Sanchez Et Al 2007_Primer on CCA

8/3/2019 Sanchez Et Al 2007_Primer on CCA

1/52

\

A Primer on ClimateChange Adaptation in thePhilippines

P.A. Jaranilla-Sanchez, R.D. Lasco,G.B. Villamor, R.V. Gerpacio ,

G.P. Nilo and K.L. Villegas


2/52

ii

A PRIMER ON CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

IN THE PHILIPPINES

Patricia Ann A. Jaranilla-SanchezRodel D. Lasco

Grace B. VillamorRoberta V. Gerpacio

Gina P. NiloKarl L. Villegas

World Agroforestry Centre2007


3/52

iii

The designations employed and the presentation of materials inthis publication do not imply expression of any opinionwhatsoever on the part of the World Agroforestry Centre(ICRAF), Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization-Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study andResearch in Agriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) and the Bureau ofSoils and Water Management (BSWM) but lie solely on theauthors views, opinions and review of literature.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying orotherwise, without permission of the copyright owner.

Correct Citation:

Jaranilla-Sanchez, P.A., Lasco, R.D., Villamor, G.B., Gerpacio, R., Nilo,G.P. and K.L. Villegas. 2007. A Primer on Climate Change Adaptation inthe Philippines. World Agroforestry Centre, Philippines.

ISBN: 978-971-93153-6-0Edition: 1

st

Language: English

Copyright 2007 by World Agroforestry Centre

Published by: World Agroforestry Centre2/f College of Forestry and Natural Resources Administration BuildingP.O. Box 35024University of the Philippines at Los Baos, College, Laguna 4031,Philippines.Tel. No. +63 495362925; +63 495362701 local 2860Fax: +63 495364521Email: [email protected]

Website: www.worldagroforestrycentre.org

Layout: Patricia Ann J. SanchezPhotos: Patricia Ann J. Sanchez, Grace Villamor, ICRAF-Database,BSWM-Database


4/52

iv

Table of Contents

Table of Contents iiiList of Figures ivList of Tables ivPreface v

Acknowledgements viFunding viDisclaimer viIntroduction 1What is climate change vs. climate variability vs.climate extremes?

1

Adaptation vs. mitigationwhy adaptation? 2A changing climatewhat has happened in thePhilippines so far?

3

What are the projected impacts of climate changeto different sectors?

5

Basic ways and forms to adapt to climate change 8Adaptation strategies in the Philippines 10Farmers Initiatives & Indigenous Strategies inthe Philippines

15

What role does tropical forest and agroforestrysystems have in climate change adaptation?

18

What is the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)doing?

19

Maladaptation: how can we avoid this? 23What are some knowledge gaps in climatechange adaptation? How can we close thisknowledge gap?

24

Literature Cited 27Glossary of Terms 30Annex 1: Integrated Climate Risk AssessmentFramework (ICRAF) for small farmers

35

Annex 2: AIACCC results on some adaptationoptions for Forests and Agriculture

36

Annex 3: Six-step approach for assessingvulnerability and identifying and implementingclimate change adaptations (the V&A approach)

38

Helpful Websites 39Further readings 40


5/52

v


6/52

vi

List of Figures

Structure of the Primer viiFigure 1 Graphical interpretation of climate change,

climate extremes and climate variability2

Figure 2 Changes in annual mean temperature and

annual precipitation over the Philippines

4

Figure 3 Relative annual-mean sea-level for Manila,South Harbour, (blue; 1901-1997; 14.58

oN,

120.93oE) and (red; 1947-1997; 13.15

oN,

123.75oE) in the Philippines

4

Figure 4 Bufo periglenes - Its species' extinction hasbeen attributed to climate

7

Figure 5 Green Turtle hatchlings in the Pacific regions 7Figure 6 Establishing small water impounding system

(SWIP)13

Figure 7 Farmer technologies to adapt during droughtperiods

16

Figure 8 Relationship between adaptation to climatechange and the environmental and socialservices of forest ecosystems

19

Figure 9 Linking the science, the institutions, theenvironment and the communities

25

Figure 10 Framework of ICRAF 35

List of Tables

Acronyms viii


7/52

vii

Preface

This primer is the second part of the LULUCF Climate ChangeMitigation Projects in the Philippines A Primer. This is in response to agrowing interest on climate change adaptation after our mitigationprimer with emphasis on terrestrial ecosystems and uplandcommunities. The primer intends to collate all the information on thedifferent climate change related projects nationwide and make themavailable to a wider audience who might be interested in doing someresearch work or in implementing some adaptation strategies in thecountry.

The status of climate change, climate variability and climate extremesare discussed in the beginning of the book. Some questions relevant tothe topic are answered in the rest of the chapters. Case studies onadaptation strategies/measures in the Philippines or in other countriespresented here can be implemented in the country at the community

level or at the policy level. Adaptation strategies on some sectors of thecountry are included. Specifically, this primer focuses on adaptationstrategies for agriculture and forestry, biodiversity conservation, soil andwater technologies/strategies, farming practices and adaptationstrategies that can improve the resilience of communities and varioussectors in the Philippines are considered as well. Contingency plansand gaps are identified to improve existing strategies to enhanceadaptation to climate change in the country.

The content is based on the authors review of technical documents,synthesis of previous case studies, synthesis of meetings and personalinvolvement in international negotiation efforts related to climate changeadaptation. The style and language of this document has beensimplified to cater to a wide range of audiences. A list of helpfulwebsites is also provided for those who would like supplementary

readings on the topic. The reader is encouraged to use and share thisdocument freely but judiciously.

Rodel D. LascoCountry Program CoordinatorWorld Agroforestry Centre


8/52

viii

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF-Philippines), Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization-SoutheastAsian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research inAgriculture (SEAMEO-SEARCA) and the Bureau of Soils andWater Management (BSWM) for all the technical contributions incoming up with this publication.

We would also like to acknowledge the administrative staff of theICRAF who painstakingly took care of all the printing andfinancial arrangements for this publication.

Funding

This Publication was generously funded by the EuropeanCommission through the Tropical Forest and Climate ChangeAdaptation project in the Philippines collaboratively conducted bythe World Agroforestry Centre and the Center for InternationalForestry Research (CIFOR).

Disclaimer

The statements in this publication reflect the views and opinionsof the authors only and not of the World Agroforestry Center, theCenter for International Forestry Research no the EuropeanCommission.


9/52

ix

Structure of the primer

Introduction

Climate

Variability

Climate

Extremes

Climate Change

Impacts and Vulnerability of the

Philippines

Adaptation Strategies/Projects in the

Philippines


10/52

x

Acronyms

APF Adaptation Policy FrameworkAPN Asia Pacific NetworkACCCA Advancing Capacity to support Climate Change

AdaptationAIACCC An Integrated Assessment of Climate Change

Adaptation and Vulnerability Assessment inSoutheast Asia

BSWM Bureau of Soils and Water ManagementCA Conservation AgricultureCBD Conventions on Biological DiversityCDM Clean Development MechanismCIFOR Center for International Forestry ResearchCOP Conference of PartiesDENR Department of Environment and Natural

ResourcesGLOSS Global Sea Level Observing SystemICRAF World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International

Center for Research in Agroforestry)IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeITTO International Tropical Timber Organization

NWFP Non-wood forest productsPAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and

Astronomical Services AdministrationPCARRD Department of Science and Technology-

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry andNatural Resources Research and Development

SEAMEO-SEARCA

Southeast Asian Ministers of EducationOrganization-Southeast Asian Regional Centerfor Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture

UGAT Ugnayang Pang-Agham Tao Foundation, Inc.UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat

DesertificationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate ChangePAWB Protected Areas and Wildlife BureauDENR Department of Environment and Natural

Resources


11/52

IntroductionThe Philippines is one of the developing countries expected tosuffer most of the negative effects of climate change. It is alreadyknown to most of us that climate change is happening. Asclimate changes, developing countries like the Philippines are

faced with urgent needs for sustainable development: These are:1.) to improve food security, 2.) to reduce poverty, and 3.) toprovide an adequate standard of living for growing populations(Verchot, et al., 2007). In the previous primer, mitigationstrategies were discussed but these are only expected tocushion the effects of climate change. Adaptation efforts areneeded to improve the resilience of the community to theimpacts of climate change, climate variability or climateextremes.

What is Climate Change vs. climate variability vs. climateextremes?

Climate change is any change in climate over time (usuallyhundreds of years), whether due to natural variability or becauseof human activity. This is usually long term and requires decadesor more of statistically significant changes in climate at the globallevel. Climate variability is the variations in the mean state andother statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence ofextremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scalesbeyond that of individual weather events. Climate variability isgenerally short term and abrupt climate variations. Climateextremesare short-term extreme climatic conditions such as theoccurrence of El Nio and La Nia in the country.

Figure 1 shows a graphical representation of the differencebetween climate variability, climate extremes and climatechange. This figure is similar to the graphical representation ofSmit et al. (2000) as shown by Robledo and Fornier (2005) forclimate change and climate variability. Evidences of climatechange are shown in the LULUCF primer on climate changemitigation projects in the Philippines (see Section 2: Whatswrong with our climate?).


12/52

12

Figure 1. Graphical interpretation of climate change, climateextremes and climate variability.

*Legend: trendline (climate change); points (climate extremes); zigzag lineincluding the points (climate variability)

Adaptation vs. mitigation Why adaptation?Mitigation strategies are usually measures added to a project oractivity to reduce, prevent or correct the impact of climatechange. These are anthropogenic interventions to reduce theemission or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (GHG).Adaptation on the other hand, is a process by which strategiesand actions to avoid, moderate, cope with and/or take advantageof the consequences of climate events are developed, enhancedand implemented.

Both mitigation and adaptation are urgently needed if we want toreduce climate change and its impacts over the coming decades.

Although there are quite a number of mitigation projectsimplemented in the country, we can only do so much to reducethe impact of climate change, variability and extremes. Limitedfocus is given to mutually supportive adaptation strategiesnecessary to increase the resilience of local communitiesvulnerable to these climate changes, variability and extremes.This can be done side-by-side with mitigation strategies to

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

years

tempera

ture,

Celsius

Climatevariability

Climatechange

Climateextreme


13/52

13

minimize further impact on the most vulnerable populations andecosystems.

Adaptation strategies are very cost effective compared tomitigation and can be done from the policy level down to thegrassroots level. There are plenty of adaptation measures bothnatural and human-induced. This publication will focus onhuman-induced adaptation measures.

A changing climate what has happened in thePhilippines so far?

The IPCC (2001) projects under various scenarios that in thenext 100 years, global mean surface temperatures will increaseby 1.4-5.8

oC and the global mean sea level will rise by 0.09-

0.88m.

The Philippines all in all has not only become warmer in the lastfew decades but it has also become drier (6% decline in rainfall

for the past century). Data from 1961-1999 shows that thePhilippines experience an average of 2325 mm of rainfall and25.7

oC of annual mean temperature (Figure 2).

The Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), whichroutinely monitors in several hundreds of locations includingManila and Legaspi shows how the sea levels have been rapidlyrising throughout the years (Figure 3). This is very alarmingbecause there are a lot of coastal towns with livelihoodsdependent on the surrounding water bodies. Submergence ofsmall islands located just a little above sea level might occur ifthis sea level rise continues.


14/52

14

Figure 2. Changes in annual-mean temperature, 1901-1998,and annual precipitation, 1901-1998 (bottom), over thePhilippines. (Changes from the average 1961-1990 climatevalues of 25.7

oC and 2325 mm) (Hulme and Sheard, 1999).

Figure 3. Relative annual-mean sea-level for Manila, SouthHarbour, (blue; 1901-1997; 14.58

oN, 120.93

oE) and (red; 1947-

1997; 13.15oN, 123.75

oE) in the Philippines. (Hulme and Sheard,

1999)


15/52

15

What are the projected impacts of climate change todifferent sectors?

AgricultureThe increasing extreme weather events brought about by climate

change have huge impacts on agriculture.

a) CropsIPCC (2001) reports that climatic variability and change willaffect scheduling of cropping season, as well as the duration ofthe growing period of the crop. Crop yield are expected todecline. Acute water shortages combined with thermal stressshould adversely affect rice productivity despite the positiveeffects of elevated CO2 in the future. Crop diseases such as riceblast, and sheath and culm blight of rice also could become morewidespread.

The increased incidence of pests and diseases such as the

Black rice bug (Scotinophara lurida), Waya-waya (StenocranusPacificus Kirakldy) for corn, the incidence of Abaca Bunchy top(Babuvirus Nanoviridae) usually in Abaca (Musa textilis) but nowfound to be affecting corn also), Caragumoybleaching of theirprimary crop for basket weaving (as a result of increasingsurface temperature) were noted by the Provincial AgricultureOffice of Albay. (Personal Communication with the provincialagricultural specialist: Jojo Elvira, 2007).

Massive agricultural losses were also experienced in major riceand corn-producing regions in the Philippines (e.g. CagayanValley) resulting from extreme drought and weather disturbancessuch as storms and typhoons. Immediate impacts fromprolonged drought and excessive flooding in agricultureproduction areas threaten the livelihood and resiliency of poorfarmers in the region.

b) LivestockThe IPCC WGII (2007) identifies some increase in incidence ofdiseases due to global warming that will affect livestock in themid-latitude areas like the Philippines. For example, the blue-


16/52

16

tongue disease that mostly affects sheep, goat and deer isprojected to spread from the tropical countries to the mid-latitudeareas (Anon, 2006, van Wuijickhuise et al., 2006). Studies arestill lacking on the impacts of CO2 and climate change on thepest-plant dynamics or impacts on livestock health. (IPCC WGII,2007)

c) Fisheries/coastalAccording to the IPCC (2001), the coastal ecosystems are highlyvulnerable to the impacts of climate change in Southeast Asia.Many wild stocks are under stress as a result of overexploitation, trawling on sea-bottom habitats, coastaldevelopment, and pollution from land-based activities. Marineproductivity is greatly affected by plankton shift in response totemperature changes induced by ENSO. The coastline isroutinely lashed by storm surges and cyclones so sediment loadis added to the coastal waters.

ForestryVulnerability analysis of forest ecosystems in the Philippines

Initial National Communications (1999) explains how both thequantity and quality of forest goods and services can significantlybe affected by climate.

Forest clearing for conversion to cropland and pasture are theprimary reason for forest loss. This can be aggravated withincreased flood and droughts brought about by climate change.All these will have severe effects to the environment such asincreased soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, loss of geneticvariability in crops, and depletion of water resources. (IPCC,2001)

Impacts on forests such as changes in the flowering of trees,

production of seeds, palatability to herbivores, etc. as a result ofclimate change can severely be affected. Moreover, IPCCpredicts that climate change is likely to worsen pest, disease andweed management problems particularly in plantation andproduction forest. Forests such as pine forest are vulnerable tofire and climate change induced increases in fire risk.


17/52

17

Biodiversity is a term used for avariety of life on earth, providesthrough its expression asecosystems, goods and servicesthat sustain our lives (CBD, 2007).

BiodiversityThe impacts of climatechange on biodiversity areincreasing at an alarmingrate. Climate change togetherwith land use change and thespread of exotic/alien specieswill most likely limit the capacity of species to migrate promotingloss of some species. At the species level, climate changeaffects biodiversity by: 1.) changing species distribution; 2.)increasing extinction rates; 3.) changing reproduction timingsand; 4.) changing the length of growing seasons for plants.(CBD, 2007)

Figure 4.Bufo periglenes -Its species'extinction has been attributed toclimate. change. ( Charles Smith, US Fishand Wildlife Service) (http://www.unep-

wcmc.org/Climate/, 2007)

Figure 5. Green Turtle hatchlings inthe Pacific regions.( WWF-Canon / MartinHarvey) (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/Climate/,2007)

The first case of climate change impact on biodiversity is the

species extinction was noted on the golden toad of Monteverdeharlequin frog (has not been seen since 1989; believed to beextinct Figure 4). This species has already been tagged as thefirst victims of climate change. The reason for this is that sincefrogs rely on water to breed, any reduction or change in rainfallcould reduce frog reproduction. Moreover, rising temperaturesare closely linked to outbreaks of a fungal disease that


18/52

18

contributes to the decline of amphibian populations, especiallyfrogs in Latin America. A second case of climate change impactis much closer to home. The case of the green sea turtle in thePacific regions (Figure 5). We have plenty of sea turtles aroundthe Philippine coast. Warmer temperatures could reduce thenumber of male sea turtle offspring and threaten turtlepopulations. This is because the sex of sea turtle hatchlings isdependent on temperature (warmer temperatures increase thenumber of female sea turtles). (UNEP-WCMC Species Sheet(February,2002)http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/factsheets/toad/sheet.htm; CBD, 2007)

Loss of biodiversity is increasing as climate change accelerates.The climate change already has affected biodiversity in thePhilippines causing disturbance in the functional interactionsbetween species and ecosystem processes. Projected impactswould eventually lead to a shift in species distribution andbiomes as well as vulnerable species likely to become extinct.This would affect the current protected area system of thecountry.

Basic ways and forms to adapt to climate changeThe Philippine Initial National Communication on ClimateChange (1999) notes that adaptation measures to climatechange can be screened by the following: 1.) addressing highpriority issues involving irreversible catastrophic consequencesof climate change, long term decisions and unfavorable trends;2.) determining its effectivity; 3.) low cost (inexpensive); 4.)feasibility and must not have significant barriers to overcome(institutional/legal, social and cultural, market and technological).

There are some fundamental forms of adaptation given by

McCarl (2007) that can be applicable in the Philippines setting.

Crop, forage, and tree species/varieties - adaptationby altering the mix of crop, forage grasses or treesspecies employed. For example: growing crops, grassesor trees which are more heat tolerant. More generallythis involves replacing some proportion of the crop,


19/52

19

forage and tree species populating the land withalternative species that perform more suitably in the faceof altered climatic regime. Typically this involvesadopting practices from areas that have historicallyexhibited comparable climates. Adaptation can alsoinvolve adoption of alternative varieties of the samecrops or trees that are more suitable in the face of thealtered climate due to for example lower water needs,increased resistance to pests and diseases etc.

Crop and tree management - Modifying croppingschedules by planting or harvesting earlier to adjust toaltered soil warm-up rates, soil moisture conditions,earlier maturity dates, altered water availability regimes.Trees and crops can be managed by increasing inputs,altering rotation ages, thinning (to mitigate fire risk),replanting, or altered pest management among otherpossibilities. Producers may also use seasonal climateforecasting to reduce production risk.

Water management - Adaptation may be through theprovision of irrigation water including investing infacilities, changing drainage management regimes,altering tillage practices to conserve water, modifyingfarm schedules (time of planting/harvesting) to bettermatch water availability, changing crop species to moredrought tolerant plants/trees etc.

Pest and disease managementAdaptation can occurthrough wider use of integrated pest and pathogenmanagement or preventive veterinary care, developmentand use of varieties and species resistant to pests anddiseases, maintaining or improving quarantine

capabilities, outbreak monitoring programs; prescribedburning and adjusting harvesting schedules.

Management of natural areas - Some forestryproduction occurs relies on passively managed, naturalecosystems which may require more activemanagement under climate change to migrate in new


20/52

20

better adapted species or deal with climate changeenhanced pest, disease or fire risks.

Fire management - Forests, grasslands and to someextent croplands are vulnerable to fire and climatechange induced increases in fire risk. Such risks may

stimulate adaptive actions like salvaging dead timber,landscape planning to minimize fire damage, andadjusting fire management systems.

Land use or enterprise choice change - Climatechange may alter the suitability of land or a region tosuch an extent that certain enterprises are no longersustainable and that it may be desirable to adapt bychanging the land use from crops to pasture or trees,trees to grazing land.

For the climate change adaptation practitioners, the USAID hasdevised a 6-step approach for assessing vulnerability andidentifying and implementing climate change adaptations. (See

Annex 3)

Adaptation strategies in the Philippines:Recommendations from the Philippine Millennium EcosystemAssessment (MA) Sub-global Assessment (Lasco, et al., 2005)recommends a variety of adaptation options to the perceivedimpacts of climate change on Philippine agriculture.

Development of stress-tolerant varieties through plantbreeding and biotechnology

Development of new farm management techniques that willrespond to the management of crops under stressfulconditions and the management of plant pests and diseases;

Adaptive design and development of efficient farm tools andimplements; and

Improvement of post harvest technologies which includeamong others the utilization and processing of farmproducts, by products and agricultural wastes

Further recommended is the design and installation of amanagement information system (MIS) for agriculture which


21/52

21

would provide timely and accurate information on climatehazards and their likely impacts to agricultural activities. MISmust be able to provide the following:

o Nature of climate variability particularly rainfallo Effects of climate change on other physical

processes (e.g. soil erosion, pests, etc.;o Effects of crop yields from farm production, food

pricing and supply, farm income ando Effective policy response to changes in land

use, plant breeding, etc.

Water resourcesThere are many water resources adaptation measures currentlyavailable in the country that enable it to respond to climatechange impacts on water supply and demand. Some limitationsto the adoption of the adaptation measures include financial andsocio-cultural factors (social and cultural behavior or traditions).

Some possible adaptation measures in both short term and longterm for the countrys water sector are identified as follows:

Adaptation measures on the supply side:1.) Comprehensive watershed management (Jose and

Cruz, 1999);2.) Water allocation system and procedures (Jose and Cruz,

1999);3.) Construction of new infrastructures (Philippines Initial

National Communication to Climate Change, 1999);4.) Modification of existing physical infrastructure

(Philippines Initial National Communication to ClimateChange, 1999);

5.) Alternative management of the existing water supplysystems (Philippines Initial National Communication to

Climate Change, 1999);6.) Planned and coordinated use of water

basin/groundwater resources (Philippines Initial NationalCommunication to Climate Change, 1999);

7.) Improved monitoring and forecasting systems for floodand drought and water quality (Philippines InitialNational Communication to Climate Change, 1999)


22/52

22

Adaptation measures on the demand side:

1.) Enhancement of irrigation efficiency (Jose and Cruz,1999);

2.) Introduction of low water use crops and efficient farmingpractices (Jose and Cruz, 1999);

3.) Recycling (reuse) of water (Jose and Cruz, 1999);4.) Improvement of monitoring and forecasting systems for

floods and droughts (Jose and Cruz, 1999);5.) Use of water pricing policies and structures; policies and

long-term development plans to incorporate potentialimpacts to climate change (Jose and Cruz, 1999);

6.) Conservation and improved efficiency (Philippines InitialNational Communication to Climate Change, 1999);

7.) Technological Change (Philippines Initial NationalCommunication to Climate Change, 1999);

8.) Treated and Untreated water supply/pricing (PhilippinesInitial National Communication to Climate Change,1999);

9.) Water treatment and recycling for major users

(Philippines Initial National Communication to ClimateChange, 1999);

10.) Introduce low water use crops and farming practices(Philippines Initial National Communication to ClimateChange, 1999)

AgricultureCurrently, there are flood control and drainage programs by thegovernment. For example, the BSWM has been training farmersto operate and maintain the Small Water ImpoundingManagement (SWIM) projects that will be turned over to them.There are about 25 sub-projects covered by this arrangement.(MTPDP, 2001)

The BSWM is spearheading a very pro-active program onCombating desertification, land degradation, drought andpoverty. The emerging climate phenomenon attributed to theincreasing recurrence cycle of El Nio, seasonal aridity orseasonal extreme dryness in the Philippines was accepted in theConvention in Combating Desertification (CCD) and was


23/52

23

considered as the primary basis for the acknowledgement ofdesertification in the tropical countries.

Current National Programs: Agri-Kalikasan Department of Agricultures (DA)

strategic program in preventing loss of soil fertility andrestoring soil quality. Component activities include:Modified Rapid Composting (MRC) and Tipid AbonoProgram.

Establishment of Small Water Impounding Systems(SWIS) such as small water impounding project (SWIP),diversion dam, shallow tube well (STW), small farmreservoir (SFR).

Promotion of Soil and Water Conservation Promotion of modified technologies to enhance local

farmers participation in organic farming International Collaborative Project such as:

1. Community-based Watershed ManagementProject

2. Australian Center for International Agricultural

Research (ACIAR) - Bohol project3. ACIAR - Ilocos Project

Figure 6. Establishing small water impounding system (SWIP).

ForestryFor watershed management, a case study by AIACCC in thePantabangan-Caranglan watershed listed some adaptationpractices commonly done by rice farmers in the area duringdroughts and during floods. Annex 2 lists some adaptation


24/52

24

options for forests and agriculture, its effects on water resources,institutions and local communities. This also shows someimpacts, degrees of vulnerability and adaptation measures forthe different ecosystems: grassland, tree plantations, naturalforests, upland farms and lowland farms. For drought, the use ofshallow tube wells, planting of new varieties, rotation method ofirrigation, direct seeding method (this requires less water), usealternative sources of water (from rivers), are some of thecommon responses of the farmers. For flood, switching to cropsthat can sustain floods and heavy rainfall, livelihooddiversification (swine production, vegetable farming, cantonmaking, fruit juice making), use of solar dryers and of course,attending seminars and trainings on new technologies andfarming techniques (increasing community adaptation capacity)(Cruz, et al., 2005).

BiodiversityThe Department of Environment and Natural resourcesProtected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (DENR-PAWB) incooperation with the United Nations Development Programme

Global Environment Facility (UNDP) is implementing projects inresponse to the Philippines commitment to the Convention onBiological Diversity.

In a positive example, the restoration of mangrove forests toincrease coastal protection and provides a habitat for aquaticand arboreal species. Drought resistant tree species could alsoalleviate the impacts of severe water shortage. On the otherend, it is also recognized that biodiversity protection inwatershed areas could reduce the impacts of flooding andlandslides. The Integrated Watershed Program in ManupaliWatershed in Bukidnon serves as a good model of biodiversityprotection for watershed management. Biodiversity could also

strengthen ecosystem resilience to provide environmentalservices in the event of any climatic pressure.


25/52

25

Biodiversity losses areminimized through properapplication of naturalforest managementregimes and byintegrating biodiversity

conservation.Conservation in theplanning formulation and

implementation of forest management plans. (PAWB,1998)

Ex-situ Conservation measuresThis conservation efforts are programs and projects aimed atconserving species not of its original location or habitat such asseed storage, tissue culture, collection for plants and captivebreeding for animals (PAWB, 1998).

Examples are: Botanical gardens, gene banks, seed banks,

zoological gardens, wildlife sanctuary, rescue centers andcaptive breeding programs. Improving plant cultivars to resist theeffects of drought can do adaptation at genetic level.

More dynamic approaches to biodiversity management will berequired with a changing climate modeled using future scenarios.This may include ecosystem management for enhancedresilience to climate change. Good governance, new research oncombined approaches on protected areas, ecological networks,and landscape management is needed for adaptation andmitigation against climate change using biodiversitymanagement, ecosystem management and good governance.

Farmers initiatives and indigenous strategies in thePhilippines

The IPCC recommends adaptation measures to reduce thenegative effects of climatic variability by changing cropping

The ITTO project onConservation and Maintenanceof biological diversity in SurigaoProvince demonstrated that

biodiversity can be conservedand maintained at a renewablelevel in tropical forests managedprimarily for timber production.


26/52

26

calendar to take advantage of the wet period and to avoidextreme weather events (typhoons and strong winds) during thegrowing season.

Application of farmers appropriate technologies and indigenousknowledge enabling them to adapt during drought incidences: Use of herbal pesticide/botanical spray to control drought-

induced diseases and pests thriving in trees/plants; Weeding is not done during El Nio to conserve water; Muyung of Ifugao, which combines the under planting of

annual and perennial crops in a secondary forest; and Irrigation is done when there is no wind to preserve moisture

(water easily evaporates in the presence of wind during dryseason).

Figure 7. Farmertechnologies to adaptduring drought periods(BSWM database).

Indigenous disaster management practices or disastercountermeasures were compiled in different projects funded byPCARRD and collaborated by PHIVOLCS, PAGASA and UGAT(1998) in the Natural Disaster Management Among FilipinoCultural Communities.

Typhoon and flood forecasting techniques of:o the Ivatans and Cordillerans based on sky and cloud

appearance, plant manifestations, and unusual animalbehavior,

o the Manobo and Subanen methods of using the starsand constellations to forecast heavy rains and droughts

Drought forecasting techniques of the Bagobos andMandayas

Monitoring of precursory signs of volcanic unrest by theTbolis and identification of escape routes in case of eruption


27/52

27

The construction of emergency shelters such as the ayoborkubol of the Mangyan, the kurob of the Mamanua, theayunganof the Manobo, and the tambubongof the Mandaya

Preservation and stockpiling of food, fuel and indigenousmedicine in preparation for typhoons and floods

Early warning systems using indigenous devices such as:o

the taguyodsof the Yakanso the agong, gimbae, kuratong and budiong of the

Manoboso the color-coded flag signals of the Aetas.

Custom of collective self-help orbayanihanin responding todisasters and in carrying out recovery activities (common inall the groups studied) though called by many names:o yaruamong the Ivatanso ugbuamong the Cordilleranso tawang-tawangamong the Tausug, Samal and Yakan.

The drought coping mechanisms of the Bagobo and Tboli

The Aetas community and agricultural rehabilitation after thePinatubo Volcano 1991 eruption and ensuing lahars.

The clever way of selecting safe sites for settlements andhouses to ensure that these are protected from strong winds,above the reach of floodwaters and away from landslideprone areas. Notable among the Ivatans, Cordillerans,Mangyans and Manobos.

To prevent/minimize landslide and soil erosion:o the rice terraces of the cordilleranso the hedgerows planted by Ivatans along hillsides

Tree belts to protect crops and houses of Ivatans fromstrong winds

The adaptive agricultural cycle and cropping systems of theIvatan, Cordilleran, and Subanen

Typhoon- and earthquake- resistant houseso

thejinjinsof the Ivatanso the binangiyanof the Cordilleran

Riprap:o the riprap built by Igorots and Ivatans along river banks

are used to prevent water from overflowing to their farmsand settlements, and on the slopes to prevent erosion.


28/52

28

o The Tausugs living on the seashore also have riprapsalong their property line for protection against soilerosion due to wave action.

Some more adaptation measures for El Nio and La Nia arelisted in the PCARRD (2001) publication on mitigating measuresfor community-based, technology and infrastructure developmentstrategies.

What role does tropical forest and agroforestry systemshave in climate change adaptation?

Tropical forest adaptationVulnerability analysis of forest ecosystems in the PhilippinesInitial National Communications (1999) explains how both thequantity and quality of forest goods and services can significantlybe affected by climate. Because of this, some environmentalservices of forest ecosystems such as water cycle regulation orsoil stability can directly contribute to increasing resilience.

Adaptation strategies should include forest goods (e.g. timber,fuelwood, and NWFPs), agroforestry, forest services andgovernance. Figure 8 shows the relationship of adaptation toclimate change and the environmental and social services offorest ecosystems.

Agroforestry as an adaptation measureAgroforestry has a very important role in climate changeadaptation especially in smallholder farming communities.Farmer management can play a large role in adaptation,although, different agroforestry systems vary in the way theysustain the farmers agility to respond to external pressures,stresses and fluctuations (this is the concept of sustainagility)

(Verchot, et al., 2007).

The increased inter-annual variability in rainfall and temperaturewill greatly affect farmers. Agroforestry offers a means fordiversifying production systems and increasing the sustainagilityof small-holder farming systems against climate change (wetterand drier years) because tree based systems have the following:


29/52

29

a.) deep root systems are able to explore larger soil volume for waterand nutrients (helpful during droughts);

b.) increased soil porosity, reduced runoff and increased soil cover leadto increased water infiltration and retention in the soil profile thatreduces moisture stress during low rainfall years;

c.) higher evapotranspiration rates than row crops or pastures; canmaintain aerated soil conditions by pumping excess water out of thesoil profile more rapidly than other production systems; and

d.) often produce crops of higher value than row crops.

Diversifying the production system to include a significant treecomponent may buffer against income risks associated withclimate variability. In addition to all these advantages,agroforestry management systems offer opportunities forcreating synergies between mitigation and adaptation strategies.The sustainagility framework for national planning aims to reducevulnerability of the agriculture sector to climate change. This willaid in mainstreaming adaptation into the planning processes.(Verchot, et al., 2007)

Figure 8. Relationship between adaptation to climate changeand the environmental and social services of forest ecosystems(Robledo and Fornier 2005)

What is the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) doing?Up until recently, climate change has been viewed as anenvironmental problem separate from the concerns ofdevelopment policy-makers. In the same manner, development

Changes in

climate system

Impacts and

vulnerability

Adaptation

alternative

Components in

a proposal

Changes intemperature andrainfall regimes

Increase infrequency and

intensity ofextreme events

On the ecosystem:-Change in ecosystem

structureHabitat loss for some

speciesLoss of species

-Genetic pool loss-Epidemics

On the social system:-Reduction of foodavailability and of

ecosystem products andservices

-Increment illnesses as aconsequence of low

quality of drinking waterhousing loss

-Damage to infrastructure

Promotion ofenvironmental

services:-Water cycle

regulation-Micro-climate

regulation-Carbon Fixation

and storage-Soil protection

-Biodiversityconservation

Promotion ofsocial services:-Cultural habitat

conservation-Scenic beauty

Institutional:Legal framework andimprovement ingovernance

Financial:Payment instrumentsfor social andenvironmentalservices

Technical:Sustainablemanagement ofnatural resources

Social:Participation, trainingand improvement in


30/52

30

approaches have been given little attention by the climatechange community who prefer natural sciences approaches (e.g.CDM) in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Climate changewill affect national development especially in poor countries likethe Philippines therefore; alternative development pathways willdetermine the future greenhouse gas emissions and influencethe capacity of communities and countries to adapt to climatechange. (Huq, et al., 2006)

Adaptation to climate needs to be mainstreamed into policy

development. Climate change awareness is very high among

government institutions. There are several adaptation efforts in

different institutions that are either planned or ongoing in the

country. At the policy level, there are a few policies that aim to

mainstream climate change adaptation into the government

programs. The Philippine government has adopted the Philippine

Agenda 21 and the Millennium Development Goal for

environmental sustainability; has created the Philippine Council

for Sustainable Development (PCSD), the Inter-Agency

Committee on Climate Change (IACCC) under AO 220, the

Advisory Council on Climate Change (ACCC), and the

Presidential Task Force on Climate Change Adaptation and

Mitigation (PTFCC) under AO 171, and the President has made

a Green Philippines as one of the 8 in 8 priorities. Indeed there

is a very strong national government support on climate change

activities. And now, with the Albay declaration and local

initiatives from the provincial government of Albay to mainstream

adaptation to climate change into local and national policies, the

Philippines is indeed on its way to mainstreaming climate changein government policies.

Among the various on-going researches on climate changeadaptation, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has startedwith some small projects on climate change adaptation.TroFCCA (Tropical Forest and Climate Change Adaptation


31/52

31

project) a four-year project of the Center for InternationalForestry Research (CIFOR) and the Tropical Agriculture Centerfor Research and Higher Education (CATIE) supported by theEuropean Union. The main objective is to contribute to nationalprocesses of adaptation to climate change, in particular, andcreate efforts to mainstream adaptation into developmentpolicies. Specifically, the project aims to identify regionaldevelopment issues related to climate change impacts overforest that can increase the vulnerability of the society; todevelop specific methodologies to assess vulnerability; tocontribute to current national and regional adaptation processes;to develop criteria and indicators for adaptive forestmanagement; to develop policy-oriented adaptation strategies;and to facilitate a science-policy dialogue on adaptation.

Mainstreaming climate change adaptation in watershedmanagement and upland farming in the Philippines (ACCCAproject) is a new project in collaboration with the University of thePhilippines and the World Agroforestry Centre that aims to: (1)assess the impacts of climate variability and extremes and

climate change to crop yield of 50 Landcare farmers in Lantapan,Bukidnon and water yield of Manupali watershed, Bukidnon; (2)develop adaptation strategies for Landcare farmers andconcerned Manupali watershed managers/concerned institutionsto minimize risks and maximize opportunities associated withclimate change; (3) promote a multi-stakeholder approach in theformulation of climate risk adaptation through participatoryapproaches and capacity building of Landcare farmers andwatershed managers; (4) develop risk communication productstargeted for the watershed planners and Landcare farmers; and(5) contribute to the preparation of the Philippines SecondNational Communication by providing case materials.

Climate change and sustainable development project is a 2-yearproject supported by the Asia Pacific Network (APN), anintergovernmental body based in Japan. The general objective ofthe project is to clarify the links between climate changeadaptation and sustainable development. Specifically, the projectaims to: (1) synthesize research on adaptation strategies forclimate change and climate variability in Southeast Asian


32/52

32

countries; (2) analyze the links of adaptation strategies to thesustainable development goals of the respective countries; (3)hold a science-policy workshop to disseminate results and solicitrecommendations; and (4) publish the results of the study in aformat that is useful to policy makers and other stakeholders.

In the country, majority of the upland areas are inhabited byfarming communities who are among the poorest of the poor.These communities often benefit least from assistance comingfrom government and private institutions whose aim is toalleviate poverty among the upland communities. With minimaloutside assistance, these upland communities are prone toclimate-induced risks such as landslides (soil erosion), droughts,heavy rains, typhoons (tropical cyclones) and other calamities.

Insufficient/lacking adaptive capacity is a major obstruction inmainstreaming climate change and sustainable developmentespecially in developing countries like the Philippines. Capacitybuilding and proper implementation of policies and agreements(both national and international) will enable the country to

develop strategies from the farmer level up to the policy level.

One of the flagship projects of ICRAF for agroforestry in thePhilippines is the Landcare program. This has already startedwith the education of upland communities on how to combatsome natural disasters in the areas of Lantapan Bukidnon,Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Bohol, Cebu and some portions ofDavao del Sur. Not only can appropriate agroforestrytechnologies increase the resilience of these farmingcommunities against climate-induced hazards by utilizing propersoil and water conservation practices and agroforestrytechnologies, but also protect the means of livelihoods of thesefarmers. Annex 1 shows the Integrated Climate Risk

Assessment Framework (ICRAF) for small farmers that will allowadaptation planning, adaptation deficit analysis andimplementation/ mainstreaming of climate risks at the grassrootslevel/farmer level.


33/52

33

Maladaptation: how can we avoid this?Most of the environmental policies that have been, or are being,implemented in the country are all geared towards environmentalprotection against climate extremes and climate variability thatwill in the long run be towards protecting us all against climatechange. We must admit that these policies still need to be

mainstreamed or given direction to cover more long termactivities that will help the country adapt to and mitigate climatechange. However, there have been some apprehensions as topossible policies that may in fact have negative adaptation(maladaptation), reduce resilience and increase vulnerabilityamong the different communities in the country.

The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform LawThis law was enacted to promote a more equitable distributionand ownership of agricultural lands, also with due regard to thecountrys ecological needs. An independent policy reviewhowever concluded that lands under the reform sector of CARP,potentially around 4 million ha, will be marginal, low-quality lands

with limited access to effective demand and production andmarketing infrastructure (Adriano, 1991). The eventual cultivationof these marginal, low-quality lands often by resource-poorfarmers puts the natural ecosystem as well as the localcommunity at risk, or makes them more vulnerable, to thedetrimental impacts of climate vulnerability and extremes. Thecommon inadequacy or absence of government support in termsof information and extension services, especially about resourcemanagement, conservation agriculture and climate hazards,compounds the risk.Source: Lasco, et al 2007 (In press).

Aside from the policy cited as an example above, most of the

policies directly related to the environment are actually towardsreducing environmental risks. Maladaptation is actually just partof the problem; the real problem related to policies is mal-implementation. Government policies, programs and activitieson natural resource and ecosystems management can positivelyor negatively impact vulnerability and adaptation to climatechange, mainly depending on how they are implemented or put


34/52

34

into action, and on how the respective manners ofimplementation were monitored and/or regulated, if at all.Needless to say, problems arise when the policies are notproperly implemented.

The socio-economic aspects of climate change can be gleanedboth at the latters cause and effect sides. The worlds leadingclimate scientists recently reported that climate change is verylikely (more than 90 percent certain) caused by man, mainlythrough changes in the atmospheric composition due to fossilfuel burning, and changes in land use, interfering with thebalance of GHGs.

Lastly, at a more macro level, the socio-economic aspects ofclimate change can refer to the overall policy and governanceenvironment, whose impact in turn trickle down to the othercomponents already being affected by climate change, variabilityand risks.

What are some of the knowledge gaps in climate changeadaptation? How can we close this knowledge gap?

There is still so much to do when it comes to knowledge gaps inclimate change adaptation. The main challenge is tosystematically bridge the communities, local and internationalinstitutions, and the environment with the adaptation process.

Effective communication through information dissemination isneeded to bridge the knowledge gaps in climate changeadaptation.


35/52

35

Figure 9. Linking the science, the institutions, the environmentand the communities.

Information availability and dissemination is very important toimprove the scientific capacity of the scientific community(research institutions, government agencies and policy makers);enhance monitoring systems and develop early warningsystems; and promote a mechanism or tools to translateavailable information for policy makers to decide onpolicies/strategies that will enable the Philippines to adapt betterto a changing climate.

With or without climate change, different sectors in thePhilippines are quite vulnerable to environmental disasters. Inthe Philippines, adaptation to climate variability and extremes arealready somewhat in place. However, some necessaryadjustments to changing conditions still need to be made in theinfrastructure, management practices, institutional arrangements

Environment

Institutions Science

Communities


36/52

36

and policies. Climate change is generally not considered in theplanning of adaptation strategies. Enhancements in the policyframework are needed to include steps to reduce thisvulnerability and enhance adaptive capacity of the country. Thewater resources policy framework in the country can help inadapting to climate change but it can still be improved toaccommodate adaptation strategies for long-term planning toinclude climate change. There is a need to document adaptationstrategies on the ground and how it has affected thecommunities affected by changes in climate.

When we talk of climate change, sustainable development,adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity, several issues crop up.These issues should be communicated to all sectors of societywith these 3 simple messages: 1.) climate change is happening;2.) adaptation is necessary for the communities to cope withclimate changes 3.) mitigation is essential to avoid the dangersof climate change.


37/52

37

Literature Cited

Adriano, L.S. (1991) A General Assessment of the Comprehensive AgrarianReform Program. Working Paper Series No. 91-13. Philippine Institute forDevelopment Studies (PIDS), Makati City, Philippines. August.

Anon (2006) Bluetongue confirmed in France. News and Reports, Vet. Rec.,159,331.

CBD (2007) Convention on Biological Diversity. http://www.cbd.int/default.shtml

Cruz, R.V.O., Lasco, R.D., Pulhin, J.M., Pulhin, F.B., and K.B. Garcia. (2005) AnIntegrated Assessment of Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerabilityof Watershed Areas and Communities in Southeast Asia (AS21): Assessment ofClimate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation: Water Resources ofPantabangan-caranglan Watershed. AIACC-AS21 Working Paper Number 9.June 2005.

Easterling, W.E., P.K. Aggarwal, P. Batima, K.M. Brander, L. Erda, S.M.Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J.-F. Soussana, J. Schmidhuber and F.N.Tubiello (2007) Food, fibre and forest products. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L.Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 273-313.

Elvira, J. (2007) Personal Communications. October 22, 2007. Legaspi, Albay.

Hulme, M. and N. Sheard (1999) Climate Change Scenarios for the Philippines.Climatic Research Unit, , Norwich, UK, 6pp.http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~mikeh/research/philippines.pdf

Huq, S. Reid, H. and L.A. Murray (2006) Climate Change and DevelopmentLinks. Gatekeeper Series 123. International Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED).

Jose, A.M. and N.A. Cruz, (1999) Climate change impacts and responses in thePhilippines: water resources. Climate Research, 12, 7784.

Lasco, R.D., Pulhin, F.B., Roshetko, J.M., and M.R.N. Banaticla (2004) LULUCFClimate Change Mitigation Projects: A Primer, World Agroforestry Centre.Southeast Asia Regional Research Programme.

Lasco, R.D., Gerpacio,R.V., Banaticla, M.R.N., and A.G. Garcia (2007) (inpress). Vulnerability of Natural Ecosystems and Rural Communities to ClimateChange: An Assessment of Philippine Policies and their Impacts SubmittedReport to SEARCA, Los Baos, Laguna Philippines. August 2007.


38/52

38

McCarl, B.A. (2007) Adaptation Options for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. AReport to the UNFCCC Secretariat Financial and Technical Support Division.Texas A & M University. College Station, TX 77854-2124.

MTPDP (2001) The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan 2001-2004.National Economic and Development Authority. ISSN 0119-3880.

PAWB (1998) The First Philippine National Report to the Convention onBiological Diversity. The Protectyed Areas and Wildlife Bureau. The Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources.

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research andDevelopment (2001) El Nio southern Oscillation: mitigating measures. LosBaos, Laguna: PCARRD. 296p.

PHIVOLCS, PAGASA, UGAT, PCARRD (1998) Natural Disaster ManagementAmong Filipino Cultural Communities June 1996-1998. PHIVOLCS (PhilippineInstitute of Volcanology and Seismology), PAGASA (Philippine Atmospheric,Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) UGAT (Ugnayang Pang-Aghamtao Foundation, Inc.) , funded by PCARRD (Department of Science andTechnology-Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural ResourcesResearch and Development).

The Philippines Initial National Communication on Climate Change (1999)

DENR. December 1999.

IPCC (2007) Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the FourthAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, M.L.Parrt, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds.,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 7-22.

IPCC International Panel on Climate Change (2001) Third Assessment Report.IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.

Robledo, C. and C. Fornier (2005) Forests and Climate Change Working Paper2. Adaptation of Forest ecosystems and the forest sector to Climate Change.FAO, Rome.

Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R., and J. Wandel (2000) An anatomy of adaptationto climate change and variability. Climatic Change 45, 223251.

Turner, B.L.II, Kasperson, R.E., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.A. Corell, R.W.,Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Kasperson, J.X., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Polsky, C.,Pulsipher, A. and A. Schiller (2003) A framework for vulnerability analysis insustainability science. PNAS. Vol 100:14. July 8, 2003.


39/52

39

The First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity.(1998) Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau. Department of Environment andNatural Resources.

The National Action Plan. To Combat Desertification, Land Degradation,Drought, and Poverty. FY 2004-2010 (2004) Department of Agriculture-Bureau ofSoils and Water Management, Department of Environment and NaturalResources, Department of Science and Technology, Department of Agrarian

Reform.

USAID (2007) Adapting to Climate Variability and Change: A Guidance Manualfor Development Planning. August 2007.www.crid.or.cr/digitalizacion/pdf/eng/doc16706/doc16706-b.pdf

van Wuijckhuise, L., D. Dercksen, J. Muskens, J. de Bruyn, M. Scheepers andR. Vrouenraets (2006) Bluetongue in the Netherlands; description of the firstclinical cases and differential diagnosis; Common symptoms just a little differentand in too many herds. Tijdschr. Diergeneesk., 131, 649-654.

Verchot, L.V., Van Noordwijk, M., Kanji, S., Tomich, T., Ong, C., Albrecht A.,Mackensen, J., Bantilan, C., Anupama, K.V. and C. Palm (2007) Mitig AdaptStrat Glob Change. DOI 10.1007/s11027-007-9105-6. Springer.


40/52

40

Glossary of Terms* from UNFCCC definition of terms

AdaptationA process where strategies and actions to avoid, moderate, cope with and/ortake advantage of the consequences of climate events are developed, enhancedand implemented.*

Adaptation baselineIncludes a description of existing adaptations to the current climate change.*

Adaptation StrategyA broad plan of action that is implemented through policies and measures andwhose objective is to reduce the vulnerability of society. Strategies can becomprehensive (i.e. focusing on national, cross-sectorial scales) or targeted (i.e.focusing on specific sectors, regions or measures). *

Adaptation ActionA planned activity developed and implemented on the ground with the objectiveof moderating, coping or taking advantage of a specific climate change impact.Adaptation actions include those designed to cope with an impact, share orcompensate any loss, modify the circumstances of the system to prevent animpact, search for alternatives, change the location of a given system/activity, orresearch, educate and create awareness.*

Adaptation PolicyThe explicit intention of a government to enhance the capacity of society torespond to climate change by, interalia, setting national objectives, identifyingand delegating responsibilities, enabling the building of capacity and identifyingand distributing resources for the assessment of vulnerability and the design andimplementation of adaptation actions. Policies typically refer to instruments thatgovernment can use to change economic and other behaviors. Policies areusually composed of taxes, command-and-control regulations (e.g. performancespecifications for technologies), market mechanisms such as trading schemes,incentives such as subsidies for new management techniques, and informationgathering (e.g. on the likely impacts of climate change) or dissemination (e.g. onthe merits of new technologies or behavior changes).

Adaptation Policy Framework (APF)A structured process for developing adaptation strategies, developing adaptationstrategies, policies and measures to enhance and ensure human development in

the face of climate change, including climate variability. APF is designed to linkclimate change adaptation to sustainable development and other globalenvironmental issues. It consists of five basic components: project scope anddesign, assessing current vulnerability, characterizing future climate risks,developing an adaptation strategy, and continuing the adaptation process.*

Adaptive CapacityThe potential or capability of a system to adjust, via changes in its characteristicsor behavior, in order to cope better with existing climate variability and change. It


41/52

41

is possible to differentiate between adaptive potential, which is a theoreticalupper boundary of responses based on global expertise and anticipateddevelopments within the planning horizon of the assessment, and adaptivecapacity, which is constrained by the existing information, technology andresources of the system under consideration.*

Adaptive ManagementThe act, manner, or practice of managing, handling, or controlling a specific

system in a way in which its adaptive capacity is increased. Adaptivemanagement is achieved by the implementation of adaptation actions.*

Baseline (also called project baseline)A description of current conditions, including existing or needed information onsocio-economic conditions, climate risks and hazards, and known systemvulnerabilities and adaptations. See also Vulnerability baseline and Adaptationbaseline.*

BiodiversityBiodiversity is a contraction of biological diversity. Biodiversity reflects thenumber, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes diversity withinspecies (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity), and betweenecosystems (ecosystem diversity).*

ClimateThe average condition experienced across a specific set of variables like

temperature, salinity, precipitation, ocean currents and wind.*

Climate ChangeAny change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or because ofhuman activity.*

Climate Change VulnerabilityThe degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with theadverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. Seealso vulnerability.*

Climate VariabilityVariations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, theoccurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scalesbeyond that of individual weather events. Variability may result from naturalinternal processes within the climate system (internal variability) or fromvariations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability).*

Climate-related RiskThe result of the interaction of physically defined hazards with the properties ofthe exposed systems i.e. the systems sensitivity or (social) vulnerability. Riskcan also be considered as the combination of an event, its likelihood and itsconsequences i.e. risk equals the probability of climate hazard multiplied by agiven systems vulnerability.*


42/52

42

ConventionIn legal terms, a convention is a group of contracts, treaties, pacts or agreementsparties. Conventions arise from the recognition that a problem exists and thatthere is a need to unify the efforts to solve it. They specify the tasks andcommitments that are required to achieve a specific objective. Examples ofconventions related to environmental issues include the Basel Convention onToxic Waste, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).*

Coping rangeThe range of climate where outcomes are beneficial or negative but tolerable;damages or losses beyond the coping range are no longer tolerable, and asociety is said to be vulnerable.*

DesertificationThe (UNCCD) defines desertification as land degradation in arid, semi-arid andsub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations andhuman activities.*

Drivers (of ecosystem change)Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change inan ecosystem.*

Ecosystem(s)An ecological unit made up of a complex system of interactions between living

communities (plants, animal, fungi, and microorganisms) and the environmentthey live in. Ecosystems have no fixed boundaries; a single lake, a watershed, oran entire region could be considered an ecosystem.*

Ecosystem servicesThe benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning servicessuch as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control;cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; andsupporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for lifeon Earth.*

EvaluationA process for determining systematically and objectively the relevance,efficiency, effectiveness and impact of adaptation strategies in the light of theirobjectives.*

Habitat changeChange in the local environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives.Habitat change can occur naturally through droughts, disease, fire, hurricanes,mudslides, volcanoes, earthquakes, slight increases or decreases in seasonaltemperature or precipitation, etc. However, it is generally induced by humanactivities such as land use change and physical modification of rivers or waterwithdrawal from rivers.*


43/52

43

HazardA physically defined climate event with the potential to cause harm, such asheavy rainfall events, drought, floods, storms, and long-term changes in meanclimate variables such as temperature.*

HybridA physically defined climate event with the potential to cause harm, such asheavy rainfall events, droughts, floods storms and long-term changes in mean

climate variable such as temperature.*

Land coverThe physical coverage of land, usually expressed in terms of vegetation coverorlack of it. The human use of a piece of land for a certain purpose (such asirrigated agriculture or recreation) influences land cover.*

Policy Oriented StrategiesA broad plan for adaptation which focuses primarily on institutional development.Policy oriented strategies include elements of capacity building, finance,technical assistance, dissemination of information, cooperation and others.*

ProbabilityDefines the likelihood of an event or outcome occurring. Probability can rangefrom being qualitative, using descriptions such as likely or highly confident, toquantified ranges and single estimates, depending on the level of understandingof the causes of events, historical time series and future conditions. *

ImpactsChanges induced in a system (physical ecological or social) resulting fromclimate change or climate variability which have significant deleterious effects forits composition, resilience and/or productivity.*

Land DegradationAs defined by UNCCD, is the reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfedcropland, irrigated cropland, or large, pasture, forest and woodlands resultingfrom land uses or from a process or combination of processes, includingprocesses arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as:

Soil erosion caused by wind and/or water

Deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economicproperties of soil; and

Long-term loss of natural vegetation

GEF definition:any form of deterioration of the natural potential of land that affects ecosystemintegrity either in terms of reducing its sustainable ecological productivity or interms of its native biological richness and maintenance of resilienceSummary Definition:A reduction in land productivity that affects the integrity of an ecosystem througherosion, salinization, loss of soil fertility and the like. Prevention and control ofland degradation, especially desertification and deforestation, are critical to


44/52

44

achieving sustainable development at the national and global environmentallevels.

MitigationMeasures added to a project or activity to reduce, prevent or correct its impact;Anthropogenic intervention to reduce the emission or enhance the sinks ofGHGs. *

Policies and MeasuresUsually addressed together, these address the need for climate adaptation indistinct, but sometimes overlapping ways. Policies typically refer to instrumentsthat government can use to change economic and other behaviors. Policies areusually composed of taxes, command-and-control regulations (e.g. performancespecifications for technologies), market mechanisms such as trading schemes,incentives such as subsidies for new management techniques, and informationgathering (e.g. on the likely impacts of climate change) or dissemination (e.g. onthe merits of new technologies or behavior changes). Measures are usuallyspecific actions that are amenable to implementation, such as re-engineeringirrigation systems, planting different crops, or initiating a new industry. Manyprojects could also be termed measures.*

StakeholdersThose with interests in a particular decision, either as individuals or asrepresentatives of a group. Include people who influence a decision, or caninfluence it as well as those affected by it. *

StrategyA broad plan of action that is implemented through policies and measures.Strategies can be comprehensive (i.e. focusing on national, cross-sectoralscales) or targeted (i.e. focusing on specific sectors, regions or measures).*

SustainagilityAllowing the farmers agility to continue. This concept may capture the dynamiccomplements to the sustainability assessment of whether or not current systemscan survive. (Coined by Verchot, et al., 2007)

UncertaintyAn expression of the degree to which a value (.g. the future state of the climatesystem) is unknown. *

VulnerabilityThe degree to which a system is likely to be affected by climate change orclimate variability; this degree is expressed as diminishing values for specifiedindicators linked to a probability. (Turner et al., 2003)

WeatherThe atmospheric conditions at a particular place in terms of air temperature,pressure, humidity, wind speed and precipitation. *


45/52

45

Annex 1: Integrated Climate Risk Assessment Framework(ICRAF) for small farmers

Small farmers in developing countries are among the most vulnerable groups toclimate change. But even now, they are very vulnerable to current climate risks(ENSO, drought, typhoons) ie they have very low adaptive capacity to climaterisks. Indeed an adaptation deficit exists where adaptation strategies availablenow are not being taken advantage of (Leary et al, 2007). This is evidenced bythe high loss of property and life in recent climate- related hazards around theworld. ICRAF is a participatory, iterative, interdisciplinary, bottom-up and multi-stakeholder approach that allows gradual, creeping change based on tippingpoints, large scale (more frequent ENSO, stronger/more frequent typhoons) totrigger higher Adaptive Capacity and may need intervention (although theseinterventions may not exactly be regular).

Figure 10.Framework ofICRAF

Steps in ICRAF:1. Adaptation deficit analysisa) Assess current climate risks faced by small farmersb) Analyze vulnerability of small farmers to climate risksb) Assess the strengths and weaknesses of current adaptationc) Determine if an adaptation deficit exists

2. Planning to build adaptive capacitya) Determine strategies, measures, policies to enhance resilience of small farming systemsb) Assess costs and benefits of adaptation optionsc) Assess future climate risks and what adaptation can be done now

3) Implementation and mainstreaminga) Implement adaptation strategies and measureb) Mainstream adaptation policiesc) Monitor and evaluate progressd) Study ways to further improve adaptive capacitye) Handling tipping points

Limitations of the Framework-non-linear changes- not for long term crops, infrastructure- not for biological systems eg extinction of species

Adaptation

deficit analysis

Implementation

/Mainstreaming

Adaptation

Planning

SmallFarmers


46/52

46

Annex 2. AIACCC results on some adaptation options forForests and Agriculture. (Cruz, et al., 2005)

AdaptationStrategy forForests andA riculture

Effect on WaterResources

Effect onInstitutions

Effect on LocalCommunities

Use of early maturing crops + Lower water demand 0 + Higher income

Use of drought-resistantcrops

+ Lower water demand 0 + Higher income

Supplemental watering Higher demand for water Increase cost ofdeveloping alternativesources of water

Greater labor demand+ Higher income

Proper scheduling ofplanting

0 Increase cost for training,technical assistance, R&D

0

Soil and water conservationmeasures

+ Conservation of water Increase cost for training,technical assistance, R&D

Cash expenses

Establishment of fire lines + More vegetative coverpromotes good hydrology

+ Less expense for firefighting

More labor demand+ Less damage to cropsfrom fire; more income

Construction of drainagestructures

+ Better water quality (lesssediment load)

Increase cost ofimplementation

+ Less soil erosion in thefarm; greater yield

Controlled burning + Less damage towatershed cover

0 0

Tree planting + Better hydrology Increase cost ofimplementation

+ Steady supply of fuelwood Less area for farm

Enhance community-basedorganizations

+ + Better participation in thepolitical process

+ Better participation

Total logging ban + More forest cover Increase cost ofenforcement and protection

Less income Fewer sources of income

Use of appropriatesilvicultural practices

+/ Could promote or impairhydrology depending on thepractice.



Better coordination betweenLGUs

+ Promotes betterwatershed management

+ Greater collaborationamong LGUs

+ Better delivery of servicesto farmers

Information campaign + + Increase awareness andcompetence

+ Increase awareness andcompetence

Better implementation of

forest laws

+ Promotes better

watershed management

Increase cost of

implementation

+/ Could adversely affect

current livelihood of farmersthat are deemed illegal


47/52

47

Early or late onsetof rainy season

High mortality of out plantedseedlings (late)Indicator: % survival

High Plant after xx days ofrain; Mulching; Irrigation(not practical); choice ofspecies

La Nina Higher survival?

El Nino Forest firesIndicator: frequency; areaburned

High Fires lines; fire brigades;IEC; choice of species

High Temperature/Summer season

Forest fires

Rainy season Higher survival?

Natural Forests

Early or late onset ofrainy season

La Nia More landslides

Indicators: area; frequency

Low

El Nio Forest fires on edges; increaseslash and burn farmingIndicators: area, frequency

Medium


Fires on edges

Rainy season More landslidesIndicators: area, frequency

Low

Upland Farms


Late: low yieldIndicator: yield

Choice of early maturingcrops

La Nina Damage to cropsIndicator: yield

Choice of varieties

El Nino Shortened planting season;lower yield; firesIndicator: yield; area andfrequency of fires

Choice of varieties


Fires Choice of varieties

Rainy season Flooding of crops

Lowland FarmsEarly or late onset ofrainy season

La Nina Flooding of cropsIndicators: area flooded

High Choice of variety

El Nino Lack of irrigation waterIndicators: crop yield

Medium Choice of variety; mulching


Rainy season

Grassland Ecosystems

Climate VariabilityImpact Degree of

VulnerabilityAdaptation Measures


La Nina Less fires

El Nino Forest firesIndicator: number of fires; area

burned

Highly vulnerableIndicator:

Frequency of firesArea burned

Fire brigadeIEC

Indicator: number of firebrigades,


Forest firesIndicator: number of fires, areaburned

Frequency of firesArea burned

Fire linesFire brigade

Rainy season Less fires

Tree Plantations


48/52

48

Annex 3: Six-step approach for assessing vulnerability andidentifying and implementing climate change adaptations (theV&A approach) (USAID, 2007)

This approach is ideal for climate change adaptation practitioners. Althoughthese steps are not hard fast rules to follow, these are valuable guides forintegrating V&A elements into projects.

Step1: Screen for Vulnerability

Vulnerability Screening is a primary assessment of whether climate variability orchange could compromise the integrity, effectiveness, or longevity of a projectwithin the planning horizon for the project.Step 2: Identify adaptationsWork with stakeholders to identify alternative designs or management practices

that may enable them to better cope with climate variability and change. Theemphasis should be on finding measures that increase resilience to climatechange but still make sense under the current climateStep 3: Conduct AnalysisExamine the consequences of climate variability and change as well as theeffectiveness, costs, and feasibility of adaptations that can reduce vulnerability toclimate variability and changeStep 4: Select course of actionMeet with stakeholders to review results of the analysis. Determine if changes ina current project design are required or if a proposed project should feature newadaptationsStep 5: Implement adaptationsPrepare an implementation plan identifying next steps, responsible staff andorganizations, timeline, and resource needs required to incorporate the climatechange adaptations into the project.Step 6: Evaluate adaptationsEvaluate the implementation of adaptations and their effectiveness. Since manyadaptations may be due to infrequent, extreme events or long-term climatechange, it may be difficult to evaluate effectiveness in a relatively hort time periodfollowing implementation. But at a minimum, an evaluation can be done to see ifthe adaptations were put in place and whether there were problems or excessivecosts associated with them.


49/52

49

Helpful Websites:World Agroforestry Centre Website:ICRAF is the global leader in the generation, synthesis and dissemination ofinformation related to agroforestry. We are actively involved in the developmentof a challenge program for climate change mitigation and adaptation for ruraldevelopment in the uplands. A variety of tools, teaching materials, papers and

links can be accessed from the website.Global: www.worldagroforestry.orgSoutheast Asia: www.worldagroforestry.org/sea

Tropical Forest and Climate Change Adaptation (TroFCCA) Website:This is the website of the TroFCCA project, a four-year project (in Asia, Africaand South America) funded by the European Union; implemented by the Centerfor International Forestry (CIFOR) and CATIE and in collaboration with the WorldAgroforestry Centre-Philippines. Information on the project activities, countrydetails, links and outputs are presented in this website.www.cifor.cgiar.org/trofcca

IPCC Website:The IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body set up by the WorldMeteorological Organization (WMO) and by the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP). Its constituency is made up of governments, scientists andthe people. The IPCC reports and updates are available for download from thiswebsite.www.ipcc.ch/

UNFCCC website:The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) treatywas formed to begin to consider what can be done to reduce global warming andto cope with whatever temperature increases are inevitable. Recently, a numberof nations have approved an addition to the treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which hasmore powerful (and legally binding) measures. The UNFCCC secretariatsupports all institutions involved in the climate change process, particularly theCOP, the subsidiary bodies and their Bureau. More information on the UNFCCC,publications, tools, links and activities can be found in this website.unfccc.int/2860.php

Albay Declaration:Full details of the Albay declaration are listed in this website.

www.albaydeclaration.we.bs/

National Conference on Climate Change Adaptation:The topics, presentations, outputs, conclusions and plans ahead after therecently concluded NCCCA conference held in Legaspi, Albay last October 22-24, 2007 are listed in this website.www.nccca.we.bs


50/52

50

UNEP-WCMC Website:The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is acollaboration between the United Nations Environment Programme and WCMC2000, a UK-based charity. Their mission is to evaluate and highlight the manyvalues of biodiversity and put authoritative biodiversity knowledge at the centre ofdecision-making. A variety of information (tools, publications, updates and links)are available on climate change and biodiversity from this website.www.unep-wcmc.org/Climate/

Further Readings:For Climate Change Impacts on Sea Level Rise:Jabines, A. and J. Inventor (2007) The Philippines: A Climate Hotspot. ClimateChange Impacts and the Philippines. GreenPeace Southeast Asia Climate andEnergy Campaign. YC Publication Consultants.www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/seasia/en/press/reports/the-philippines-a-climate-hot.pdf

Flood-Prone Areas in the Philippines (2007) http://baseportal.com/cgi-bin/baseportal.pl?htx=/miso/floodprone(Accessed July 2007).

Profile of Philippine Agriculture (1999). http://www.da.gov.ph/about/profile.htm(Accessed Nov. 7, 2007).

Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Environmental Disasters (2004)http://www.klima.ph/adaptation-article.htmlhttp://www.observatory.ph/vm/


51/52

51


52/52

52

Sanchez Et Al 2007_Primer on CCA

Documents

Transcript of Sanchez Et Al 2007_Primer on CCA