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Counselling is called the crux, heart, essence, pivot or coreof all guidance programme. The proper functioning andgrowth of the body depends upon the proper functioning ofthe heart. Similarly, the success or failure of the guidanceprogramme is determined by counselling service. Some ofthe definitions of counselling by various experts are the fol-lowing—1.Webster’s Dictionary —Consultation, mutual interchangeof opinion; deliberating together.2.Strong— Face to face relationship in which growth takesplace in the counsellor as well as the counselee.3.Robinson —The term counselling covers all types of twoperson situations in which one person, the client is helpedto adjust more effectively to himself and his environment.4.Wren—”Counselling is a personal and dynamic relation-ship between two individuals— an older, more experiencedand wiser (counsellor) and a younger, less wise (counselee).The latter has a problem for which he seeks the help of theformer. The two work together so that the problem may bemore clearly defined and the counselee may be helped to aself-determined solution.Thus, counselling is a process in which the pupil is ap-proached on an individual level. He is helped in educational,vocational or psychological field only at problem points. Incounselling the subject matter is pupil’s needs, abilities,aims, aspirations, plans, decision, actions, and limitations.It is a sort of specialised, personalised and individualisedservice which makes effective use of information gatheredabout any individual. This information leads to self-insight,self-analysis and self-direction. This self-direction helps theindividual in making maximum educational, vocational andpsychological adjustment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLINGFrom the above discussion, it is clear that the following aremajor characteristics of counselling—1.Counselling is a person to person relationship.2.It involves two individuals—one seeking help and the other,a professionally trained person, who can help the first.3.The objective is to help the counsellor to discover andsolve his personal problems independently.4.In order to help and assist properly, the counsellor mustestablish a relationship of mutual respect, cooperation andfriendliness between the two individuals.5.The counsellor discovers the problems of the client andhelps him to set up goals and guide him through difficultiesand problems.6.In the whole of counselling process, the main emphasisis on the counsellor’s self direction and self-acceptance.7.Counselling is democratic. It sets up a democratic pat-tern and allows the counselee to do freely whatever he likeswhile with the consultant and not under the consultant.

DISTINCTION FROM RELATED CONCEPTSCounselling differs from other related terms or activities asfollows—1.Counsellin b and Guidance —Counselling is a part ofguidance, not all of it. It is a specialised or individualisedpart which deals with the individual at problem points. Thusall counselling is guidance but all guidance is not counsel-ling.2.Counselling and Interview —While counselling is a partof guidance, interview is only a technique used in the pro-cess of counselling. Counselling is a wider and compre-hensive term.

3.Counselling and advising —Counselling in not synony-mous with giving advice. A wise counsellor never gives ad-vice until it is absolutely essential. Counselling is a pro-cess in which the counsellor assumes the responsibilityfor the decisions that are made. In advising the counselloraccepts the responsibility for the quality of the decisionsmade. In counselling the counselee arrives at the decisionas a result of process and not because of the advice of thecounsellor.4.Counselling and Teaching —Counselling is not teach-ing. The following are some of the points of difference be-tween counselling and teaching—(i) Whereas counselling is one to one relationship, teach-ing is done in group.(ii)Whereas counsellor is concerned with social and emo-tional problems, the teacher is concerned with academicand intellectual problems.(iii) Counsellors uses many techniques like diagnostic tools,occupational information and several types of tests to un-derstand the psychological make up of the counselee.Teacher uses various techniques like lecturing and audiovi-suals aids to make the teaching interesting and effective.(iv) In counselling, the counsellor does not know the sub-ject-matter of the counselling interview. On the other handin teaching, the teacher knows the subject-matter of teach-ing.(v)In counselling the most important techniques is inter-view, but in teaching it is never used as a technique.(vi) Counsellor increases information about self-occupation,training institutions, colleges, apprenticeship-programmes,etc. Teacher increases information of instructional activi-ties.5.Counselling and psychotherapy— Counselling is notpsychotherapy although it is used by psychotherapist asone of the techniques of treatment. The following are someof the points of difference between counselling and psycho-therapy—(i)Counsnelling is concerned mostly with normal individu-als having normal anxieties whereas, psychotherapy is con-cerned with individuals whose behaviours are neurotic.(ii)Counsellor works in educational setting whereas, psy-chotherapist works in medical setting.(iii)Counsellor uses techniques and tools that can be usedin schools whereas, psychotherapist uses tools and tech-niques that are applicable in any situation such as play-therapy psychodrama, sociogram, etc.(iv) In counselling, psychology is not only basis for study-ing the individual. In psychotherapy, psychology is the onlybasis of studying the individual.(v)Counselling is broader in scope as it touches all the prob-lems of the individual, but does not go deep in them. Psy-chotherapy is deeper rather than broader in scope. It dealswith fewer problems but goes very deep in studying thepersonality of individuals.

PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING1.Acceptance —All schools of guidance and counsellingagree that the client must be accepted as whole person,as a human being.2.Respect for the individual —All schools of guidance andcounselling attach importance to respect for individual.3.Permissiveness —All schools of guidance and counsel-ling accept relative permissiveness of counselling relation


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UNIT—VICONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUN-SELLING,TYPES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLINGTOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE —RECORDS, SCALES AND TESTS,TECHNIQUES,INTERVIEW ORGANIZING GUIDANCE SERVICES AT DIF-FERENT LEVELS OF EDUCATION,OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION,KINDS OF SERVICES, LIKE INFORMATION, TESTING,COUNSELLING AND FOLLOW-UP

CONCEPT, PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF GUIDANCEAND COUNSELLING

CONCEPTS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING.In the words of Jones, “Guidance is the personal help thatis given by one person to another in developing life goals, inmaking adjustment and in solving problems that confronthim in the attainment of goals.” In this manner guidance ispersonal assistance. Although guidance is sometimes of-fered at the group level, yet even in these matters everymember of the group is also individually given advice. Ap-plied psychology is based on the conception of individualdifference. General experience and scientific research haveboth established that every \single individual has certainabilities, problems and difficulties that are distinctly his own,as distinct form those of others. Evidently, if any advice orguidance is to be rendered, it must be rendered individuallyand personally. This personal helps is forthcoming from oneindividual to another. One of these two individuals is a psy-chologists, or one who knows psychology and the other aperson who is in need of psychological guidance. Guid-ance, then, is the help rendered to an individual by thepsychologists. In its more extensive sense, the term maybe taken to comprehend the advice rendered by any indi-vidual who is in the know concerning psychology to an-other who is in need of it. For example, if a father guideshis son in solving a problem, this too, amounts to guid-ance, irrespective of the fact that it may or may not bebased on the most correct notion of psychological prin-ciple. But this extensive meaning of the term is its generalmeaning and implication. In a scientific analysis it is nottaken in its general meaning but reduced to more definiteand precise terms whereby its meaning becomes limited.That is why it is first defined. Guidance, in psychology,means a particular thing. It is the personal advice or ser-vice rendered by a psychologist, and not by any Tom, Dickand Harry, to another person. This guidance takes the formof advice which helps the guided individual to adjust to vari-ous conditions and circumstances. If one would only lookat it that way, it would become evident that adjustment isthe basic problems of human life. The person who fails toadjust to his circumstances, becomes a failure, sufferedpain himself and inflicts it upon others, and is branded anabnormal being. In this way, educational psychology, throughits helping the individual in adjusting himself, helps to spreadhappiness, peace and organization in society. Problems inhuman life do not come to an end, because new ones keepon arising. There is no end to trouble. A child, for example,is faced by very few problems, much of his anxiety beingcentered around the work forced upon him by the teacher,or the means of dealing with the more recalcitrant of hisfriends and such minor things. He has not to worry aboutkeeping the hearth burning. But these are problems thatgradually engulf every individual as he grows older. As ageneral rule, most people marry and have children who mustgo to school and with equal inevitability fall ill and be treatedfor it only to grow up, and get married themselves and keepthe almost eternal circle moving forward. Thus one troublegrows out of another, and never lets the individual being sitback contented and unhurried. Human psychology is muchlike this. One desire arises and destroys the being’s peacetill it is satisfied. Hence, he immediately busies himselfin searching for the means to satisfy his desire and

CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING


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used in both these senses. Education in both its forms isessential for a total development of the individual. An indi-vidual who is formally educated is not necessary totallydeveloped, but he is unquestionably better informed thanthe average uneducated person. Besides, he develops theability to imbibe education, as it is meant in its more liberalsense. Education of both kinds is, thus, essential.

MEANING OF EDUCATION IN THE WESTEducational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge,started in the philosophical deliberation of the ancient Greekphilosophers. Thus, the meaning of education in West isinitially available in the works of Plato. It is interesting tonote that thousands of years ago, Plato gave a meaning toeducation which is even now followed in the West with slightchanges here and there. Plato defined education as a lifelong process starting, “from the first years of childhood andlasting to the very end of the life.” He used the term educa-tion in a very wide sense, “which makes a man eagerlypursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches himhow rightly to rule and how to obey.” Education not onlyprovides knowledge and skills, but also inculcates values,training of instincts, fostering right attitudes and habits. InRepublic, Plato points out, that “true education, whateverthat may be, will have the greatest tendency to civilise andhumanise them in their relation to one another and to thosewho are under their protection.” This humanist definition ofeducation propounded by Plato is still the most widely ac-cepted meaning of education in the West Education every-where has been taken as a process of inculcating values.As Plato said, “Now I mean by education that training whichis given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue inchildren.” These views of Plato have been universally ac-cepted in West as well as in the East. Education has beendefined differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, thenaturalists and the realist philosophers. However, its mean-ing has been generally idealistic. Without some sort of ide-alism, there can be no education worth the name. In thewords of Robert R. Rusk, “We may accept that the aim ofeducation is the enhancement or enrichment of personal-ity, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment ofuniversal values.” The western educational philosophers havegenerally agreed that the growth of the human child is theessence of education. In the words of A.G. Hughes, “Theessence of discipline is, thus, not forced subordination tothe will of the hated tyrants, but submission to the exampleof admired superiors.” In the middle ages, Comenius de-clared education to be a process whereby an individualdeveloped qualities relating to religion, knowledge and mo-rality, and thereby established his claim to be called a hu-man being. “The fundamental principles of education”, ac-cording to Forebel, “instruction and teaching should be pas-sive and protective not directive and interfering.” The prin-ciple of liberty has found most eloquent expression in thedefinition of education given by Rousseau when he said,“Let us obey the call of Natue. We shall see that her yokeis easy and that when we give heed to her voice, we find thejoy in the answer of a good conscience.” Others have laidemphasis upon the social meaning of education whereby itaims at making an individual fit in the society. It was in thissense that Aldous Huxley said, “A perfect education is onewhich trains up every human being to fit into the place he orshe is to occupy in the social hierarchy, but without, in theprocess, destroying his or her individuality.”

All the foregoing definitions have stated that education isthe process of development. It, therefore, becomes neces-sary to discover what is implied in this development. Al-though the ability to learn depends upon development, butdevelopment is not synonymous with education. Develop-ment means the gradual and continuous progress of mindand body. Through this development, the child acquires thefollowing elements—1.Knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded,2.The necessary motor control to fulfil his individual needs,3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse, and4.Some knowledge of individual and collective relationships.The development of all these elements begins at home it-self. The educator’s task is to continue this process and toencourage it while the child is at school.In fact, this process of development continues right throughan individual’s life time. Consequently, it is accepted thateducation in its general sense continues throughout a man’snatural span of life. Even the successful teacher or educa-tor himself remains a student throughout his life. On theone hand, he teaches certain things to some people but atthe same time, he learns something from them. All suc-cessful educators experience that the development under-gone by their thoughts, personalities and abilities wouldhave impossible otherwise. In much the same way, peopleother than the educators, teach and learn simultaneously.

MEANING OF EDUCATION IN INDIALearning to the Indian approach, it becomes necessary toinclude the spiritual aspect also because it is accepted asa part of the development by education. In fact, Indian think-ers have placed special emphasis upon this. Yajnavalkyaopined that only that is education which gives a sterlingcharacter to an individual and renders him useful for theworld. Shankaracharya said that education is that whichleads to salvation. Even the more recent educationists havestressed the importance of the spiritual aspect. In the wordsof A.S. Altekar, “Education has always been regarded inIndia as a source of illumination and power which trans-forms and ennobles our nature by the progressive and har-monious development of our physical, mental, intellectualand spiritual powers and faculties.”This spiritual tradition has been carried on by contempo-rary Indian philosophers of education in their integral ap-proach , synthesis of idealism and pragmatism, rational-ism and humanism, diversity in unity and harmony to theindividual and society. It was due to this emphasis on thespiritual meaning of education that Vivekanand said, “Reli-gion is the inner most core of education.” In the words of SriAurobindo, “The child’s education ought to be an outbringingof all that is best, most powerful, most intimate and living inhis nature, the mould into which the man’s action and de-velopment ought to run is that of his innate quality and power.He must acquire new things but he will acquire them best,most wholly on the basis of his own developed type andinborn force. “ M.K. Gandhi expressed the same idea whenhe defined education by saying, “By education I mean an all-around drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mindand spirit. Literacy is not the end of education not even thebeginning. It is one of the means whereby man and womancan be educated. Literacy in itself is no education.”

SYNTHETIC DEFINITIONit is clear from the above discussion of the meaning of edu-cation in West and India, ancient and modern that it may


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EDUCATIONPAPER-III(A) [CORE GROUP]

UNIT—IWESTERN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY:-•IDEALISM,REALISM,NATURALISM,PRAGMATISM,EXISTENTIALISM;WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OFKNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES; THEIR EDUCA-TIONAL IMPLICATIONS FOR AIMS, CONTENTS ANDMETHODS OF EDUCATION.• INDIAN SCHOOLS’ OF PHILOSOPHY(VEDANTA, BUDDHISM, JAINISM, ISLAMIC TRADITIONS)WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OFKNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES AND THEIR EDU-CATIONAL IMPLICATIONSCONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIAN THINKERS, LIKEVIVEKANANDA,TAGORE,GANDHI ANDAUROBINDOTO EDUCATIONAL THINKING.

PAPER-II1.PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION• RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY• WESTERN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY :• IDEALISM, REALISM, NATURALISM, PRAGMATISM,EXISTENTIALISM, MARXISM WITH SPECIAL REFER-ENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OF KNOWLEDGE, REALITYAND VALUES THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS FORAIMS, CONTENTS AND METHODS OF EDUCATION.• INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY (SANKHYA,VEDANTA, BUDDHISM, JAINISM, ISLAMIC TRADITIONS)WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPT OFKNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES AND THEIR EDU-CATIONAL IMPLICATIONS• CONTRIBUTIONS OF VIVEKANANDA, TAGORE,GANDHI AND AUROBINDO TO EDUCATIONAL THINKING• NATIONAL VALUES AS ENSHRINED IN THE INDIANCONSTITUTION AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICA-TIONS• MODERN CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY : ANALYSIS—LOGICAL ANALYSIS,• LOGICAL EMPIRICISM AND POSITIVE RELATIVISM—(MORISS L. PRIGGE)

MEANING AND NATURE OF EDUCATIONLiteral MeaningThe word education has its origin in the Latin word ‘educatum1

composed of two terms ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. ‘E’ implies a progressfrom inward to outward, while ‘Duco’ means developing orprogressing. In its most literal sense, therefore, educationmeans becoming developed or progressing from inside tooutside. Education, thus, is the process of developing theinner abilities and powers of an individual. The term is alsooften connected with the Latin ‘edueare’, meaning a propul-sion from the internal to the external. This Latin term meansto educate through a change brought about by practice orusage. In this manner, education implies some kind ofchange for the better in person.

GENERAL MEANINGIn general usage, the term education is used either in itsnarrow sense or in its more liberal connotation. A slightelaboration of these two senses is given here.A large majority of people use the term to man the trainingor studies undertaken for a few years in some educationalinstitutions. This is the restricted meaning of the term. Itimplies education provided according to a fixed curriculumby a particular set of people in a specific place. It does notnecessarily provide any real knowledge, since the individualstill has much to learn. The qualities an individual needs toachieve success in practical life cannot be generated inhim by college education. This meaning of the term per-tains to the most formal kind of education, in which an indi-vidual pursues a course of study dictated by a standardcurriculum and at the end of a stipulated period, wins adegree or diploma. This certificate enables him to get somekind of job. In actual fact, an individual should not be con-sidered educated merely because he possesses a degree,while on the other hand, absence of such a degree shouldnot imply that the individual is uneducated. In every coun-try, there are instances of great social reformers, saints,philosophers and thinkers who have never been near aninstitution of formal education. But can they be called un-educated, on this ground?When the word is accepted in its more liberal meaning, it isgranted that at all times and places, an individual is imbib-ing some education. Education is thus not limited merelyto the classroom. It can be obtained from all kinds of socialinstitutions and associations such as the family. It is notthe prerogative of the teacher alone to provide education. Itcan be obtained from all individuals even from Nature. Con-sidered from this standpoint, it can be said that the childgets education not only from his teacher but also from theentire complexity of his environment, each object in whichis a means of educating him. It must be granted that, withthis definition, the subjects of education cannot be deter-mined, for they are far too numerous. Education is there-fore, also not limited to students but comprehends all hu-man individuals, of all sex, ages, races and groups.In this sense, education is informal. This aspect of educa-tion has great importance. Such an education is notplanned or organised. The child learns many new and inter-esting things from his parents, his play- mates, hisneighbours and other members of society. Many things hecan learn merely by observing others. It should not be con-cluded from description that the restricted and the liberal,or the formal and the informal implications of education aremutually exclusive. In actual fact, the term education is


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too many instances. Educational television (ETV) was thefirst development. These telecasts usually complete withcommercial telecasting. Instructional television (ITV) is alater development which is usually a closed circuit telecast.The essential differences attending ETV and ITV shouldgenerate a number of research questions. The telecastsreach a captive audience and programming is structuredtoward specific ends. They could range from conceptappropriateness to the implications of their use on teacherand pupils behaviours.Origin of Educational TechnologyIn spite of the psychological resistance and economicdifficulty, one thing is clear that technology is creeping intoour economic and productive spheres of life. Radio has goneinto villages, television to has come and industries aredemanding large number of persons trained for specifictechnical jobs. Some of the industries have started theirown apprentice courses. These training establishments inindustries which are not only familiar with industrialtechnology but also have arisen from its demand are tryingto adopt new educational technology in their trainingsystems.Before the sixties, the term ‘educational technology ‘waslargely associated with audio-visual aids and teachingmaterials to classroom instruction. For most of the teachersand teacher-educators, by and large, the term conveyed ameaning of technology in education. The articles of StanleyEdward started creating interest in programmed learning.B.F. Skinner and S. Edwards emphasized the practicalutility of programmed learning. Gradually the concept oftechnology of education has emerged in the field ofeducation.Thus, the concept of ‘educational technology’ has developedduring last few years. It is a new area in the discipline ofeducation like : educational psychology, educationalphilosophy, educational measurement and evaluation. Itmakes a functional analysis of teaching learning processand located the various components that operate from thestage of input to that of the output Recently, National Councilof Educational Research and Training (NCERT) realized itsimportance in the area of education and has established aCentre of Educational Technology (GET).The scientific inventions have influenced every aspect ofhuman life even our Htchen has been mechanised. This iswhy our education process could not remain untouched bythese, computer and language laboratory are now beingused frequently in our teaching process. These machinesare employed in all the phases of human knowledge :preservation, transmission, and advancement. A largenumber of students sitting at a distant places tan be benefitedby an effective teacher by using radio and television in theteaching process. This mechanization of teaching processhas emerged new area of educational technology ineducation.Meaning of Educational TechnologyEducational Technology can be conceived as a science oftechniques and methods by which educational goals canbe realized. It is not primarily concerned with the task ofprescribing the goals. Although, it does help in specifyingthe goals and translating them into behavioural terms. It isnot one particular method of achieving educational goalslike that of Montessori or strategy of developing selfinstructional material, propounded by B.R Skinner. It is on

the other hand a science, on the basis of which variousstrategies and tactics could be designed for the realisationof specified goals.The process of teaching then, in this frame of reference,involves arranging for the inputs and designing of situationor process through which a student learns to perform in adesired or specified manner.The desirability of certain performance may be prescribedby social, political, philosophers, legislators and otherleaders of the society who take comprehensive view of thenation and society in prescribing the goals for education.The educational technology comes to see whether by agiven process or situation the specified goals could beachieved, and if so to what extent, and if not what changesare to be made in process so as to achieve the specifiedgoals? In this regard ‘Educational Technology’ involves four’

steps:1. The first step is to make a functional analysis of the

teaching Teaming process to identify the variouscomponents that operate from the stage of input to thatof output

2. The second step is to observe the effect of manipulatingthe various components.

3. The third step is to observe the effect of manipulatingthe various components and their functions in the field.

4. The fourth step is to translate all these research findingsinto some kind of guideline for the practitioner.

Second Meaning of Educational TechnologyThe second meaning of educational technology is themechanization of educational process. The mechanizationis being done in all the three phases of human knowledgevery rapidly :(1) Preservation of Knowledge, (2) Transmission ofKnowledge, and (3) Advancement of Knowledge.The first phase of human knowledge is to preserve it. Priorto printing machines, most of the knowledge was memorizedorally and transmitted by teachers to their students. Butnow the knowledge is being preserved in books by the useof printing machines. An effective teacher can be preservedas a whole (voice, expression, actions and content by theuse of tape recorder, videotape, film etc.) In this wayeducational technology is the extension of a teacher. Thefuture generation can see and hear to an eminent teachereven after his death with the help of these machines.The second phase of human knowledge is to transmit theknowledge to new generation. A limited number of studentscan be benefited by the classroom teaching, but a largenumber of students sitting at far distant places can be taughtwith the help of radio and television. In this way educationaltechnology has reversed the process of teaching. With theintroduction of Educational technology, the teacher hasstarted to knock the door of students. It is generally saidthat the educational technology knocks at the doors. Theopen university, correspondence education, distanceeducation and continuing education are the majorcontributions of the innovation.The third phase of human knowledge is to advance theknowledge. The function of research process is to advancenew knowledge. The scientific are a based on the collectionand analysis of data. The computer services are employedin analysing the data. The computer and electronicmachines yield more dependable results. Thus, theeducation process is being mechanized and this aspect of


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ELECTIVE—IIIMEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY—EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AS SYSTEMS AP-PROACH TO EDUCATION

—SYSTEMS APPROACH IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOL-OGY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

—COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY,SOFTWARE, HARDWARE MULTI-MEDIA APPROACH INEDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

MODEIITIES OF TEACHING—DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION,

CONDITIONING AND TRAINING

STAGES OF TEACHING—PRE-ACTIVE, INTERACTIVEAND POST-ACTIVE

TEACHING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS—MEMORY, UNDERSTANDING AND REFLECTIVE MODI-FICATION OF TEACHING BEHAVIOUR :MICROTEACHING, FLANDER’S INTERACTION ANALY-SIS, SIMULATION PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION (ORI-GIN, TYPES, LINEAR AND BRANCHING, DEVELOPMENTOF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION MATERIAL— LINEAR/BRANCHING MODEL, TEACHING MACHINES, COM-PUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION MODELS OF TEACH-ING :CONCEPT, DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF TEACHING MOD-ELS DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM—FORMULATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES—TASK ANALYSIS—DESIGNING OF INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES, SUCHAS LECTURE, TEAM TEACHING, DISCUSSION, PANELDISCUSSION, SEMINARS AND TUTORIALS COMMUNI-CATION PROCESS :

CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION, PRINCIPLES, MODESAND BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION, CLASSROOMCOMMUNICATION (INTERACTION VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL)

DISTANCE EDUCATIONCONCEPT, DIFFERENT CONTEMPORARY SYSTEM,VIZ., CORRESPONDENCE, DISTANCE AND OPEN;

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES;

EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION;COUNSELLING METHODS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

DEVELOPMENT OF EVALUATION TOOLS—NORM-REF-ERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY(MEANING, TYPES SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE)

With recent development and advances, technology ineducation is virtually a new source of concern for educators,teachers and students. As with the rapid developing area,there are problems- both internal and external ones- to beconfronted and resolved.Technology is being successfully utilised in resolving manyof our problems : hence its success is generalized to theteaching-learning situations. Boguslaw assumes a stanceof alarm in his study of cybernetic systems design andsocial change. With technology in other fields developspressures for school personnel to accept technology byacquiescence of the new technologies is based on advocacyto a greater extent than it is based on supporting evidence.Thelen asserts that change goes through three distinctphases in education :(1) enthusiasm(2) vulgarization and spread and(3) institutionalization. These may be applied to educationtechnology in this manner :-(1) Enthusiasm, where by each tool or technology isintroduced with boisterous excitement by the advocates;(2) Vulgarization and spread, which is a period ofrationalization used to install the technology in the classroomas a do-it-yourself innovation and finally;(3) Institutionalization sets in; that is, traditional practiceshave been redefined to make them fit the rubrics of theinnovation.Meaning and Definition of Technology-HJ. Leavit defines technology as problem solvinginventions. The development of technology is essentiallyrelated to attempts to be rationale and to effect greaterefficiency. Me Grath has expanded the definition to includemethods and strategies of teaching. Tools, mechanical andelectronic devices and instruments, media equipment,library inventories and even text books.Technology is a means components ; however observationof practice and other evidence lead to the conclusion thatfrequently the advocates and the users tend to view themas ends.It is possible to classify technology for education into twocategories :(1) systemic programmes and(2) support/transport items. A systemic programme isconceived as a complete package or programme structuredtoward an end (a single text book or a CAI programme).Support/transport items consist of technologies of support,such as projectors transparencies or film and transport inincluding CCTV (closed circuit television), ITU (instructionaltelevision) and language laboratory. The computer alone issupport/transport item. Further thecomputer can be usedas a tool to generate an evaluation of the mentionedsystemic programme.One of the most complex and difficult tasks in education isthe designing of the programmes. Our eagerness is to adaptto this newly advocated technology, we have not rationallyand objectively sorted out the concepts and knowledge-base items which lend themselves to computer programmesin teaching machines.A similar but more common situation attends the use oftelevision in education. Advocacy and the apparent use ofit for the sake of use described even current practice in for


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to home, school, emotion, etc. each of which requires aseparate measurement and any attempt to measure themtogether may create difficulty. Here the investigator can,however the attributes with more sophisticated instrumentsspecially designed for the purpose.3.Numerals are used to represent quantities of the at-tribute —The process of measurement involves the processof quantification. Quantification indicates how much or towhat extent that particular attribute is present in a particu-lar object. For example, when the investigator is measuringthe achievement of a child in arithmetic, he quantities it bysaying that the child has an 80 per cent mark in his class.This percentage indicates how much of arithmetical knowl-edge he has gained in the class.Concept of Evaluation Definition1.By evaluation is meant appraisal or assessment with re-spect to some standard. Tuckman (1975) defines evalua-tion as, “a process where in the parts, processes, or out-comes of a programme are examined to see whether theyare satisfactory, particularly with reference to theprogrammes stated objectives our own expectations or ourown standards of excellence. “Thus, evaluation involves aprocess of appraisal of an object or event with reference tosome standard. The standard may be social, cultural orscientific. The standard may also be true or arbitrary. Aninvestigator may measure the height of a child (which say,is 30°) and type him as short. A typist typing 80 words perminute may be described as a ‘Grade A’ typist. Descriptionof the height of he child (which is 30 ° ) and the typingspeed of the typist (which is 80 words per minute) are ex-amples of measurement. However, when the child is saidto be short or the typist is classified as a ‘Grade A’ typist,it means the performances of the typist and the height of achild are being compared with reference to some standard.A child is short because he is shorter than the generalmean height of children of his age group and the typist is a‘Grade A’ typist because his speed is faster than the aver-age speed of most the typists. Thus, the height of the childand the typing behaviour of the typist are being evaluatedand not being measured.”2.In the words of Kothari Commission, “Evaluation is a con-tinuous process, forms an integral part of the total systemof education and is intimately related to educational objec-tives. It exercise a great influence of the pupil’s study hab-its and the teacher’s methods of instruction and thus helpsnot only to measure educational achievements but also toimprove it. The techniques of evaluation are means of col-lecting evidence about the students development in desir-able directions.”Evaluation is an all exclusive and a global process in whichdata is collected from different persons at different times,from different sources using different techniques. The vari-ety of information, sources and techniques makes the pro-cess of evaluation more comprehensive. It covers the totalpersonality of the students his cognitive, affective and psy-chomotor aspects and not only a few selected aspects ofpersonality.3.Sponsored by UNESCO in 1972 International Commis-sion on Education stated that, “Real evaluation of a pupil’sachievement should be based not on a single, summaryexamination, but on over-all observation of his work through-out a course of study. It should pay less attention to thevolume of memorized knowledge and more to the develop-

ment of his intellectual capacity, reasoning ability, criticaljudgement and proficiency in problem-solving.”Evaluation is a social and psychological process used inevery field of life day by day. An individual evaluated thebehaviours of other individuals. He also evaluated his ownactions at regular intervals. A gardener evaluates his plantsconsidering their beauty. A doctor evaluate his medicinesby observing the behavioural changes in the patients. As agardener and a doctor and other individuals evaluate theirrespective actions according to their results, similarly ateacher also evaluates his teaching on the basis of thebehavioural changes occurred in the pupils. In the field ofeducation, evaluation is linked with the learning objectives.Therefore, while evaluating his teaching, every teacher ob-serves whether the behavioural changes which have occurredin the pupils are with reference to the pre-determined learn-ing objectives. The teaching and testing going on side byside according to learning objectives is known as evalua-tion.

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF EVALUA TION1.Comprehensive Process —Evaluation is a comprehen-sive process. In it, not only cognitive aspect is evaluated asis done in essay type examination, it also evaluated thechanges which occur in affective and conative aspects. Itincludes, all the chances which occur in all the aspectssuch as the physical, mental, social and moral aspects.Hence, evaluation is a comprehensive method to test thepupils. It includes both measurement and evaluation.2.Continuous Process —Evaluation is a continuous pro-cess closely related to the learning objectives. The desir-able learning experiences are created in the pupil in accor-dance with educational objectives and the behaviouralchanges which occur day-to-day are recorded. On the ba-sis of this record, the ranking of pupils is made and theyare upgraded to the next higher class.3.Social Process —Evaluation is a social process. In thiswhere all the aspects of personality are evaluated, it is alsoevaluated whether the teaching has been conducted ac-cording to the needs, ideals and norms of the society ornot.4.Descriptive Process —Evaluation is a descriptive process.In this is given the progress which occurs in all the aspectsof the pupils.5.Cooperative process —Evaluation is a cooperative pro-cess. The source of pupil’s promotion is the pupil himself.As he writes in his answer books, so he gets the marks. Inevaluation, the necessary material is collected by seekingessential cooperation of all the sources like teacher, pupilsand parents. Then his progress is evaluated.6.Decisive Process —Evaluation is a decisive process. Af-ter this, it is decided that—(i) whether any object or process is useful or not,(ii) to what extent the teaching is successful according tothe determined educational objectives,(iii) whether the learning experiences provided to the pupilsin the class are effective or not,(iv)How fair the teaching objectives have been achieved. Ifnot achieved then whether the remedial instruction shouldbe given or the teaching strategies are to be modified. Thus,evaluation measures the educational achievements. It alsoimproves the teaching process.

STEPS IN EVALUATIONEvaluation is a continuous process with the following steps:


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ELECTIVE—IIEDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATIONCONCEPT, SCOPE, NEED AND RELEVANCETOOLS OF MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION SUB-JECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE TOOLS, ESSAY TEST, OB-JECTIVE TEST, SCALES, QUESTIONNAIRES, SCHED-ULES, INVENTORIES, PERFORMANCE TESTS.CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD MEASURING INSTRU-MENT :VALIDITYRELIABILITYNORMSUSABILITY, ETC.

TEST STANDARDIZATION:-NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCEDTESTS, SCALING-STANDARD SCORES, T-SCORES ANDC-SCORESSTEPS IN THE STANDARDIZATION OF A TESTMEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT, APTITUDES, IN-TELLIGENCE, ATTITUDES, INTERESTS AND SKILLSINTERPRETATION OF TEST-SCORES AND METHODSOF FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS NEW TRENDS :GRADING, SEMESTER, CONTINUOUS INTERNAL AS-SESSMENT, QUESTION BANK, USES — OF COM-PUTER IN EVALUATION, QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATIONConcept of MeasurementMeasurement is a process by which the developed abilitiesof the pupils are expressed in the quantitative form. Themeasurement is directly concerned with quantity. By mea-suring the content, skill and the results of abilities are ex-pressed in numbers, scores, percentage and average, sothat the provision of education of the pupils may be madeaccording to their present achievement. By measurement,the variables, groups, capacities, time and distance etc.can be tested very conveniently. In short, according toCampbell, “Measurement is the assignment of numerals toobjects or events according to rules.”

DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT1.J.P. Guilford —”Measurement means the description ofdata in terms of numbers and this, in turn, means takingadvantage of the many benefits that operate with numbersand mathematical thinking provide.”2.Campbell —measurement is “assignment of numerals toobjects or events according to certain rules is called mea-surement.”

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATIONThe term “measurement” and “evaluation” are often usedinterchangeably. However, in psychological, sociological andeducational researches, these two terms connote two dif-ferent meanings. “Measurement” refers to the process ofassigning numerals to events, objects, etc. according tocertain rules.3.Tyler —He defined Measurement “as assignment of nu-merals, according to rules.”4.Nunnally —”Measurement consists of rules for assign-ing numbers to objects in such a way as to represent quan-tities of attributes.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT1.Numbers are assigned according to some rules —Anumber is kind of numeral which is assigned some quanti-tative meaning. In measurement the investigator does notassign numbers of his own choice, but according to certainfixed and explicit rules. Usually, such rules are of two types.One is where the procedure is obvious and explicit. Forexample, while measuring the length of cloth in feet andinches, rules for assigning numerals are very explicit andclear. But suppose one wants to measure the extroversiontrait of personality or the intelligence of a child. In such asituation the rules would not be as clear as in the first ex-ample. The rules are generally vague and less explicit formeasuring psychological, sociological and educational at-tributes.2.Concerned with certain attributes, or variables orfeature of an object —These attributes or features of theobject are measured and not the object itself. For example,one would measure the aptitude, intelligence, attitude etc.of a person and not the person himself. When an investiga-tor is measuring the attribute of a person, he is faced withtwo difficulties. First, he may be asked to measure an at-tribute the existence of which is doubtful. Extra sensoryperception is one such example. Most investigators havefailed to show such perception in many individuals. Here,measurement is not difficult but rather an impossible task.Second, the investigator may be asked to measure attributeswith are not unitary but rather a mixture of several sub at-tributes. Usually, this happens when one is asked to mea-sure “Personality adjustment”. Adjustment may relate


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diversified and made multipurpose in the light of facts andfigures, otherwise a situation already desperate will soonbecome a hopeless one. Today we have men without jobsand jobs without men. A very large proportion of the annualoutput of our colleges and universities are not onlyunemployed but unemployable. There must be somethingvery wrong in our educational system which has resulted insuch a tragic situation.To be forewarned is to be forearmed. The State governmentsand the Central government have the all-important duty ofplanning ahead the education and the employment of Indianyouth. Our educational system should become employment-oriented. It is time that this was done in right earnest. Thealternative is disaster.A policy of drift spells danger. Education should be soplanned that everyone after completing education becomeseligible for a job, and finds a job. Something on the lines ofthe New Deal of President Roosevelt in the U. S. A. in 1930is urgently called for. Our rulers should create jobs, and oureducation system must fit our youth for these jobs.It may seem rather odd to say so but it is nevertheless truethat a love of knowledge for its own sake and the desire toimprove the mind and to build character are closely boundup with economic security. The academic life cannot beexpected to be so unworldly as to disregard the compellingconsiderations of economic well-being. Let our society, oureducational system and our governments in the State andat the Centre do the needful towards the hungry or hunger-fearing and angry generations of Indian youth.

EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIAWe cannot imagine a progressive and democratic countryin modern times without its citizens being properlyeducated. Agriculture, industries, big and small, arts andcrafts, even menial work and domestic service requireeducated people for their efficient running. Our foreign rulersdid not educate the whole of India. The masses were keptilliterate deliberately.India having become independent, it was felt that ourmanpower could not be put to the best use unless it was atrained and educated man-power. In every Five-Year Planprovision was made for the spread of literacy. Many newuniversities, colleges and schools have been opened duringthese several years. The percentage of literacy has nearlydoubled during this period. Even in the face of the dangerfrom external aggression, our Prime Minister declared thateducation should not suffer as a result of economymeasures. Much has still to be done. We cannot rest tillevery Indian can read and write well.Many science institutes or research laboratories have beenopened. Engineering and medical colleges are multiplyingside by side with primary and secondary schools.Agricultural universities and colleges are being opened inincreasing numbers. Education expansion has also takeninto account the question of adult education. Labourorganization and village Panchayats are having libraries oftheir own for the use of labourers and farmers. Even jailsare having libraries of their own for the mental improvementof the prisoners.The State Governments and the Central Government aregiving every aid and encouragement to the production ofsuitable books for general use. The Bharat Sevak Samaj isalso making efforts to spread education. Our progress in

education is certainly not too slow, but it is also not as onewould desire. With more funds available for the purpose inthe successive Five-Year Plans the progress is bound tobe quicker. It is our sacred duty to see to it that the lamp ofknowledge is lighted in every cottage and in every home.

THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH IN INDIAEven when India was under British rule, and even todaywhen India is free, English was not and is not the languageof the common people of India. It was and still is used forspecial purposes. Let us enumerate some of them.Arguments in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts ofIndia still have to be presented in English. This is so becausefor lawyers and judges from all over India with differentmother tongues, English alone can serve as a link language.The majority of the members of the Lok Sabha are from thenon-Hindi speaking regions, and also members of theCentral Secretariat and other Central services. The sameis true of our ambassadors and other members of ourembassies, of our army, our air force, our navy, of ourresearch institutes and of our various other institutions. Forthem all English serves as a link language.In our universities there are teachers and students from allover India. The regional language may be the educationalmedium but it is equally necessary to have sections wherethe educational medium is English. And last but not leastis the fact that books in Indian languages on hundreds ofimportant branches and sub- branches of knowledge arenot available.For the purposes mentioned above and for about five percent of our people English is indispensable. It is wishfulthinking to say that English has no future in India. To think interms of English or no English is unrealistic. We should notbe guilty of oversimplification of complex issues. Our mothertongues will not lose but will gain if our highly educatedclasses have their minds enriched and strengthened withthe knowledge of English. Out of this class will come thefuture makers and creators of great literature in the Indianlanguages. For literature begets literature.

TIME FOR SOUND EDUCATION POLICYNOTED Jurist, Dr. L.M. Singhvi ;has said, a soundeducational policy and its purposeful and dynamicimplementation has become a long overdue preconditionfor sustained economic and moral reforms. “If the countryis still serious in liberating itself from the shackles of penuryand privation, and the deadwood of inertia and dead habit,let us not talk glibly of educational reforms any longer”.Delivering the 72nd Convocation Address of the DelhiUniversity, Dr. Singhvi stated that educational reforms werenot optional any more, and argued that only by resuscitatingeducation from the limbo of history, can we achieve sociallyjust democratic participation and qualitative excellence,besides becoming more creative and organised. He alsoadded that education must imbue a student with flexibilityand versatility, so that he starts respecting value-relationship,and shapes into an open-minded personality imbued withthe zeal to serve the nation and the world selflessly.More than 40,000 students were admitted to variousdegrees, on the basis of 1994 examinations, at the annualconvocation, with 2% of them being awarded Ph.Ds.Besides, 172 medals and prizes were given away—80 tomale students and 92 to female students. The convocation


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EDUCATION - ESSAYSRIGHTS AND DUTIES OF A STUDENT

There are no rights without corresponding duties and noduties without corresponding rights. The condition of thewhole society is reflected in the condition of its students. Ifsociety, including the government, does not safeguard therights of the people, it will be nearly impossible for the peopleto do their duty. A healthy and progressive socialorganization alone can create a healthy and progressivepeople. Let us apply these principles to the students whoare the most precious charge and the greatest responsibilityof society.A hungry man cannot work properly, so a hungry studentcannot learn or study properly. Among the first rights of astudent are food, clothing and shelter. The home and theneighbourhood should not have a vulgarizing and debasingeffect on the budding life of students. It is the right of studentsto expect and receive love and kindness and understanding.Teachers who know their job, courses of study suitable tothe ages and temperaments of students, proper balancebetween work and play, sensible exercise and assertion ofauthority combined with sympathy and helpfulness on thepart of teachers and elders, are among the just requirementsand rights of students. Again, students would make mistakesalmost as a matter of right.What are the corresponding duties of students? To beobedient and respectful to their elders and teachers, to bekeen and eager to learn, to work honestly, to speak andwrite clearly and correctly, to be truthful, honest and straightforward, to be lively and happy, to learn self-control, to guardagainst the formation of bad habits, are among the dutiesof students. To shun disorderliness and slovenliness, tocultivate good manners and decorum are also in the list ofstudents’ duties. It should be remembered by students thatdiscipline and good behaviour are great fun and not tedioustasks. Love of knowledge and the adventure of the mindshould go side by side with the culture of the emotions. It isnecessary to feed the head as well as to feed the heart.The spirit of sportsmanship, love of fairness, dislike ofinjustice, patience and moderation, loving studies and notcarrying on studies as an unwanted task are also amongthe duties and responsibilities of students.Above all, let students not only do their duty but love andenjoy the work they are to perform. If they do so they willnot only become good students but happy students.

WHAT IS WRONG WITH OUR EDUCATION ?What is wrong with our education? Quite a number of things.Our education has fallen into a vicious circle. The education,or the teaching or the training from the primary to theuniversity stage is so poor that the products of oureducational institutions are unfit to work at any job. Evenour graduates with a few exceptions are unable to write afew paragraphs correctly either in English or in their mother-tongue. Syntax and sentence-making and the art ofcomposition are woefully neglected at all stages. As a resulteducation not only in language but in all subjects hasbecome a farce and a mockery. Correct and intelligiblewriting is an indispensable need in all subjects. Thesentences written by our students make no sense in themajority of cases. This is vicious circle number one.The vast majority of teachers from the primary stage to theuniversity stage are unfit or nearly unfit to teach. Our system

of education is neither producing nor employing goodteachers. This is vicious circle number two.In an overwhelming number of cases the teachers are verypoorly paid. Their services and prospects are in most casessubject to the whims of semi-literate school and collegemanagers. Their heart is not and cannot be in their work.This is vicious circle number three.Love of knowledge for its own sake is an admirablesentiment. But when after spending the golden years ofboyhood and youth and thousands of rupees, hundreds ofthousands of our young people find themselves without jobs,they curse their education and they curse the government.Not only are there no jobs for them; in many cases theyfind that they are not fit for any job. We have thus a verysorry spectacle of men without jobs and jobs without men.These are the vicious circles number four and five.The prescribed books from the primary stage to thesecondary stage generally, but specially in language andliterature, are so poorly written that they render the mindsof the young students blunt and dull. Our educationalinstitutions are mostly producing literate illiterates. Theyare sending out dumb and language less people. Everydepartment, every office, police service, civil service, clericalservices, all classes of schools and colleges suffergrievously because they are being largely if not entirelymanned by these literate illiterates. This is vicious circlenumber six, from which not only our education but everydepartment of our life has been suffering.High-powered bodies are appointed from time to time tomake searching enquiries into the state of our education.This is only a ceremony. The reports of such committeesare treated by the powers that be with respectful inattention.Nothing is done. Nobody cares.Indiscipline, using unfair means at the examinations,vulgarity and filthy language, crime and violence havebecome a familiar feature of student life all over the country.Vicious circle number seven.To crown it all political parties have taken to fishing in thetroubled waters of school and college life, doing incalculableharm to the cause of education. Vicious circle number eight.Indian education sorely requires complete overhauling.Education is a sacred trust of the government. The educationminister in every State should be a seasoned educationist.And he should be a non-party man. The educational budgetshould be quadrupled. Indiscriminate opening of schools andcolleges should be stopped. Private and aided institutionsshould become government institutions. Proper training andemployment should be provided for. All civilized countriesare doing this. And this must be done by India as well.

OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMMore than ninety-nine per cent students in the high schooland university classes have as their aim the securing ofsome job with adequate pay or emoluments. Only aboutone per cent look forward to taking up independentprofessions, such as trade or law or medicine. Year afteryear our universities and degree colleges send out lakhs ofgraduates as job-seekers. Of this large number perhapsless than one-third can be absorbed in the various services.The rest are doomed to remain jobless and unemployed.This state of affairs has brought matters to such a passthat our educational institutions, our society and ourgovernment are faced with the revolt of the youth.Our educational system should be overhauled. It should be


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performance and the ranking assigned to comparedperformances.

Achievement T est. Refers to test designed to measurethe effects of specific teaching or training in an area ofthe curriculum.

Achromatism. Refers to extremely rare condition of totalcolour blindness or the inability to distinguish colours.

Acoumeter. It is a device used to test hearing by markingclicking or other sounds at prescribed distances fromthe subject.

Acoustic Method. It is a method used to teach the deaf tohear and speak by developing their sensitivity to soundvibrations.

Acoustics. Science of sound.Acrostic. A system which helps individuals to recall a

sequence or a rule by remembering a word or phrase.Action on Smoking and Health (ASH) (UK). A pressure

group which seeks to inform people, particularly schoolchildren, of the danger to health which results fromsmoking.

Active Responding. Refers to frequently observing studentresponses during an instructional sequence.

Active V ariable. It is variable that can be changed ormanipulated by an educational researcher.

Activity Curriculum. Curriculum wherein the interests andpurposes of children determine the educationalprogramme of activities being planned cooperatively byteacher and pupils.

Activity Learning/Teaching. It is a learning or teachingsituation, such project work, that is characterized byparticipation on the part of the learner.

AD. Average deviation.ADA. Average daily attendance.Adaptability Test. Test of specific or general ability used

to predict performance in a wide range of occupations.Adapted Physical Education. Regular physical education

programmes designed for handicapped children.Adaptive Programme. Flexible form of programmed

instruction wherein the sequence of frames presentedchanged so as to suit the pace and difficulty experiencedby individual students.

Adjunctive Programmes. Questions presented totrainees/student after they have studied instructionalmaterial or conventional text books.

Adjunct Professor. (US) college/university professoremployed on a part-time or contract basis.

Adjustment. Refers to process of adapting behaviour to achanged environment.

Adjustment to Teaching. Process that occurs in theprobationer teacher who successfully adapts to the roleof professional teacher from the role of student teacher.

Administrative Studies (or Science). It is a branch ofeducational management with special reference to theorganisation of educational institutions and systems.

Administrator. Refers to a person with administrativeresponsibilities e.g. bursar.

Admission Criteria. Refers to rules laid down for studentselection.

Adolescent Crisis. Refers to problem of adjustment due toconflicting influences that young people encounter bothwithin themselves and in the outside world.

Adolescent Literature. Refers to the reading materialwritten mainly for, or read by, young people.

Adolescent Theory. It is the part of psychological theorythat deals with adolescent growth and development.

Adolescent Unit. Institution for mentally handicappedadolescents that is intermediary between special schooland adult training centre.

Adult Education. Education provided for adult for generaleducational, rather than vocational purposes.

Advanced, Reading or Accelerated Reading. Refers toexercises designed to increase reading speed withoutloss of comprehension.

Advance Organizers. Refers to short introductory textspresented to a student at the commencement of courseto enable him to structure the course material and put itin perspective.

Adviser (US). Refers to a member of the academic staffwho advises students about the selection of courses tobe taken.

Advisory Centre for Education (ACE) (UK). It is anindependent, nonprofit making educational body thatpublishes the journal ‘Where’ and operates are searchand enquiry service, providing parents and other laymenwith an information service on all aspects of education.

Aectiology. Means examination of the origins andderivations of psychological and social states.

Affection. Refers to the emotional, feeling aspects ofexperience and behaviour.

Affective. Refers to certain aspects of growth or educationalexperience that deal with emotional development.

Affective Behaviour. Behaviour from which is inferred anindividual’s disposition to feel or to adopt an attitude toa value.

Affective Education. Teaching or learning experience thathave the development of the feeling or emotional aspectsof behaviour in the pupils as their focal interest.

Affiliation Needs. Refers to the need for acceptance byone’s peers.

Affirmative Action. It is positive action taken to overcomeunder-representation of women and minority groups inemployment and student bodies, in comparison with thecomposition of the area population.

African Training and Research Centre inAdministration for Development. (Centre African deformation et de recherches administratives pour ledevelopment) Establishment 1964 by agreementbetween Morocco and UNESCO for the training of Africancivil servants and research into problems ofadministration. It has some 20 member countries.

Afro-Anglo-American Programm in Teacher Education(A.A.A. Programme). Programme begun jointly byTeachers College Columbia University, New York, andthe Institute of Education of London University, withfinancial support from the Carnegie Corporations. It wasestablished to prepare teachers to teach in Africansecondary schools and teacher education institutions.

Age Earnings Profile. Chart or table representing thepattern of earnings for a worker (or workers) at differentages.

Age-Grade Report (US). Analysis representing the numberof students in the normal grade for their age and thenumber in higher and lower grades.

Age of Criminal Responsibility. It is the age at which achild becomes subject to the criminal law of his/hercountry or residence.


1

EDUCATIONAL TERMS

AAbacus. Calculating devise made up of beads that can be

moved along parallel wires mounted in a frame.Abendgymnasium. German adult education institute.Abendschule. Refers to German evening school or night

school that is sponsored by industry or a municipality.It provides both general and vocational education.

Abend-techniken. Swiss adult education institutions.Ability Grouping. Method of grouping pupils or students

in accordance with their intellectual ability for teachingpurpose.

Ability Proflls. Chart or diagram that graphically -depictsan individual’s score.

Ability T ests. Standardized tests carried out to assess theoverall efficiency of a person mentally.

Abreaction. Expression or release of repressed feelingsthrough increasing experiences in imagination.

Absenteeism. Refers to failure of a pupil to attend schoolregularly.

Abstract. It is the process of writing or collecting abstracts.Abstraction. Mathematical operation for which it is not

possible to imagine a concrete model. It also refers toany intangible concept that is used to explain concretephenomena.

Absurdities Test. It is a form of mental test wherein thesubject is asked to point out whatever is absurd in astatement, story or picture.

Academe. Refers to an academic institution or theacademic life.

Academicals. Refers to academic dress, pupils or ex-pupilsof an academy in Scotland.

Academic Aptitude or Ability. It is the ability to performwell in academic education, e.g. a pupil winning meritscholarship might be said to possess academic aptitude.

Academic Development. Refers to gain in knowledge andability to learn by students.

Academic Education. Education of an abstract kind,generally demanding a high degree of academic ability.

Academic Elite. Refers to a select group educated to highacademic standards.

Academic Freedom (or Liberty). Refers to freedom ofeducational institutions, universities, to decide thecourses.

Academic Games or Gaming. Educational use of gamesfor achieving certain behavioural objectives.

Academic Handicap. Refers to handicaps that limits astudent’s ability to learn.

Academician. Refers to distinguished scholar or memberof a national academy of sciences, arts, etc.

Academic Persistence. It is a measure of the extent towhich students continue their studies at school orcollege.

Academic Against Poverty. It is a UK association toteacher and lecturers concerned with alleviating theeffects of poverty in the international community.

Academic Selection. Refers to a process wherebyeducation is restricted by criteria of academic aptitude.

Academic Staff (or personnel). School, college oruniversity staff with teaching responsibilities. Know asfaculty in a US college/university.

Academic Standards. Criteria established by an

educational institution for determining levels of studentachievement.

Academic Tenure. Means permanency of appointment,granted to a member of faculty or a academic staff.

Academic Year. Refers to period between new intakes ofstudents in a university, college, school, or otheracademic institution.

Academic. (1) Netherlands non-university higher educationinstitution.

(2) One of 16 geographical areas into which France isdivided for the purposes of educational administration.

Academy of Management. It is US association forteachers of management and business studies in collegeand universities.

Academy of Pedagogical Science of the USSR(Akademiya Pedagogicheskikh Nauk). It is a learnedsociety concerned with educational methods techniquesand organization.

Acalculia. Refers to state of inability to work with numbersin mental operations.

Acatalepsia. Means inability to understand commands orinstructions.

Access and Survey Skills. Refers to skills that enables astudent to locate and select reading material pertinentto his/her field of study.

Accessibility. It is the extent to which learning resourcescan be made available to students who are unable touse them at normal or specified times.

Accessory Material (US). Refers to teaching materials andaids used to supplement basic textbooks.

Accidental Errors. Refers to mistakes in experimentalobservations because of unknown variables that affectresults.

Accomplishment Quotient (AQ). It is the ratio ofeducational age (EA) to mental age (MA).

Accountability. The extent to which student performanceis attributable to instruction rather than ageing, selectiveadmission, etc.

Accreditation. Means recognition and acceptance of theacademic standard of an educational establishment byan outside accrediting agency, association or body likean examination board, a professional and qualifying body.

Acculturation. Refers to leamine, consciously orunconsciously, of a culture through contract with it. Theaward of higher degree at the same time as a first orlower degree, both from the same college or university.

Achievement. Refers to performance in school or collegein a standardized series of educational test.

Achievement Age. It is the age that corresponds to themean score on a given achievement test.

Achievement Analysis. Refers to examination of stagesin the progress of a project.

Achievement Curve. It is a graph of achievement in aspecific task or area of study as plotted against time ornumber of trials.

Achievement Method of Marking. A method of markingcompositions and essays where in the examiner judgesare the writer’s intentions.

Achievement Quotient (AQ). It is the ratio between theexpected and actual measured performance level in aeducational or training programme. Sometimes calledaccomplishment quotient or educational ratio.

Achievement Rating. Means comparing achieved

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