes on public rules, the that votes on public rules, the political system that regulates political system that regulates elections, the role that is given to elections, the role that is given to opposition parties, and the basic opposition parties, and the basic political rights that are upheld by the political rights that are upheld by the judiciary. judiciary.


99

A democratic state makes it that A democratic state makes it that much harder for the ruling much harder for the ruling government to be unresponsive to government to be unresponsive to the needs and values of the the needs and values of the population at large. population at large.


1010

So we have to ask questions not So we have to ask questions not merely about the nature of the actual merely about the nature of the actual government in office, but, going government in office, but, going beyond that, also about the nature of beyond that, also about the nature of the state of which the ruling the state of which the ruling government is only one part. government is only one part.


1111

There is a similar question about the There is a similar question about the context-dependence of the role of context-dependence of the role of the market mechanism as well. the market mechanism as well.


1212

What kinds of markets are we talking What kinds of markets are we talking about? about?


1313

Most of the theory of efficiency or Most of the theory of efficiency or effectiveness of the market effectiveness of the market mechanism relates to competitive mechanism relates to competitive markets in equilibrium. markets in equilibrium.


1414

But actual markets can take very different But actual markets can take very different forms indeed. For example, the cornering forms indeed. For example, the cornering by a few operators of goods in short by a few operators of goods in short supply -- leading to a massive supply -- leading to a massive accentuation of shortage and suffering -- accentuation of shortage and suffering -- has happened too often to be dismissed as has happened too often to be dismissed as imaginary nightmares. imaginary nightmares.

The recent history of Asia and Africa The recent history of Asia and Africa provides plentiful examples of market provides plentiful examples of market exchanges being used to make profits out exchanges being used to make profits out of the miseries of millions. of the miseries of millions.


1515

To take a general 'pro market' view To take a general 'pro market' view without conditions attached is no less without conditions attached is no less problematic than taking a general problematic than taking a general 'pro government' view. 'pro government' view.


1616

Interdependence between Interdependence between Markets and GovernanceMarkets and Governance

The operation and successes of the The operation and successes of the market mechanism can be deeply market mechanism can be deeply influenced by the nature of influenced by the nature of government actions that go with it. government actions that go with it.


1717

First, it is fairly straightforward to First, it is fairly straightforward to recognize that markets can hardly function recognize that markets can hardly function in the absence of legal backing of in the absence of legal backing of contracts and particular rights. contracts and particular rights.

Second, the government may have a Second, the government may have a major role in initiating and facilitating major role in initiating and facilitating market-reliant economic growth. market-reliant economic growth.

Third, even the formal theory of Third, even the formal theory of achievements of the market mechanism achievements of the market mechanism is, implicitly, much dependent on is, implicitly, much dependent on governmental action. governmental action.


1818

The interdependence between market and The interdependence between market and government works, in fact, in the other direction government works, in fact, in the other direction also. also.

It is hard to think of a government achieving It is hard to think of a government achieving anything like an acceptable social arrangement if anything like an acceptable social arrangement if citizens are prohibited from exchanging citizens are prohibited from exchanging commodities, or producing goods and services, commodities, or producing goods and services, on their own initiative. on their own initiative.

These activities -- involving transactions and These activities -- involving transactions and compacts -- form integral parts of the market compacts -- form integral parts of the market mechanism, no matter how rudimentary that mechanism, no matter how rudimentary that mechanism might be. mechanism might be.


1919

There is much to learn from the diversity There is much to learn from the diversity of development experiences among of development experiences among different Indian states. different Indian states.

The contrast between Kerala and Uttar The contrast between Kerala and Uttar Pradesh is of particular interest Pradesh is of particular interest

These two states are poles apart in the These two states are poles apart in the scales of many indicators of well-being, scales of many indicators of well-being, without being very different -- as noted in without being very different -- as noted in the preceding section -- in terms of the preceding section -- in terms of conventional measures of the incidence of conventional measures of the incidence of poverty. poverty.


2020

As V.K. Ramachandran's case study As V.K. Ramachandran's case study of Kerala documents in some detail, of Kerala documents in some detail, Kerala's success can be traced to the Kerala's success can be traced to the role of public action in promoting a role of public action in promoting a range of social opportunities relating range of social opportunities relating inter aliainter alia to elementary education, to elementary education, land reform, the role of women in land reform, the role of women in society, and the widespread and society, and the widespread and equitable provision of health care equitable provision of health care and other public services. and other public services.


2121

Interestingly, Uttar Pradesh's Interestingly, Uttar Pradesh's failuresfailures can be plausibly attributed to the can be plausibly attributed to the public public neglectneglect of the very same of the very same opportunities. opportunities.


2222

The fact that both case studies The fact that both case studies identify much the same factors of identify much the same factors of success (in Kerala) and failure (in success (in Kerala) and failure (in Uttar Pradesh) is of considerable Uttar Pradesh) is of considerable significance in understanding the significance in understanding the diversity of social achievements in diversity of social achievements in different parts of India. different parts of India.


2323

Among the identified determinants Among the identified determinants of social achievements, the of social achievements, the

following deserve strong emphasis. following deserve strong emphasis.

First, the role of literacy (and First, the role of literacy (and particularly of female literacy) in particularly of female literacy) in promoting basic capabilities emerges promoting basic capabilities emerges forcefully in both case studies. forcefully in both case studies.


2424

One of the distinguishing features of One of the distinguishing features of Kerala's development experience is Kerala's development experience is the early promotion of literacy, and the early promotion of literacy, and this feature has led to important this feature has led to important social achievements later on, based social achievements later on, based on the diverse social and personal on the diverse social and personal roles of literacy roles of literacy


2525

In Uttar Pradesh, by contrast, the In Uttar Pradesh, by contrast, the adult female literacy rate is still as adult female literacy rate is still as low as 25 per cent, and two-thirds of low as 25 per cent, and two-thirds of all adolescent girls in rural areas all adolescent girls in rural areas have have nevernever been to school. This been to school. This educational backwardness has wide-educational backwardness has wide-ranging penalties, including very high ranging penalties, including very high mortality and fertility rates. mortality and fertility rates.


2626

Second, another element in social Second, another element in social success that clearly emerges from success that clearly emerges from both experiences is the agency of both experiences is the agency of women. women.


2727

Uttar Pradesh has a long history of Uttar Pradesh has a long history of oppressive gender relations, and even now oppressive gender relations, and even now inequalities between men and women in inequalities between men and women in that part of the country are extraordinarily that part of the country are extraordinarily sharp. sharp.

As with illiteracy, the suppression of As with illiteracy, the suppression of women's active and liberated participation women's active and liberated participation in the economy and the society has been a in the economy and the society has been a cause of much social backwardness in cause of much social backwardness in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh.


2828

In Kerala, by contrast, the position of In Kerala, by contrast, the position of women in society has been relatively women in society has been relatively favourable for a long time, and the favourable for a long time, and the informed agency of women has played a informed agency of women has played a crucial role in a wide range of social crucial role in a wide range of social achievements. The expansion of literacy achievements. The expansion of literacy itself owes a great deal to that agency, itself owes a great deal to that agency, reflected even in the fact that almost two-reflected even in the fact that almost two-thirds of primary-school teachers in Kerala thirds of primary-school teachers in Kerala are women are women


2929

Third, the contrast between Uttar Third, the contrast between Uttar Pradesh and Kerala brings out the Pradesh and Kerala brings out the essential role of well-functioning essential role of well-functioning public services in improving living public services in improving living conditions. conditions.


3030

The widely divergent levels of well-The widely divergent levels of well-being in the two states cannot be being in the two states cannot be explained in terms of higher incomes explained in terms of higher incomes and lower levels of poverty in Kerala and lower levels of poverty in Kerala (since Uttar Pradesh and Kerala are, (since Uttar Pradesh and Kerala are, in fact, not very different in these in fact, not very different in these respects). respects).


3131

If entitlements to basic commodities If entitlements to basic commodities and services differ so sharply and services differ so sharply between the two states, it is because between the two states, it is because of a marked difference in the scope of a marked difference in the scope and quality of a wide range of public and quality of a wide range of public services such as schooling facilities, services such as schooling facilities, basic health care, child basic health care, child immunization, social security immunization, social security arrangements, and public food arrangements, and public food distribution. distribution.


3232

In Uttar Pradesh, these public In Uttar Pradesh, these public services are comprehensively services are comprehensively neglected, sometimes even non-neglected, sometimes even non-existent, especially in rural areas. existent, especially in rural areas.


3333

Fourth, both case studies highlight Fourth, both case studies highlight the social influence of public action the social influence of public action in a wide sense, going beyond the in a wide sense, going beyond the initiative of the state and involving initiative of the state and involving the public at large. the public at large.


3434

The early promotion of literacy in The early promotion of literacy in Kerala has enabled the public to play Kerala has enabled the public to play an active role in state politics and an active role in state politics and social affairs in a way that has not social affairs in a way that has not happened in Uttar Pradesh. happened in Uttar Pradesh.


3535

Public action in Kerala has been particularly Public action in Kerala has been particularly important in orienting the priorities of the state in important in orienting the priorities of the state in the direction of a strong commitment to the the direction of a strong commitment to the promotion of social opportunities. Even the promotion of social opportunities. Even the expansion of public services has often taken expansion of public services has often taken place in response to the organized demands of a place in response to the organized demands of a well-educated public. well-educated public.

The vigilance of the public has also been essential The vigilance of the public has also been essential to ensure the adequate functioning of public to ensure the adequate functioning of public services such as health centres and primary services such as health centres and primary schools in Kerala. schools in Kerala.


3636

Finally, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala Finally, Uttar Pradesh and Kerala point to the special importance of a point to the special importance of a particular type of public action -- the particular type of public action -- the political organization of deprived political organization of deprived sections of the society. sections of the society.


3737

In Kerala, informed political activism-In Kerala, informed political activism-building partly on the achievement of building partly on the achievement of mass literacy -- has played a crucial role in mass literacy -- has played a crucial role in the reduction of social inequalities based the reduction of social inequalities based on caste, gender, and (to some extent) on caste, gender, and (to some extent) class. class.

Political organization has also been Political organization has also been important in enabling disadvantaged important in enabling disadvantaged groups to take an active part in the groups to take an active part in the general processes of economic general processes of economic development, public action, and social development, public action, and social change. change.


3838

In Uttar Pradesh, traditional inequalities and In Uttar Pradesh, traditional inequalities and social divisions remain extremely powerful, and social divisions remain extremely powerful, and their persistence hinders many social their persistence hinders many social endeavours. It is still possible, for instance, to find endeavours. It is still possible, for instance, to find villages in Uttar Pradesh where a powerful villages in Uttar Pradesh where a powerful landlord has deliberately obstructed the creation landlord has deliberately obstructed the creation of a village school by the government. More of a village school by the government. More generally, the concentration of political power in generally, the concentration of political power in the hands of privileged sections of the society has the hands of privileged sections of the society has contributed, perhaps more than anything else, to contributed, perhaps more than anything else, to a severe neglect of the basic needs of a severe neglect of the basic needs of disadvantaged groups in state and local politics. disadvantaged groups in state and local politics.


3939

Underlying many of these contrasts Underlying many of these contrasts is the general importance of politics is the general importance of politics in the development process. in the development process.


4040

The political process itself has played an The political process itself has played an extremely important role in Kerala's development extremely important role in Kerala's development experience, supplementing or supplanting these experience, supplementing or supplanting these inherited characteristics. This issue has a strong inherited characteristics. This issue has a strong bearing on the 'replicability' of Kerala's success. bearing on the 'replicability' of Kerala's success. Given the role of political movements, there is no Given the role of political movements, there is no reason why Uttar Pradesh -- and other states of reason why Uttar Pradesh -- and other states of India where basic deprivations remain endemic -- India where basic deprivations remain endemic -- should not be able to emulate many of Kerala's should not be able to emulate many of Kerala's achievements, based on determined and achievements, based on determined and reasoned political activism. reasoned political activism.


4141

A good illustration of the feasibility of A good illustration of the feasibility of political transformation comes from political transformation comes from West Bengal. West Bengal.


4242

This is a state where political This is a state where political organization of disadvantaged organization of disadvantaged classes has succeeded in ushering in classes has succeeded in ushering in a significant change in the balance of a significant change in the balance of political power. political power.


4343

A concrete expression of this change A concrete expression of this change occurred in 1977, when the Left occurred in 1977, when the Left Front coalition came to office at the Front coalition came to office at the state level. The main electoral base state level. The main electoral base of the Left Front, which has retained of the Left Front, which has retained office since then through successive office since then through successive elections, consists of landless elections, consists of landless labourers, sharecroppers, slum labourers, sharecroppers, slum dwellers, and other disadvantaged dwellers, and other disadvantaged groups. groups.


4444

This change in the balance of power This change in the balance of power has made it possible to implement a has made it possible to implement a number of far-reaching social number of far-reaching social programmes that are often programmes that are often considered 'politically infeasible' in considered 'politically infeasible' in many other states. many other states.


4545

Two notable examples are land Two notable examples are land reform and the revitalization of reform and the revitalization of democratic institutions at the village democratic institutions at the village level. level.


4646

The government of West Bengal has been The government of West Bengal has been notably less active in promoting some notably less active in promoting some other types of social opportunities. While other types of social opportunities. While issues such as land reform have received issues such as land reform have received high priority in the programme of the Left high priority in the programme of the Left Front coalition (partly because of the Front coalition (partly because of the importance of these issues in the political importance of these issues in the political battles that led this coalition to power), battles that led this coalition to power), public policies concerned with health, public policies concerned with health, education, and related matters have been education, and related matters have been comparatively neglected. comparatively neglected.


4747

Correspondingly, the improvement of Correspondingly, the improvement of living conditions in West Bengal in recent living conditions in West Bengal in recent years has remained relatively slow. An years has remained relatively slow. An important opportunity has been missed important opportunity has been missed here, since the skills of popular here, since the skills of popular mobilization of the West Bengal mobilization of the West Bengal government (amply demonstrated in other government (amply demonstrated in other fields) could have been used with good fields) could have been used with good effect to achieve a real transformation in effect to achieve a real transformation in the fields of education and health. the fields of education and health.


4848

These are serious failures of the These are serious failures of the West Bengal experience, but they do West Bengal experience, but they do not detract from the importance of not detract from the importance of the positive achievements, nor from the positive achievements, nor from the general value of that experience the general value of that experience as an example of the possibility of as an example of the possibility of radical political change in India radical political change in India today. today.


4949

Basic Equality, Social Security Basic Equality, Social Security and Health Careand Health Care

One part of the task of reducing One part of the task of reducing social and economic inequalities in social and economic inequalities in India involves the expansion of social India involves the expansion of social security provisions, broadly security provisions, broadly understood as social arrangements understood as social arrangements to protect all members of society to protect all members of society from extreme deprivation and from extreme deprivation and insecurity. insecurity.


5050

The availability of independent The availability of independent means of subsistence based on social means of subsistence based on social support makes it that much easier support makes it that much easier for agricultural labourers to resist for agricultural labourers to resist exploitative employment relations, exploitative employment relations, for the oppressed castes to rise for the oppressed castes to rise beyond humiliating occupations, and beyond humiliating occupations, and for women to challenge patriarchal for women to challenge patriarchal institutions. institutions.


5151

Also, widespread acceptance of the Also, widespread acceptance of the notion of basic social equality can be notion of basic social equality can be much enhanced when some essential much enhanced when some essential entitlements are guaranteed to all entitlements are guaranteed to all citizens as a matter of right. citizens as a matter of right.


5252

The case for expanded social security The case for expanded social security arrangements arises partly from arrangements arises partly from these ethical considerations of basic these ethical considerations of basic equality, and partly from the more equality, and partly from the more direct contributions they can make to direct contributions they can make to the well-being of the persons who the well-being of the persons who benefit from them. benefit from them.


5353

One particular aspect of social security in which One particular aspect of social security in which India has been quite successful since independence, India has been quite successful since independence, as discussed earlier, is that of famine prevention. as discussed earlier, is that of famine prevention.

This achievement reflects, first and foremost, the This achievement reflects, first and foremost, the political compulsion to respond to crisis situations in political compulsion to respond to crisis situations in a democratic society: accountability to the a democratic society: accountability to the electorate makes it very difficult for the government electorate makes it very difficult for the government in office to ignore clamours for action when a in office to ignore clamours for action when a famine threatens to develop, or electoral debacles famine threatens to develop, or electoral debacles that may follow an unprevented famine. that may follow an unprevented famine.

But the successful prevention of famine in India has But the successful prevention of famine in India has also involved a well-devised system of public also involved a well-devised system of public intervention to protect the entitlements of intervention to protect the entitlements of vulnerable groups, chiefly based on large-scale vulnerable groups, chiefly based on large-scale employment programmes. employment programmes.


5454

Putting in place social security Putting in place social security arrangements to deal with chronic arrangements to deal with chronic deprivation is undoubtedly a more deprivation is undoubtedly a more demanding challenge, partly because demanding challenge, partly because the political pressures that are easy the political pressures that are easy to mobilize in famine situations are to mobilize in famine situations are often less immediate in other often less immediate in other contexts, and partly because the contexts, and partly because the problem to be addressed is problem to be addressed is intrinsically more complex. intrinsically more complex.


5555

Here too, public employment Here too, public employment programmes can be an important programmes can be an important means of action, as the experience of means of action, as the experience of Maharashtra's Employment Maharashtra's Employment Guarantee Scheme illustrates. Guarantee Scheme illustrates.


5656

The land reforms implemented in The land reforms implemented in West Bengal and Kerala can be seen West Bengal and Kerala can be seen as fulfilling important social security as fulfilling important social security objectives as well as some basic objectives as well as some basic egalitarian goals. egalitarian goals.


5757

In recent years, Tamil Nadu has also In recent years, Tamil Nadu has also taken some far-reaching initiatives in taken some far-reaching initiatives in the field of social security, involving the field of social security, involving school meal programmes, innovative school meal programmes, innovative pension schemes, improved health pension schemes, improved health care provisions, and related care provisions, and related measures. measures.


5858

Grameen Bank and BRAC in Grameen Bank and BRAC in Bangladesh, and SEWA in Gujarat, Bangladesh, and SEWA in Gujarat, also provide excellent examples of also provide excellent examples of how imaginative credit arrangements how imaginative credit arrangements can be used to reduce insecurity. can be used to reduce insecurity.


5959

Among the different forms of Among the different forms of intervention that can contribute to intervention that can contribute to the provision of social security, the the provision of social security, the role of health care deserves forceful role of health care deserves forceful emphasis. emphasis.

A well-developed system of public A well-developed system of public health is an essential contribution to health is an essential contribution to the fulfilment of social security the fulfilment of social security objectives. objectives.


6060

This is one field where there is an This is one field where there is an overwhelming need for bold overwhelming need for bold initiatives and comprehensive initiatives and comprehensive reform. Compared with many other reform. Compared with many other developing countries, India has poor developing countries, India has poor health achievements despite health achievements despite spending a comparatively large part spending a comparatively large part of its GNP on health (if one adds up of its GNP on health (if one adds up public and private spending). public and private spending).


6161

Much of this mismatch between Much of this mismatch between resources and achievements is due resources and achievements is due to the poor functioning of the public to the poor functioning of the public health care system, especially in health care system, especially in rural areas. In some states, this rural areas. In some states, this system is little more than a collection system is little more than a collection of deserted primary health centres, of deserted primary health centres, filthy dispensaries, unmotivated filthy dispensaries, unmotivated doctors, and chaotic hospitals. doctors, and chaotic hospitals.


6262

The record of public involvement in The record of public involvement in the provision of health care and the provision of health care and social security is not similarly poor in social security is not similarly poor in all the states of India. all the states of India.


6363

Kerala has a distinguished record in Kerala has a distinguished record in this respect, which has made a major this respect, which has made a major contribution to the rapid expansion contribution to the rapid expansion of life expectancy in that state (now of life expectancy in that state (now around 72 years). around 72 years).


6464

But other states have also taken But other states have also taken important initiatives in recent years. important initiatives in recent years. Nutrition programmes in Tamil Nadu, Nutrition programmes in Tamil Nadu, employment schemes in Maharashtra employment schemes in Maharashtra and Gujarat, primary education in and Gujarat, primary education in Himachal Pradesh, public distribution Himachal Pradesh, public distribution in Andhra Pradesh, and land reform in Andhra Pradesh, and land reform in West Bengal are some examples. in West Bengal are some examples.


6565

In contrast, in the large north Indian In contrast, in the large north Indian states (notably Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, states (notably Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh), Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh), where the need for action is in many where the need for action is in many respects particularly urgent, apathy respects particularly urgent, apathy towards the need to develop social towards the need to develop social security programmes seems to be security programmes seems to be most resilient. most resilient.


6666

In this connection, it is interesting to In this connection, it is interesting to note that most of the initiatives note that most of the initiatives observed in the more active states observed in the more active states have been taken in the context of have been taken in the context of electoral politics. electoral politics.


6767

In some cases, as with school meals In some cases, as with school meals in Tamil Nadu, land reforms in West in Tamil Nadu, land reforms in West Bengal, and public distribution in Bengal, and public distribution in Andhra Pradesh, they have even Andhra Pradesh, they have even been at the forefront of electoral been at the forefront of electoral debates. debates.


6868

In the large north Indian states, by In the large north Indian states, by contrast, social security and related issues contrast, social security and related issues have little place in party programmes and have little place in party programmes and electoral debates; there, electoral politics electoral debates; there, electoral politics seem to give more room to tactical seem to give more room to tactical factionalism, with alliances being made factionalism, with alliances being made and broken depending on personalities and broken depending on personalities and power bases, and little time being and power bases, and little time being 'wasted' on real issues such as 'wasted' on real issues such as undernutrition, illiteracy, unemployment, undernutrition, illiteracy, unemployment, or ill health. or ill health.


6969

There is a plausible connection There is a plausible connection between this low visibility of basic between this low visibility of basic social issues in north Indian politics social issues in north Indian politics and the persistence of widespread and the persistence of widespread illiteracy. illiteracy.


7070

Literacy is not a requirement of Literacy is not a requirement of effective participation in the political effective participation in the political process but it is certainly a useful process but it is certainly a useful tool of active involvement. tool of active involvement.


7171

At the time of elections, the illiterate At the time of elections, the illiterate masses have a reasonable chance to masses have a reasonable chance to make their voice heard, an make their voice heard, an opportunity which they have seized opportunity which they have seized with striking sagacity on several with striking sagacity on several occasions (for example in 1977, occasions (for example in 1977, when the ruling party was massively when the ruling party was massively defeated following the excesses of defeated following the excesses of the Emergency). the Emergency).


7272

Between elections, however, the Between elections, however, the vocal demands of the upper castes, vocal demands of the upper castes, the large farmers, and the urban the large farmers, and the urban middle-class receive immensely middle-class receive immensely greater attention than the needs of greater attention than the needs of disadvantaged groups. disadvantaged groups.


7373

These observations bring us back to These observations bring us back to some general points including some general points including

(1)(1) the central role of politics in the the central role of politics in the development process (of which the development process (of which the expansion of social security expansion of social security arrangements is a crucial aspect), arrangements is a crucial aspect),

(2)(2) the need for more effective political the need for more effective political organization of deprived groups, and organization of deprived groups, and

(3)(3) the importance of basic education as a the importance of basic education as a means of successful participation in means of successful participation in political activity. political activity.


7474

The inadequacies of local The inadequacies of local governance in rural India have governance in rural India have several roots, which call for distinct several roots, which call for distinct responses. responses.


7575

First, the weakness of democratic institutions at First, the weakness of democratic institutions at the village level reflects a long tradition of the village level reflects a long tradition of centralized governance. centralized governance.

The historical roots of this go back to the colonial The historical roots of this go back to the colonial period, when hierarchical centralization was period, when hierarchical centralization was crucial in making it possible for a handful of crucial in making it possible for a handful of foreigners to administer a large and potentially foreigners to administer a large and potentially rebellious population (see e.g. Guha, 1982, 1983, rebellious population (see e.g. Guha, 1982, 1983, and Guha and Spivak, 1988). and Guha and Spivak, 1988).

But it has been consistently perpetuated by the But it has been consistently perpetuated by the successive governments of independent India. successive governments of independent India.


7676

Second, the flourishing of local participatory Second, the flourishing of local participatory politics has been greatly slowed down by low politics has been greatly slowed down by low levels of literacy and basic education. levels of literacy and basic education.

Literacy obviously helps people to understand the Literacy obviously helps people to understand the functioning of the system, to deal with the functioning of the system, to deal with the government bureaucracy, to be aware of their government bureaucracy, to be aware of their rights, to understand and tackle new problems, rights, to understand and tackle new problems, and to achieve other abilities that are important and to achieve other abilities that are important for an effective role in local politics.for an effective role in local politics.

Also, the possibility of decentralizing particular Also, the possibility of decentralizing particular functions of the government (such as some functions of the government (such as some aspects of school management) depends on aspects of school management) depends on adequate expertise being available at the local adequate expertise being available at the local level. level.


7777

Last but not least, local democracy has Last but not least, local democracy has often been undermined by acute social often been undermined by acute social inequalities. The low involvement of inequalities. The low involvement of women in local representative institutions women in local representative institutions such as village panchayats is a clear such as village panchayats is a clear illustration of this problem. In large parts illustration of this problem. In large parts of the country, local governance is in the of the country, local governance is in the hands of upper-caste men from privileged hands of upper-caste men from privileged classes, who are only weakly accountable classes, who are only weakly accountable to the community and often end up using to the community and often end up using local public services as instruments of local public services as instruments of patronage. patronage.


7878

The first of these three reasons for The first of these three reasons for the fragile nature of local democracy the fragile nature of local democracy in India has recently been addressed in India has recently been addressed in the form of the 73rd and 74th in the form of the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments (the constitutional amendments (the 'Panchayati Raj' amendments), which 'Panchayati Raj' amendments), which require all the state governments to require all the state governments to introduce certain legislative introduce certain legislative measures geared to the revitalization measures geared to the revitalization of local representative institutions. of local representative institutions.


7979

These legislative reforms certainly These legislative reforms certainly provide an provide an opportunityopportunity for correcting for correcting the current failures of local the current failures of local governance in rural India. governance in rural India. Nevertheless, it would be naive to Nevertheless, it would be naive to expect too much from them unless expect too much from them unless the the otherother causes of this problem are causes of this problem are also addressed. also addressed.


8080

Legislative reforms hold much Legislative reforms hold much promise, but their actual success promise, but their actual success depends a great deal on other types depends a great deal on other types of public action. of public action.


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If these reforms are not supplemented with a If these reforms are not supplemented with a more active programme of social change, they more active programme of social change, they stand in some danger of leading to a proliferation stand in some danger of leading to a proliferation of bureaucracy without any real improvement in of bureaucracy without any real improvement in local democracy. On the other side, if they go local democracy. On the other side, if they go hand in hand with an expansion of public hand in hand with an expansion of public initiatives and social movements aimed at more initiatives and social movements aimed at more widespread literacy, a stronger political widespread literacy, a stronger political organization of disadvantaged groups, and a organization of disadvantaged groups, and a more vigorous challenge to social inequalities, more vigorous challenge to social inequalities, they would represent a real opportunity to they would represent a real opportunity to transform village politics in rural India. transform village politics in rural India.


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The value of basic education as a The value of basic education as a tool of social affirmation has not tool of social affirmation has not been lost on the Indian people. In been lost on the Indian people. In fact, a common finding of village fact, a common finding of village studies and household surveys is studies and household surveys is that education is widely perceived by that education is widely perceived by members of socially or economically members of socially or economically disadvantaged groups as the most disadvantaged groups as the most promising chance of upward mobility promising chance of upward mobility for their children. for their children.


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The relationship between education The relationship between education and social change was also well and social change was also well understood by many social leaders understood by many social leaders during the independence movement. during the independence movement.


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Gokhale, for instance, was a strong Gokhale, for instance, was a strong advocate of the promotion of basic advocate of the promotion of basic education, and, as soon as the Indian education, and, as soon as the Indian Councils Act of 1909 made it possible for Councils Act of 1909 made it possible for Indians to propose legislative reforms, he Indians to propose legislative reforms, he formulated a pioneering Elementary formulated a pioneering Elementary Education Bill (later rejected by the British Education Bill (later rejected by the British administration) which would have administration) which would have empowered local authorities to introduce empowered local authorities to introduce compulsory education. compulsory education.


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Dr Ambedkar, whose own scholarship Dr Ambedkar, whose own scholarship helped him to overcome the stigma helped him to overcome the stigma of low caste (indeed 'untouchability'), of low caste (indeed 'untouchability'), saw education as a cornerstone of saw education as a cornerstone of his strategy for the liberation of his strategy for the liberation of oppressed castes -- a strategy which oppressed castes -- a strategy which has been put to good effect in some has been put to good effect in some parts of India. parts of India.


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Education was also of paramount Education was also of paramount concern to Rammohan Roy, Maharshi concern to Rammohan Roy, Maharshi Karve, Pandita Ramabai, Swami Karve, Pandita Ramabai, Swami Vivekananda, Jotirao Phule, Vivekananda, Jotirao Phule, Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Gandhi, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Jayaprakash Narayan, and numerous Jayaprakash Narayan, and numerous other social reformers and political other social reformers and political figures of the pre-independence figures of the pre-independence period. period.


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The empowerment value of basic The empowerment value of basic education is so obvious that there is education is so obvious that there is something puzzling in the fact that something puzzling in the fact that the promotion of education has the promotion of education has received so little attention from received so little attention from social and political leaders in the social and political leaders in the post-independence period. post-independence period.


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One aspect of this neglect is the One aspect of this neglect is the flagrant inadequacy of government flagrant inadequacy of government policy in the field of elementary policy in the field of elementary education education


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But lack of attention to education has But lack of attention to education has not been confined to government not been confined to government circles. It has also been a common circles. It has also been a common attitude of political parties, trade attitude of political parties, trade unions, revolutionary organizations, unions, revolutionary organizations, and other social movements. and other social movements.


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Several ideological convictions have Several ideological convictions have contributed to this neglect, including: contributed to this neglect, including:

(1)(1) the conservative upper-caste notion that the conservative upper-caste notion that knowledge is not important or knowledge is not important or appropriate for the lower castes; appropriate for the lower castes;

(2)(2) a distorted understanding of Gandhi's a distorted understanding of Gandhi's view that 'literacy in itself is no view that 'literacy in itself is no education'; and education'; and

(3)(3) the belief, held in some radical quarters, the belief, held in some radical quarters, that the present educational system is a that the present educational system is a tool of subjugation of the lower classes or tool of subjugation of the lower classes or a vestige of the colonial period. a vestige of the colonial period.


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Important features of educational Important features of educational achievements in India include the achievements in India include the following - following -


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First, average literacy rates are low -- 64 per cent First, average literacy rates are low -- 64 per cent for males and 39 per cent for females in India as for males and 39 per cent for females in India as a whole. a whole.

Second, the problem of low average literacy rates Second, the problem of low average literacy rates is exacerbated by enormous is exacerbated by enormous inequalitiesinequalities in in educational achievements. One aspect of these educational achievements. One aspect of these inequalities concerns the existence of large inequalities concerns the existence of large disparities in educational achievements between disparities in educational achievements between different states. different states.

Third, there are also large inequalities in Third, there are also large inequalities in educational achievements between males and educational achievements between males and females, between urban and rural areas, and females, between urban and rural areas, and between different social groups. These diverse between different social groups. These diverse inequalities, combined with low average literacy inequalities, combined with low average literacy rates, are responsible for the persistence of rates, are responsible for the persistence of extremely low levels of education for extremely low levels of education for disadvantaged sections of the populationdisadvantaged sections of the population. .


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Fourth, illiteracy is widespread not Fourth, illiteracy is widespread not only in the older age groups but also only in the older age groups but also among young boys and girls, among young boys and girls, particularly in rural areas. The particularly in rural areas. The persistence of endemic illiteracy in persistence of endemic illiteracy in the younger age groups is the most the younger age groups is the most distressing aspect of the educational distressing aspect of the educational situation in contemporary India. situation in contemporary India.


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Fifth, that failure can also be Fifth, that failure can also be identified using survey-based school identified using survey-based school enrolment and attendance data. The enrolment and attendance data. The proportion of rural females aged 12-proportion of rural females aged 12-14 who have never been enrolled in 14 who have never been enrolled in any school is above one-half in India any school is above one-half in India as a whole, above two-thirds in Uttar as a whole, above two-thirds in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar, Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar, and as high as 82 per cent in and as high as 82 per cent in Rajasthan. Rajasthan.


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Sixth, an important reason for these Sixth, an important reason for these low school-attendance figures is a low school-attendance figures is a very high drop-out rate. very high drop-out rate.

Seventh, the low enrolment and Seventh, the low enrolment and retention rates imply that the retention rates imply that the proportion of persons who complete proportion of persons who complete the primary cycle of five classes is the primary cycle of five classes is extremely low. extremely low.


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Education policy in India since Education policy in India since independence has suffered from a independence has suffered from a good deal of inconsistency and good deal of inconsistency and confusion. confusion.

Sanjay Ranade, Head, Department of Communicaton and Journalism, University of Mumbai 1 Studying...

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