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Energy is a key input in economic growth there is a close link between the availability ofenergy an d the future growt h of a na tion. However, in a developing country like India grea ter

th e ava ilability of energy t he more is its shorta ge. In spite of the increase in power genera ting

capacity from 2000 MW in 1950 to 91,190 MW by the end of 2000, the peak shortage is ex-

pected t o touch 30 per cent.

Energy i s consumed in a var ie ty o f fo rms in India . Fuelwood, an imal was te and

a gricultura l residues a re tra ditional sources of energy tha t cont inue to meet th e bulk of energy

requirement in rural India. These non-commercial fuels are gradually getting replaced by

commercial fuels such as coal , l igni te , petroleum products, natural gas and electrici ty.

Commercial fuel accounts for 60 per cent of the tota l primar y energy supply in India wit h t he

ba lan ce 40 per cent coming from non-commercial fuels. Of th e tota l commercia l energy pr oduced

in th e form of pow er or electricity , 69%is from coal or th erma l pow er, 25%is from hydel pow er,

2%is from nuclea r power, 4%is from diesel a nd ga s a nd less t ha n 1%is from non-conventiona lsources like sola r, w ind, bio-ga s, mini hydel etc. Petr oleum a nd its products a re the other la rge

sources of energy .

The G overnment of India ha s formulat ed an energy policy w ith t he objective of ensur-

ing a dequa te energy supply a t a minimum cost, a chieving self-sufficiency in energy su pplies

a nd protecting environment from ad verse impact of utilising energy resources in a n unjudicia l

ma nner. The ma in feat ures of th e policy a re

(i ) a ccelera ted exploita tion of domestic conventiona l energy resources—oil, coa l, hyd ro

a nd nuclea r power ;

(i i ) intensification of explora tion to a chieve indigenous production of oil a nd ga s ;

(i i i ) ma na gement of demand of oi l and other forms of energy ;

(i v

) energy conservation and ma na gement ;(v ) optimisa tion of utilisat ion of existing ca pacity in th e country ;

(vi ) development a nd exploita tion of renewa ble sources of energy t o meet energy re-

quirement s of rura l communities ;

(vi i ) intensification of resources and development a ctivities in new a nd renewa ble en-

ergy resources ; an d

(v i i i ) organisa tion of tra ining for personnel enga ged at va rious levels in the energy sector ;

The development a nd pr omotion of non-convent ional/a ltern a te/new a nd r enewa ble

sources of energy such a s sola r, wind , bio-energy etc. are gett ing susta ined at tent ion from the

Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources set-up in 1982.

1



2 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

P-IV\C:\N-ENERGY\CH1-1

Classification of Energy Resources

1. Commercial Fuels : e.g. coa l, lignite, petr oleum products, na tur a l gas a nd electricity.

Non-commercial Fuels : e.g. fuelwood, cowdung, agricul tural wa ste .

2. Conventional Resources : e.g. fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas), water

an d nuclear energy.

Non-conventional Resources (or Alternate energy) solar, bio, wind, ocean, hydrogen,

geothermal.

3. Renewable Resources of Energy : Renewa ble sources of energy a re those nat ura l

resources w hich a re inexha ustible and can be used t o produce energy a gain a nd a gain.

Exa mples a re solar energy, w ind energy, geotherma l energy, t ida l energy, w a ter energy

a nd bio energy. Atomic minera ls ar e inexha ust ible sources of energy w hen used in fa st

breeder rea ctor t echnology.

Non-Renewable Resources of Energy :Those na tur a l resources which are exha ust -

ible a nd ca nnot be replaced once they a re used. E xam ples a re fossil fuels such a s coa l, oil

an d ga s w hich t ogether supply 98%of the total w orld energy demand t oday .

Coal

Coal is t he prime source of energy a nd a ccounts for a bout 67 per cent of the count ry’s

commercial energy requirement. I t is indispensa ble in meta llurgica l and chemical indust ries.

Therma l pow er produced from low-gra de coa l a ccounts for 52 per cent of tota l insta lled gener-

a ting capa city of electr icity in t he country . Coal consists of vola tile mat ter, moisture an d car-

bon besides ash cont ent. The coal deposits in In dia belong to Gondw a na a nd Tertia ry pha se.

About 98 per cent of the coa l resources belong t o the G ondwa na a ge. Nearly 75 per cent of the

coa l deposits a re locat ed in the Da modar River Va lley. The places well associat ed wit h t hese

deposi ts are Raniga nj in West Bengal , and J ha ria, G iridih, Bokaro and Ka ra npura in Biha r.The other river val leys associat ed with coa l deposi ts a re the G odava ri , Maha na di , Son a nd

Wa rdha . Other coal mines areas a re in the Sa tpura r an ge in Chha tt isgarh plains of Madhya

P ra desh. The coal f ields of Singa reni in Andhra P ra desh, Talcher in Orissa a nd C ha nda in

Maha rashtra are a l so very large .

The coal mining industr y in India w a s sta rt ed at Ra niga nj in West B engal in 1774. The

coa l mining w a s na tiona lised in 1972–73 to a void exploita tion of la bour. The production of coal

almost completely a public sector activity is now organised through Coal India Ltd. , a joint

venture of centra l government an d Andhra P ra desh government.

Reserves and Production. The GS I , a s on 1 J an uar y 1996, have put the country’s

coa l reserves (upto a depth of 1200 m) a t nea rly 2,01,953.70 million tonn es. Of t hese,

a bout 27 per cent a re of coking va riety a nd 73 per cent of non-coking va riety. B eca use of the

limited ava ilability of coking va riety, i ts use is being limited to meta llurgica l puroses wherea snon-coking coa l a va ilable in th e count ry is generally s uita ble for power genera tion. The ma jor

states known for coal reserves are Bihar, West Bengal , Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra

Pra desh an d Mah a rash t r a .

Coal production w hich wa s a round 78.17 million tonnes a t t he time of na tiona lisat ion of

th e coa l indu st ry in 1973–74, rose t o a level of 270.12 million tonn es in 1995-96. India is now

th e third la rgest coa l producing country in t he world. At t his ra te th e reserves a re expected to

last about 200 years. I t is therefore imperative that coal must be conserved and used selec-

tively.



ENERGY RESOURCES 3


Classification of Coals. Depending on the relative proportions of fixed carbon, mois-

tur e and volat ile ma tt er the coa l is clas sified, from high to low r a nk, as follow s : (i ) Anth ra cite,(i i ) B ituminous, (i i i ) Senic Bitu minous, and (i v ) lignit e or brow n coa l.

Coals a re a lso cla ssified a ccording to percenta ge of volat ile ma tt er into tw o types :

(i ) Low Volatile Coal. I t has a low percentage of volatile matter, between 20 to 30

wit h relat ively lower moisture cont ent a nd is genera lly know n a s coking coa l. These

ha ve good coking propert ies with a sh cont ent of up to 24 per cent a nd w ith or w ith-

out benefication are used for manufacture of hard coke required for metallurgical

purposes.

(i i ) High Volatile Coal. I t cont a ins more volat ile ma tt er, over 30 per cent w ith m ois-

ture a s high a s 10 per cent a nd is f ree burning coa l ma inly sui table for st eam r a is-

ing. I t is commonly known a s non-coking coa l a nd is used in ind ustr ies for genera l

heat ing a nd st eam ra ising in t hermal power genera t ion, in st eam locomotives, brick

burning in chemica l industries a nd a s domestic fuel.

Lignite. Lignite also called brown coal, is a low-grade inferior coal containing much

moisture. On exposure, it disint egra tes eas ily an d th erefore, before use, it is t ra nsformed into

briquettes. I t is ma inly used for t hermal power generat ion, as industrial a nd domestic fuel , for

carbonisa tion an d fertilizer production.

The India n lignite ha s less ash content th a n coa l, a nd is consistent in qua lity. Importa nt

deposi ts of lignite occur in Ta milnadu, P ondicherry, Ut ta r P ra desh, Kera la, Ra ja stha n a nd

J a mmu & Ka shmir. Lignite reserves in th e country a re estima ted a t a round 27,400 million

tonnes. The deposits at Neyveli in Tamilnadu are 3,300 million tonnes and constitute the

country’s 90 per cent of the lignite reserves. The mines, however, suffer from the artesian

str ucture an d const a nt pumping of wa ter is formida ble ta sk. But the locat ion of th ese deposits

is a boon for Ta milna du. It produces 600 MW of therma l power. The indust ria lizat ion of th eState depends considerably on the thermal power generated at Neyveli l ignite f ield. Annual

production in t his la rgely open ca st mine is 6.5 million t onnes.

Problems of Coal Mining

(i ) India ’s reserves of meta llurgica l coa l a re limited. In spite of th is, the recovery of

superior gra de coal suita ble for coke ma nufa cture continu es to remain low, a bout 70

to 80 per cent. I t can be increased by mechanising t he mines.

(i i ) Majority of coal deposits ar e situa ted in the east ern and centra l pa rts of India whereas

the t hermal power sta t ions a nd other consumers a re widely dispersed, necessita t-

ing long dista nce tr a nsporta tion of coal.

(i i i ) Since ma jority of coa l mines ar e on sma ll sca le, th ey use crude meth ods of produc-

tion a nd h ence th e per ca pita production is not only low but cost of production a lso

goes h igh.

(i v ) La rge quan ti t ies of impuri t ies w hich a re al lowed to remain w ith coa l reduce i ts

quality besides adding to high cost of transportation and deterioration of the envi-

ronment. I t can be avoided by w a shing the coa l .

(v ) A lar ge amount of coal is just w a sted, being discard ed as sla ck coa l, which ca n be

a voided if coa l powd er is converted int o briquett es.

(vi ) P ower shorta ge part icular ly in th e DVC a rea, non-ava i la bi li ty of explosives a nd

labour unr est a re some of th e oth er serious problems faced by the indust ry.





Conservation of Coal. The coa l resources of India a re poor, both in q ua lity a nd q ua n-

ti ty, a nd th is si tuat ion is a ggrava ted due to the misuse of good qua l i ty coa l l ike burning intransport and industries, small reserves of metallurgical or coking coal which may not last

long , se lec t ive mining leading to l arge was te o f raw coal , f requent f i res in mines and

unsys tema tic method of extr a cting coa l. I t is therefore essentia l tha t coa l must be conserved

a nd used selectively.

The Depar tment o f Coal i s the nodal agency for deve lopment , explo i ta t ion and

conservation of coal and lignite reserve in India. Coal conservation is ensured by maximum

recovery of in s i tu reserves of coal. Difficult geo-mining conditions prevailing in coal bearing

a rea s ha s necessita ted t he introduction of some lat est suita ble technology for exploita tion of

such deposits from coa l conserva tion a nd a lso sa fety point in view. Some other coa l conserva tion

methods being used or may be adopted are : (i ) reservation of coking coal for use only in

meta l lurgica l industry a nd in no case or used in minimum for steam genera t ion, in t ra nsport

or other industry ; (i i ) upgrada tion of I I a nd I I I gra de coa l by wa shing and blending i t wi th I -grade coking coal and then use in metallurgical industries ; (i i i ) selective mining should be

effectiv ely st opped ; (i v ) discovering a nd a ssessing new a rea s of coal reserves ; (v ) burning high

ash content coal by f luidised bed composit ion ; (vi ) smokeless coal for domestic use by

carbonisat ion ; (vi i ) use of slack or pow dered coal by briquett ing (binding w ith t a r or ta r-lime

mixtu re) ; (v i i i ) oil subst itution by coa l ga sificat ion or liquifaction by Fischer Tropsch Sy nth esis

; (i x ) pit hea d coa l processing ; (x ) ma gneto-hydr odyna mics (MHD )–direct conversion of heat ,

produced by burning coal, into electricity ; and (xi ) slurry transportation of coal to reduce

tra nsporta t ion costs .

Petroleum

Petroleum is an inflammable liquid composed primarily of hydrocarbons (90 to

98 per cent) and t he rest orga nic compounds conta ining oxygen, nitr ogen, sulphur a nd t ra ces

of organ ometallic compounds. P etroleum a nd petroleum products ar e used mainly a s motive

power, lubricat ing agents a nd a source of ra w ma terial for ma nufacturing va rious chemicals

required in industries.

Occurrence. Crude oi l or petroleum in India is ma inly associat ed with sedimenta ry

rocks of mesozoic and t ertia ry t imes which w ere once under the sha llow seas. The potent ial oil

bearing areas in India is estimated to be over 1.5 million sq. km, about two-fif th of the total

a rea. I t covers the Northern P lains in Ga nga -B ra hma putra va l ley, the coasta l str ips together

with their of f-shore continenta l shel f, the plains of Gujara t , t he Tha r desert a nd t he a rea

a round Anda ma n and Nicobar Isla nds.Exploration and Organisation. In India oil explora t ion a nd production sta rted in a n

extensive an d systema tic wa y a f ter the sett ing up of Oil and Na tura l Ga s Commission (ONGC )

in 1956, now ca lled Oil and Na tur a l Ga s Corpora tion Limited, Oil India Limited (OIL) formed

by acquisition of the shares of Burma Oil Company by the Government in 1981, became the

second public sector und erta king enga ged in oil explorat ion a nd production in th e count ry.

Till independence Assa m w a s th e only st a te w here mineral oil wa s drilled and r efined in

the refinery a t D igboi. Although small in size this is the only oilf ield t ha t ha s la sted for 100 years

continuously. After Independence Gujarat Plains and the Cambay of f-shore area showed



ENERGY RESOURCES 5


evidence of hydrocarbon deposits. But the major reserves were unexpectedly found off the

B ombay coast called Bomba y H igh, 115 km from the shore. So far t his ha s been th e richest oil-field of India .

Distribution. India ha s 13 importa nt ba sins bea ring oi l strat a which ca n be put under

three heads : (i ) Ca mbay basin in Gujara t , Assam-Ara kan bel t and B ombay of fshore basin, are

petroleum basins from where commercial production is being undertakin ; (i i ) R aj as th an ,

Krishna , Cauvery, G oda vari basin, Anda ma n, Bengal , Hima laya n foothi l ls , G an ga va l ley and

Tripura , Naga lan d fold belt, ar e known t o ha ve petroleum bear ing stra ta but commercial pro-

duction from th ese regions ha s not begun ; (i i i ) Kutch-Sa urashtra , Kerala-Konkan and Maha nadi

ha ve geological st ructures fa vouring occurrence of petroleum a nd t herefore a re considered to

be prospective r egions.

Reserves and Production. The worldwide proved oil reserves stand at 999.7 billion

ba rrels, a s on 1 J a nua ry 1995. Oil production is looming ar ound 19–22 million ba rrels per

yea r. Compa ring t hese tw o factors (Reserve-P roduction) the oil reserves of world w ill last for45 years. India’s proved oil reserves are very poor—just limited to 739 million tonnes as on

1 J a nua ry 1996 and a re going to la st only for next 15–20 yea rs. Our domestic production ha s

increa sed from 0.25 million t onnes in 1950 to 35 million tonn es in 1995–96. Oil production h a s

rea ched a peak of 34.0 million t onnes in 1989–90. How ever th is fell to 27 million t onnes dur ing

1992-93, la rgely on a ccount of closur e of over-w orked oil w ells in B omba y H igh region. S ince

th en it ha s been increa sing ma inly due t o commissioning of ma jor development schemes such

a s the a dditiona l development of L-II , L-III , Neelan field an d South H eera field in the w estern

offshore. It is planned to increase the production to 50 million tonnes. Ofshore crude from

B ombay High a ccounts for nea rly 75 per cent of domestic production.

About 40 per cent of total consumption of petroleum products of the country is used in

transport sector. The balance 60 per cent is used in industries including power generation,

domestic an d for other miscellaneous purposes.

Refineries. Oil refining in I ndia is done in its 13 refineries, a ll in public sectors w ith a n

a ggrega te r efining ca pacity of 60.4 million t onnes as in J une 1996. These 13 refineries a re :

Barauni (Bihar, Indian Oil), Bongaigaon (Assam, Bongaigaon Refineries), Cochin (Kerala,

Cochin Refineries), Digboi (Assam, Indian Oil), Haldia (West Bengal, Indian Oil), Kovali

(G ujar a t , Indian Oil), Mana l i a nd Narima na m (Madr as, Ma dra s Refineries), Mathura (Indian

Oil), Noonmati in Guwahati (Assam, Indian Oil), Trombay (Bombay, Hindustan Petroleum),

Trombay (B omba y, Bha ra t P etroleum), Visakha patn a m (Andhra P ra desh, Hindusta n P etro-

leum). Two new ref ineries a re being set up in Man galore (Ka rna ta ka) and P an ipat (Ha rya na )

in t he joint sector.

Problem Areas. The ma in policy issues in t he petroleum oil sector a re :

(i ) India ’s lar ge and g rowing relian ce on import of oil and oil products ma kes it suscep-

tible to chan ges in int erna tiona l oil prices. Oil import s a ccounted for 44 per cent

consumpt ion a nd t he va lue account ed to 27 per cent of tota l import s in 1995–96.

This a lso ra ises concern rega rding ensur ing oil security for t he na tion.

(i i ) The domestic crude production ha s sta gna ted for some years a nd even gone down.

(i i i ) Since the finding of B ombay H igh in the ’80s, we ha ve not found a ny ma jor oilf ield.

We ha ve a lso been una ble to a tt ra ct foreign oil compa nies to come for explora tion in

India .

(i v ) P ricing of oil products is highly politicised a nd full of distortions.





Conservation. A very h igh priority is being at ta ched to the conserva tion of petroleum

products. The P etroleum C onserva tion Research Association (P CRA), opera ting under t he U n-ion Ministry of P etroleum a nd Na tura l G as, h as ta ken t he fol lowing mea sures for conservation

of petroleum products : (i ) creat ion of mass a wa reness on the need for conserva tion of petro-

leum products, (i i ) promotion of mea sures t o curb w a steful pra ctices ; (i i i ) improve t he oil use

efficiency of equipment, devices and vehicles ; (i v ) R&D for improving oil use efficiency in

var ious end uses ; and (v ) promotion of inter-fuel substit ution—like compressed n a tur a l ga s

(CNG ) wa s introduced as a n a l ternat ive fuel in roa d tra nsport sector.

In order t o enha nce energy security w ith t he objective to ensure t ha t petroleum prod-

ucts are a vai lable across the country at the minimum cost a nd on regular ba sis , the Govern-

ment ha s adopted a four-point st ra tegy a s given below :

(i ) E x p l or a t i o n A b r oa d . Domestic oil and gas companies like OIL and ONGC will

ta ke up explorat ion a broad w hich will ea rn t hem foreign exchan ge for purcha se of

oil.

(i i ) N ew Ref i n er i e s. Oil exporting countries t o be allow ed to set up n ew r efineries in

the country . Oman Oil and K uwa it P etroleum Corp. are doing so.

(i i i ) P i p el i n e Gr i d . To ensure quick and free movement of oil, a pipeline grid is to be

built. This will save tr a nsporta tion cost.

(i v ) Str a t eg i c Reser ves. Petroleum ministry wants to build up a 45 day reserves in

certa in a reas. Through t his country can t ide over a tempora ry shorta ge.

Natural Gas

Na tur a l gas is found both a lone or in a ssociat ion w ith crude oil ; but most of th e output

comes from as sociat ed sources. Exclusive na tur a l ga s reserves ha ve been loca ted in Tripura ,

Rajas than and a lmost in a l l the o f f shore o i l f ie lds o f Cambay in Gujara t , Bombay High ,Ta milnadu, Andhra P ra desh and Orissa.

In a power deficient count ry like India, na tur a l gas is precious gift . I t can be used both

as a source of energy ( for thermal power) and also as an industrial raw material in petro-

chemica l industry. I t t a kes less t ime to build a power plant based on nat ura l gas. For Indian

agriculture it has a capacity to boost its production through the building of fertiliser plants

based on na tura l gas. The uti l ity of ga s is further heightened because of i ts easy tra nsporta bi l-

i ty th rough ga s pipelines. Now ga s f rom B omba y a nd G ujar a t ga s f ields is taken to sta tes l ike

M adh ya P rade sh , Ra j as th an an d U t t a r P ra desh .

Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL), set up in 1984 for transportation, processing

a nd ma rketing of na tura l gas, w as a ssigned the priori ty t a sk of set t ing up the cross country

Ha jira -B ija pur-J a ga dishpur (HB J ) ga s pipeline wh ich is 1,730 km long and carr ies 18 million

cubic metres of natural gas per day. I t would feed six fertiliser plants and 3 power plants tobegin with H a zira, the sta rt ing point , is in G ujar a t , B i ja pur from w here one l ine runs towa rds

Sa wa imadhopur in Rajas tha n , i s in Madhya P radesh ; and J agdishpur , the terminus, i s in

Ut ta r P ra desh, HBJ pipel ine is a pa rt of the network for southern gas grid—a concept envis-

a ged for tr a nsport of surplus ga s from the western offshore fields to the south ern sta tes, sup-

plementing t o the extent fea sible, by a dditiona l gas f inds a nd t he ga s proposed to be imported

from the Middle Ea st. A purposed 2,300 km ga s pipeline will be la id from Oma n t o India from

w here gas could flow t o a ll southern sta tes.





Potential Areas. India ha s huge unt a pped identif ied potentia l in the hydel sector. The

import a nt h ydel pow er region of India a re : (i ) th e most import a nt region lies along th e foot-hi l ls of Himalay a in Western Utta r P ra desh a nd Himacha l Pra desh having untapped identi-

fied potent ia l of about 50,000 MW ; (i i ) th e nort h-east ern region a lso ha ving huge hydr o power

potential ; (i i i ) the region along Western Ghats running through Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Tamilnadu and Kerala ; (i v ) the region a long the Sa tpura , Vindhyas, Ma ha deo an d Maika l

ra nges in Central India ; (v ) th e therma l pow er region extending from east of Nagpur t o west

embra cing coa lfields of Gondw a na belt.

Growth of Hydro Power. The first h ydro power plan t in India wa s set up at D a rjeeling

in 1897, fol lowed by a second plant a t S ivasa muda ra m in K a rna ta ka in 1902. The total in-

st a lled capa city w hich w a s 588 MW in 1951 increa sed t o 20,976 MW in 1995–96.

Merits of Hydro Power. Except for the hea vy initia l investment hy del, projects ha ve

a definite edge over other power pla nts . Hy del power projects not only provide cheap genera -

tion of electr icity but a re renewa ble in na tur e (since wa ter is renewa ble or inexha ust ible source).In other w ords hydel projects ha ve a very low genera tion an d ma intena nce cost, w hile th e cost

of input, i.e., coal in thermal power plants is considerably high. There is no problem of pollu-

tion of environment or disposal of wa ste ma tt er in genera tion of hydel power. Oil, coal a nd ga s

resources which can be used for providing electricity are in short supply and exert greater

pressure on foreign exchange resources, hydel power can easily replace them. In addition,

hydel projects ca n a lso be used to meet the requirement of irriga tion in the down st ream a rea s,

a nd can a lso adequa tely meet t he dema nds of power.

Problems of Hydro Power. Although a s per estima tes of Cent ra l Electr icity Author-

ity, t he a nnua l hydr oelectr icity potentia l of our count ry a t 60%loa d fa ctor is 89,830 MW, yet

ha rdly 25%of i t ha s been ha rnessed, so fa r . I t is probably because t he init ia l investment a nd

execut ion period of hydr o-electr ic projects a re compa ra tively m uch more. Anoth er ma jor dra w -

back of hydel projects is displacement of population and damage to environment and fertilelan ds. There seems to be no escape from long gesta tion periods. B ut for t he displacement of

populat ion a nd da ma ge to environment a nd fertile la nds, the focus is shifting from const ruct-

ing big dams to the “run-of-the-river” projects. While dams are preferred in the foothills, so

that area downstream could be irrigated also, run-of-the-river projects are preferred in the

high hills, wh ich a re far from pla ins. Such projects d o not r equire big reservoirs a nd electr icity

is genera ted from wa ter a va ilable in the river a t a par ticular point of time. This does not need

to displa ce a ny popula tion, on th e one ha nd, a nd does not a ffect t he forests a nd environment,

on the other. But such projects cannot increase electricity generation to meet the peaking

requirement s, a s done by t he reservoir ba sed hydel projects. H ence a blend of both ty pes of

hy del projects is recommended.

Nuclear PowerDeficiency of qua lity coa l an d na tur a l gas a nd oil ha s forced the urgency of developing

nuclea r power in Ind ia. At present nuclear power a ccounts for 24% of the tota l electr icity

genera ted in t he country . The nuclea r power genera tion began in I ndia in 1969 wit h th e commis-

sioning of f irst atomic power station at Tarapore with foreign technology. India achieved a

landmark in nuclear power programme by building and commissioning indigeneously the

Ka lpa kkam a tomic power plant in Madra s in 1983. Since then India ha s a cquired a l l the capa -

bilities needed to genera te nuclear power.



ENERGY RESOURCES 9


Three Stage Programme. Dr. H omi J . Bha bha in 1954, formulat ed a t hree stage pro-

gra mme for a tt a ining self relian ce in nuclear power using ura nium a nd va st t horium resourcesof India .

F i r st S t age . Us e of na tur a l ura nium (U -238) a s fuel in pressurised heavy w a ter-rea c-

tors (PH WR) to produce power a nd plutonium.

Second Sta ge. Use of plutonium produced in fast breeder reactor (FBR) to produce

a dditiona l plutonium/U -233 from t horium a nd power.

Nuclear Power Reactors

L ocat i on N o. of Capaci t y Year of

r eactor s (MWe) Comm i ssi on i ng

and type

Operating1. Ta ra pore (TAP S 1 & 2) 2, B WR 2 × 160 = 320 1969

2. Ra w a t bha t t a (RAP S 1 & 2) 2, P H WR 100 + 200 = 300 1973, 1981

3. K a lpa kka m (MAP S 1 & 2) 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440 1983, 1985

4. Na rora (NAP S 1 & 2) 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440 1990, 1991

5. Ka kra pa r (K AP S 1 & 2) 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440 1992, 1995

Tot a l 1940

Under Construction

1. Ka kra pa r 3 & 4 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440

2. Ra w a t bha t t a 3 & 4 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440

3. K a iga 1 & 2 2, P H WR 2 × 220 = 440

4. Ta ra pore 3 & 4 2, P H WR 2 × 500 = 1000

Planned

1. Ka iga 3–6 4, P H WR 4 × 220 = 880

2. Ra w a t bha t t a 5-8 4, P H WR 4 × 500 = 2000

3. K uda nkula m 1 & 2 2, VVE R 2 × 1000 = 2000

Target by 2020 AD = 20,000 MWe

Th i r d S t a ge. U se of thorium. U -233 in an a dva nced fuel cycle and rea ctor system (un-

der d evelopment ).

The first st a ge ha s rea ched the commercial st a ge. The generat ion of power from nuclea r

energy began in I ndia in 1969 wit h t he commissioning of first a tomic power st a tion at Ta ra pore

i.e. TAP S. The tota l insta lled capa city of nuclear power st a tions in opera tion a t f ive sites in fivest a tes (see und er nuclea r power r ea ctors given in box) is 1940 MWe.

The comm issioning in 1985, of th e fas t br eeder test rea ctor (FB TR) of 40 MW th erma l

a nd 13 MW electrical power a t I G CAR, Ka lpakka m ma rked the commencement of the second

sta ge of India ’s nuclea r power progra mme.

For the third stage some progress has been made like U-233 bearing fuel has been

fabricated and t ested in small reactor system ; a n adva nced heavy wa ter reactor system tha t

can ma ke use of a ppropria te t horium /U -233 fuel cycle is being developed. In dia ’s long ter m

strategy is to depend on thorium reactors because, (i ) thorium converted into U-233 would





help to keep the cycle going, wit hout sizea ble inputs of extera l f issile ma teria l ; (i i ) th e energy

potentia l of thorium on thermal reactors is wa y a bove that of nat ura l uranium ; (i i i ) India ha snearly f ive t imes a s much high-gra de thorium a s ura nium (a bundant a vai labi l i ty of thorium

from nat ura l resources) ; and (i v ) potent ial of thorium exceeds th a t of fast rea ctors.

Nuclear Energy Minerals. India is rich in certa in at omic or nuclea r minerals. U ra nium

is obta ined from J a duguda mines si tuat ed in Singhbhum district of Biha r a nd a lso from part s

of Ra jasth a n. Abunda nt m onazite sa nds on the coast of Kerala is chief source of thorium an d

ura nium. I l lmenite and z irconium ar e found concentra ted in the beach sands of Mala bar an d

Coroma nda l coa sts . Gra phite is found in Madhya P ra desh and Ta mil Nadu.

India ha s a va st potentia l of renewa ble energy sources and a number of technologies have been

developed to har ness them. A number of indust ria l base ha s been creat ed in the country in t heva rious renewa ble energy technologies such a s sola r th erma l, solar photovolta ics, w ind, sma ll

hydr o, bioma ss etc. An a ggrega te capa city of 900 MW ha s been insta lled, ba sed on these tech-

nologies.

Plan and Policy. The non-conventional sources of energy are capable of solving the

twin problems of energy supply in a decentralised manner and helping in sustaining cleaner

environment. The government is encoura ging New a nd Renewa ble Sources of Energy (NRSE )

to meet the growing demand of energy, to act as supplement to the fast depeleting conven-

tiona l sources of energy a nd a lso to meet energy needs of the rur a l ar eas.

The Depa rt ment of Non-Conventional E nergy Sources (DNE S), set up in 1982 an d now

upgraded to a full-fledged Ministry (MNES), looks after the development of new and non-

conventiona l sources of energy. I t s ma in a ctivities include program me for development of so-

lar energy, wind energy, ocean energy, hydr ogen energy, biomass energy, chemica l sources of

energy, energy from wa ste, bioga s, improved chulha , wa ste recycling, magnetohydr odynam ics,

etc. In planning and implementation of NRSE programmes particular care is taken to elicit

th e coopera tion of loca l commun ities a nd t o meet their n eeds for sma ll power, su ch a s energy

for cooking, supply of wa ter for minor irriga tion, drinking a nd domestic purposes as well a s

also street lighting. These programmes have proved particularly useful in remote and hilly

a rea s in providing fa cility for the w elfa re of weaker sections of the society.

The energy from the sun in the form of radiations is the solar energy. Sun is a source of

enormous energy. I t is believed th a t w ith just 0.1 per cent of the 75,000 trill ion K WH of solar

energy that reaches the earth, the planet’s energy requirements can be fulfil led.

Solar energy can be uti l ised in three ways : ( i ) converting it into thermal energy ;

(i i ) converting it into electricity ; a nd (i i i ) photosynt hesis.

Thermal Energy

Therma l energy from sun can be obta ined by using a sola r collector. A lar ge number of

applications of solar thermal energy particularly those where low-grade thermal energy is

required, ha ve alrea dy become commercial. These include solar cookers, solar w a ter h eat ing

systems, solar a ir heat ing, crop drying, refrigerat ion, wa ter pumping, t imber sea soning a nd



ENERGY RESOURCES 11


water desal inat ion. Work is on to develop economical ly viable solar col lectors for high

temperature applicat ions. Solar thermal systems are today supplementary thermal energyrequirements a t various tempera tures f rom 60° C–380°C for di f ferent domestic and industr ial

a pplica tions including process heat ing a nd power generat ion.

Solar water heating systems have vast potential to save electrici ty in domestic and

commercial sectors an d furna ce oil in industr ial sector wh ich otherw ise ar e being used for hot

wa ter supply.

A proposal for setting up a 35 MW sola r t herma l power project a t Ma itha nia village in

J odhpur, Rajas tha n ba sed on line focussing collectors ha s been under t he considera tion of the

Ministry.

Solar E nergy Cent re under the MNE S is t he nodal a gency for R&D effort. Ma in a ctivities

of the centre include solar heating research, systems design and engineering, solar thermal

pow er generat ion, sola r pa ssive architecture a nd greenhouse technology.

Solar Photovoltaic

In solar photovolta ic system (SP V) electricity is generat ed directly from solar energy. I t

w orks on the principle of photoelectr ic effect : w hen light fa lls on cert a in met a ls, l ike silicon,

th e electr ons get excited a nd escape from th e meta l ; these are th en collected by a nother meta l

a nd passed through wires in a steady stream ; the electron f low t hus set up consti tutes the

electric current. The basic unit of SPV is a solar cell which is a wafer of electron-emitting

metal .

DNES has the responsibility for the development, production and application of SPV

devices. Since 1978, when first R&D progra mme w a s la unched in SP V system by public sector

Centra l Electronics Limited (CE L) at G ha ziabad, signif icant progress has been made in t his

f ield. During 1985–90, solar electrici ty system went commercial at CEL, Ghaziabad and

Ra jast ha n E lectronics Inst rument Lt d. , J aipur. Solar electri ficat ion in remote vil la ges has

a lso begun. Sa lijipally in Andhr a P ra desh beca me the count ry’s f irst village to be electr if ied

using SPV systems. The first two 100 KW partial grid interactive SPV power projects at

Ka lyanpur in Aligar h district a nd Sa ra isadi in Mau district of U tta r P ra desh have been com-

missioned.

At present SPV systems in India are being used for powering a variety of low power

a pplica tions in rura l, remote and un -electrif ied a rea s for lighting a nd w a ter pumping, power

for ra i lwa y signa l l ing rura l te lecommunica tion syst ems, wa ter puri fying for drinking a nd irri-

ga tion, microwa ve repea ter st a tions, powering electronics on offshore pla tforms a nd oil & ga s

pipeline a nd TV tra nsmission. This w a y of utilisat ion of solar energy is a tt ra ctive considering

th e favoura ble sola r ra dia tion conditions a nd la rge requirement of electr icity for decentra lised

a pplica tions. The easy inst a llat ion a nd ma intena nce, a bsence of noise a nd pollution and long

life ma ke SP V syst ems favoura ble for use in remote and isolated a rea s, forest, hilly and desert

regions.

The ma jor const ra int in t he spread of SP V is th e high initia l costs, the most expensive

input being the silicon wa fer which is pa rt ly import ed. Fort una tely th e Metkem Silicon Lt d. of

Chempla st group in conjunction with I IS C B a nga lore ha s succeeded in indigenously produc-

ing crystalline silicon and developing the process to make silane gas—the new material for

a morphous silicon. Suryovonics Lt d. , Hyd era ba d ha s a lso begun production of a morphous sili-

con. A fully a utoma ted pilot plant for production of a morphous silicon S P V modules ba sed on

a glass -substr a te ha s been commissioned in G urga on in 1992.





Photosynthesis

P hotosynth esis, a phenomenon of chemical conversion of carbondioxide an d w a ter int o

carbohydr a tes in presence of sunlight a nd chlorophyll by the plant s, is one of th e na tur e’s most

efficient method of conversion of solar energy int o stora ble form. I t ha s been proved both in

a lgae a nd in higher plants tha t un der optimal condit ions a nd over short period of t ime and at

relat ively low int ensity light , upto 30 per cent of the light a bsorbed is tr a nsformed into chemi-

cal energy.

It is th e energy produced from biological sy stems. B io-energy is produced either by direct us e

of biomass or its conversion int o gaseous or liquid fuels a nd includes bioga s.

BiomassB ioma ss occupies a predominant pla ce a s a n energy source in rura l India. B ioma ss is

defined a s living mat ter or its residues, which is a r enewa ble source of energy. Common exam -

ples of biomass a re w ood, gra ss, herba ge, grains, ba ga sse etc. The ma in sources of bioma ss can

be classified into two groups : ( i ) waste material including those derived from agriculture,

forestry a nd municipa l wa stes ; and (i i ) growing energy crops involving short rota tion forestr y

plantat ions.

Under biomass progra mme measures ha ve been ini t iated to plant fast growing short

rota tion, high calorific value species of plant s a nd t rees to meet t he needs of fuels, fodder a nd

power. These are called energy plan ati ons . G rown in wa stelands, besides providing energy,

th ey a lso improve soil fertili ty a nd d ecrea se soil erosion. For producing power from biomas s

ga sifier syst ems a nd stirling engines ha ve been developed indigenously. These devices convert

bioma ss w ast es and a gricultura l residues to energy t hrough gasificat ion or combustion. B ioma ss

is a lso being used for production of liquid fuel (for t ra nsporta tion) such a s etha nol and metha -

nol and solid fuel thr ough conversion of agricultura l wa stes into pellets a nd briq uett es. Veg-

eta ble oils, having h igh calorific value a nd ignit ion qu a lity a pproximat ing to th ose of diesel oil ,

can act as substitute or supplement to diesel oil . But due to their high viscosity and carbon

residue vegeta ble oils ma y present pumping and va porisa tion diff iculties in engines a nd a lso

heavy smoke emission in exhaust. To overcome these hurdles, IIT Madras has adopted two

different approaches : (i ) making the diesel engine more adiabatic and (i i ) esterification of

vegeta ble oil with metha nol or eth a nol. IIT Delhi is w orking on efficient ut ilisat ion of producer

gas in combustion engines. Seven Biomass Research Centres, under different agro-climatic

conditions of the country , ha ve been set up to provide R&D ba ck up.

India ha s ta ken following mea sures in raising energy from biomass conversion :

• A 10 MW rice straw based thermal plant—the first of its kind—has been commis-

s ioned by BH EL a t J halkhar i in Punjab .

• A pilot plant to generate electricity from garbage and municipal wastes has been

insta l led a t Timarpur, D elhi .

• The first la rge scale plant to produce fuel pellets from municipal ga rba ge ha s begun

tr ia l runs a t Bombay.

• A 100 KW gasi f ier syst em ha s been esta bl ished at P ort B lair a nd a 15 KW sugarca ne-

wa ter ba sed system is under f ield eva luat ion.



ENERGY RESOURCES 13


Biogas

B ioga s is a sust a ina ble source of energy by virtue of its production from va stly a va ilable

na tur a l orga nic wa stes, simplicity of construction, operat ion a nd ma intena nce of the produc-

tion units a nd mult iple benef i ts a ccrued a t the na tiona l a nd user level .

B iogas is a ga seous mixtur e (in va ried composition) ; genera lly composed of 60 per cent

metha ne (a high va lue fuel). 40 per cent ca rbondioxide (a n inert ga s) a nd t ra ces of other ga ses

such a s nitr ogen a nd hy drogen sulphide. I t is produced by a na erobic fermenta tion (biologica l

process) of na tur a l orga nic wa stes. The orga nic wa stes ma y be : (i ) cowdung a nd other anima l

excreta ; (i i ) huma n excreta ; (i i i ) a gricul tura l wa stes such a s stra w, plant , leaves, a lgae, ba -

gasse, paddy husk, w at er weeds etc. ; (i v ) indust ria l wa stes conta ining cellulosic ma teria l such

a s distillery sludge, wa stes from ta nnery, food indust ries, pa per mills etc. Biogas is commonly

produced from catt le dung in a biogas plant , known a s goba r ga s plant , through a process

called digestion tha t involves ana erobic fermenta tion. While producing biogas, th e man uria l

va lue of the dung is not reduced but t he slurry from bioga s plant is an enr iched ma nure a s it

ha s a higher content of oxygen, phosphorus a nd pota ssium. Accordingly such plant s help in

obta ining both fuel and ma nure from the sa me qua nti ty of cat t le dung.

Biogas is a clean, cheap and convenient cooking fuel. I t can also be used for lighting

purposes and running small motors for lif ting and providing power for cottage industries.

There are several other advantages for rural families if they adopt biogas technology. The

rural women and children will be spared the ordeal of daily collection and loading on their

heads heavy bundles of f irewood. There will be an end to the fumes (that are part of the

tra di t iona l chulhas) that a re smart ing to the eyes and creat e lung diseases ; a lot of t ime is a lso

sa ved in cooking a nd cleaning of the ut ensils an d vessels ; indiscrimina te felling of trees for

fuel is also reduced. And if la tr ines are a tt a ched to these pla nt s it helps villa ge sanit a tion too.Wha t ma kes the unit f inan cia lly viable is the cash inflow in t erms of sa ving on firewood a nd

production a nd use of enriched ma nure w ith a high cont ent of oxygen, phosphorus an d pota s-

sium for agriculture.

Scientists ha ve also developed biogas pla nt tha t can opera te on a variety of feed ma teri-

a ls such a s night soi l, wa ter hya cinth, a gricul tura l wa stes, deoiled castor cakes, wi l low dust

a nd food wa ste .

The MNES is continuing implementation of the National Project on Biogas Develop-

ment (NPB D) wh ich w a s sta rted in 1981–92 a s a centra lly sponsored scheme.

Energy from ocean or sea can be obta ined in a t least eight w a ys. They ar e :

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. India is ha ving lar ge potent ial of Ocean Ther-

ma l En ergy C onversion (OTE C) wh ich could of the order of a bout 50,000 MW. Some of the best

s i tes in the wor ld for OTEC are s i tuated o f f the Indian main land and near the i s l ands

La kshadw eep, Anda ma n a nd Nicobar. An Ocean E nergy cel l has been set up a t I IT, Madra s to

keep pace with the int erna tiona l developments in t his f ield. A U S company , M/s Sea Solar

P ower In c., is promoting use of OTEC a nd t he w orld’s f irst plant is proposed off the coa st of

Ta mil Nad u w ith a capa city of 100 MW.





The OTEC ma kes use of th e difference in t emperat ure betw een the surfa ce of the sea

a nd a t a depth of 1000 m or more, to extr a ct energy. This energy is used to drive tur bines forgenera ting electricity. In tropica l countries like India the tempera tur e gra dient in the seas is

as great a s 25°C .

The ma in hurd les in OTEC technology is th e cost factor, opera tiona l sna gs a nd t he low

opera tiona l efficiency of OTEC plant s.

Wave Energy. The energy of wa ves, genera ted in their continua l upwa rd a nd down-

ward motion, is harnessed to act ivate ei ther a water operated or, preferably, air operated

tur bine to generat e electr icity. The w a ve energy potent ial of the 6000 km long I ndia n coa st is

est imat ed about 40,000 MW. Tra de wind bel ts in Ara bian sea a nd B ay of B engal a re the ideal

places for trapping wave energy.

Wa ve power is renew a ble an d pollution free but very expensive (Re. 1 per unit).

India ’s f irst w a ve energy power pla nt of 150 KW (ma ximum) capa city ba sed on. Oscillat -ing Wa ter C olumn (OWC) ha s been commissioned at Vzhinja m by IIT, Ma dra s. The Depa rt -

ment of Ocean Development ha s declared the plant a t Vzhinja m a s a na t iona l facil i ty for w a ve

energy a nd w ave a pplicat ion studies. A Sw edish organisa t ion, Sea P ower AB ha s developed

technology for ha rnessing w a ve energy un der floa ting w a ve power concept (FWP C). Ha rness-

ing w a ve energy on th is principle is being explored in Ind ia a nd a 1 MW wa ve energy pla nt is

being set up in the Anda ma n a nd Nicobar Islands.

Tidal Energy. The regular f low an d ebb of tides, produced by the gra vita tional a tt ra c-

tion of the sun a nd t he moon a re a lso useful for producing electr icity, specia lly wh ere the tida l

range, i.e. the di f ference between the high and the low t ide is large. I f e i ther a natural or

a rt if icial r eservoir is a va ilable, power can be produced by m oving t he incoming a nd outgoing

tides th rough tur bines. The tida l power potentia l , in India is estima ted t o be a bout 8000 MW to

9000 MW. The potent ia l sites id ent ified a re G ulf of Ca mba y (7,000 MW), G ulf of Kut ch (1000MW) a nd S und erba ns (100 MW). Asia ’s first tid a l pow er point of 900 MW capa city is pr oposed

to be set up at K an dla in the G ulf of Kutch.

Current Energy. Theoretically, the moving ocean current can be used to generate

energy by a l lowing t he wa ter to pass th rough a series of turbines insta l led under w a ter. But

the energy density tha t ca n be ha rnessed is low ; ma inta ining the turbines in posi t ion is a

bigger problem.

Ocean Wind Energy. Winds in the coast a l ar eas a re relat ively stronger a nd smoother

tha n w inds in the la nd a rea a nd can be harn essed a s a source of energy. Severa l countries are

producing energy from this source. Some of the problems a ssociat ed wit h t ra de wind zone a re

icing an d hurr ica ne.

Salinity Gradient Energy. I f a semi-permeable membra ne is placed between tw o wa -

ter bodies of different saline concentr a tion then w at er wit h lower sa linity begins t o f low throughthe membran e towa rds higher sal ini ty unt i l both a t ta in equal concentra t ion. This is ca l led

osmosis . This movement in osmosis ca n genera te a n electric current . In S weden a pilot study

is being conducted t o genera te power of 2300 MW from sa linity gr a dient energy.

Ocean Geothermal Energy. Theoretically, th is method uses the tempera tur e gra di-

ent as in OTEC but in the reverse wa y in tha t th e temperat ure at t he ea rth crust is low a nd

higher a t i ts deeper levels. But the meth od has not been pra ctica lly applied.

Bio Conversion Energy. Sea weeds can a lso be converted into fuel an d other energy

products like metha ne, food and fertilisers.



ENERGY RESOURCES 15


Wind is emerging as one of the most potentia l source of alt erna te energy th a t w ill be helpful to

a great extent in bridging the ga p betw een t he energy dema nd a nd supply. Wind ha s kinetic

energy by virtu e of the movement of large ma sses of air ca used by differentia l heat ing of th e

a tmosphere by the sun . This energy can be utilised for performing mechan ica l a nd electr ical

w orks. Wind tu rbines can be used to generat e electr icity, for lifting w a ter from w ells a nd for

direct wa ter pumping.

The tota l wind energy potentia l in India is estima ted a t 20,000 MW. A tota l ca pacity of

732 MW ha s been insta lled by 1995–96. Coast a l ar eas of Ta mil Nadu. G uja ra t, Andhra P ra desh

a nd Ma ha ra shtra a re favourable for w ind power generat ion. Wind power in India ha s been

developed both in th e sta nd a lone mode (wit h diesel back-up a nd pumped stora ge to ensure

supply during l i t t le wind) and in wind fa rms w hich ha ve arr a ys of turbines for supplying bulk

pow er needs for grids. Asia ’s f irst w ind far m project is a t Ma ndvi in Kut ch district of Gu jara t.Asia ’s la rgest w ind fa rm cluster of 150 MW is at Muppanda l in Ta mil Nad u.

Geothermal energy is the energy produced by natural processes occurring within the earth.

The ma jor source of th is energy (in t he form of heat ) is molten und erground rock or ma gma .

Geothermal energy is extracted for heating and power generat ion from natural steam, hot

w a ter or dry rocks in the Ea rt h’s crust. Wa ter is pumped down t hrough a n injection w ell wh ere

i t pa sses through joints in t he hot rocks a nd t hen wa ter r ises to the surfa ce through a recovery

well . This wa ter ma y be converted into steam th rough a heat exchanger. Dry stea m ma y be

pass ed thr ough turbines t o produce electricity. Approximat ely ten per cent of th e ea rt h sur -

fa ce provides a ccess to hea t ins ide the ea rt h. The most potent sources a re volcanoes a nd hotsprings but t here ar e other a rea s too from where heat can be generat ed under controlled con-

ditions.

In In dia 340 hot springs localities with a vera ge tempera tur es of 80°C –100°C h a ve been

identified as t he potent ial source of geoth erma l energy. Work is on in severa l par ts of India to

survey and assess geothermal potential and utilisation of geothermal energy for direct heat

and power generat ion. A 5 KW geothermal pi lot power plant has been commissioned at

Ma nika ra n in Kullu distr ict of Hima chal P ra desh. A potent ial of 4–5 MW geotherm a l pow er

has been es t imat ed in the P uga Val ley of Lada kh in J ammu and K ashmir .

The use of geotherma l energy for space hea ting a nd gr eenhouse effect h a s been demon-

strated. A project on mushroom cultivation and poultry farming using geothermal f luid is

under implementa t ion a t Regiona l Resea rch La bora tory, J a mmu. The green house for t he

project w ill be esta blished at P uga Valley utilising the existing geoth erma l borewell.

Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD) power generation works on the principle of conversion of

therma l energy directly into electr icity, w hereas, in a conventional power plan t t herma l energy

is f irst converted into mechanical energy which in turn is converted into electrical energy.

G enerat ion of power fr om therma l energy using MH D t echnology invovles expans ion of superhot

(2800 K) electr ica lly conducting ga s a ga inst t he reta rding force of a st rong ma gnetic f ield to

produce electr ic power directly. Thus in MH D, t he tur bine and generat or ar e combined into a

single unit but w ithout any moving parts .





A DNE S a ssisted MHD research project ba sed on coal , in India , a ims at the creat ion of

a suita ble ba se for resear ch and development w ork in th e field of MHD power genera tion bysetting up a thermal power level of 5 MW. Research is going on for designing bigger MHD

plants tha t wi l l produce clean a nd cheap power a nd operat e at greater ef f iciency tha n exist ing

coal a nd nuclea r plant s . For this purpose dat a is being provided by a sma ll sca le MHD power

genera tor set up at Tiruchira palli in Ta mil Nadu.

The cont ribution of anima l energy or drought a nima l power (DAP) is about 50 per cent of the

total energy generated in the country. This is mainly for farming and transportation. The

MNES ha s launched a na t iona l program me in this f ield in March 1994. Under t he program me

improvement in equipment, devices and t ra nsport vehicles which are a nima l driven is being

done. Also program mes for improving utilisat ion of huma n energy for tra nsporta tion thr oughcycle rickshaw s a nd ha nd carts , a s well as by landless labourers and a rt isa ns a re being devel-

oped a nd promoted.

Huge qua nti t ies of urban, municipal a nd industrial w a stes produced in India a re released into

th e environment w ith litt le or no tr eat ment resulting in environmenta l pollution. The wa stes

in the environment undergo nat ura l biodegrada tion releasing metha ne into the a tmosphere.

These wa stes can be utilised a s a n enormous source of potent ial energy a nd t hus help in reduc-

ing emission of greenhouse gases a nd m inimising environmenta l pollution. To ca sh on t he fa r

rea ching environment a l benefits by proper utilisat ion of va rious wa stes hith erto ca using pol-

lution problem. A na tional progra mme ha s been launched since J une 1995 for proper t rea t-ment of urban a nd industria l wa stes a nd t he resulta nt recovery of energy from t hese sources.

An incineration plant, that will incinerate solid urban refuse and convert the heat into elec-

tricity, with a capacity of 300 tonnes of solid municipal waste per day has been installed in

Delhi. A pyrolysis plant , using t he process of pyrolysis t o extra ct l iquid fuel from solid refuse is

proposed to be set up in Bombay. Several projects in which power will be generated from

ba ga sse in sugar mills in the count ry a re under execution.

DNES is endeavouring to develop alternatives to diesel and motor spirit in order to reduce

th eir consumpt ion a s t heir reserves a re limited a nd t o reduce outflow of precious foreign ex-

chan ge. The various alt erna tives ar e :Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). For use of compressed na tur a l gas (CNG ) a s a fuel

in vehicles the na tur a l gas is compressed a t 160–200 times the a tmospheric pressure an d is

stored in cylinders tha t ca n be mounted on vehicles. In petrol-driven vehicles with spar k igni-

tion engines, a convertor kit is inst a lled for switch over to gas. The convertor expands the ga s

in a pressure reducing valve to sub-atmospheric level and feeds it to the engine through a

control valve and carburettor operated by the accelerated pedal. In the car engines CNG-air

mixture w ould be ignited by t he spar k plug ; in diesel syst ems th e ignition is effected by injec-

tion of small doses of fuel. Diesel is used during sta rt ing a nd idling. The CNG syst em functions

a utoma tically once th e vehicle sta rt s moving. The adva nt a ges of CNG include reduction in gas



ENERGY RESOURCES 17


f lar ing, no ha rmful emissions a nd energy sa vings. The problem is tha t of additiona l weight of

th e ga s cylinders.

The technical feasibility of CNG a s a fuel ha s a lready been esta blished in Ita ly, Argentina,

CIS, New Zealand, USA and Canada. In India CNG vehicles are running in Gujarat , Tamil

Nadu, Assa m a nd Tripura . In B ombay buses, ta xis a nd some a utorickshaw s a re running on

CNG since December 1992 under the World B a nk’s Metropolita n E nvironment Improvement

P rogra mme. In D elhi too some of the G reen Line fleet of DTC a re running on CNG .

G AIL ha s a project to convert a t ota l of 63,920 petrol run cars int o gas w ithin six year s

in Delhi , Bombay and Baroda. Three main compressor stat ions have been set up in these

cities. The IB P would ta ke up the project in Assam a nd Tripura .

U se of CNG in buses a nd t rucks would sa ve diesel by 50%, cars would not need petrol at

a ll . A car f il led wit h tw o CNG ga s cylinders a t 200 ba r pressure ha s a r a nge of 100 km. Bu ses

a nd t rucks fitted w ith six cylinders would cover a bout 300 km. If one runs out of CNG en route,

th e vehicle would be run on conventiona l fuel by sw itching off the CNG syst em.

Hydrogen. Hy drogen is a renewa ble fuel because the raw ma terial in the form of wa ter

is a bunda nt a nd solar energy used for t he decomposition of wa ter t o produce hydr ogen w ill be

available for millions of years. Furthermore, when used as a fuel, hydrogen gas causes no

pollution a nd forms w at er thus renewing the ra w ma terial . Thus hydrogen is a n environment-

friendly, non-conventional and renewable source of energy. In achieving this objective, the

principle used in photosynth esis by green plant s is used. In photosynt hesis wa ter m olecule is

split int o oxygen, electrons a nd hydr ogen ions (H + ). These hydrogen ions are converted into

energy rich compounds like glucose. However if these hydrogen ions can be converted into

hydr ogen ga s (H2), i t ca n be used a s fuel.

Gasohol. A mixture of petrol an d a lcohol called gas ohol ha s been used a s a fuel in motor

w ithout t he need of a ltering th e engine.Hydrocarbon. H ydrocarbons produced by s ome micro-organism s can be used as liquid

or ga seous fuel. For inst a nce, microbial production of metha ne ga s from polymers like ca rbo-

hydr a tes, proteins, l ipids, etc. Hydr oca rbons ar e also produced by u nicellula r a lga Botryococcus

b raun i i which possess a hydrocarbon content as high as 75%of its dry weight, the highest

report ed in any kind of bioma ss.

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