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ANALOGIES OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Michael McLane
Sterling Heights High School
Psychology Program
AP Psychology: Volume I
Analogies of Psychology Sterling Heights High School McLane
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History of Psychology
Chapter 14
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History of Psychology
1. What are the two components of the definition of psychology?
A. Identify the two roots for the definition of psychology?
2. Who believed that the mind and body are separate; supported the nature side of the
argument?
A. How did Aristotle disagree with Socrates and Plato?
B. Who stated, “That the mind is but a white paper that we write experiences on?”
1. Which argument did this support?
C. Who mediated and said the mind and body do interact and what his approach called?
3. Define Nature:
A. Define Nurture:
4. Which term refers to the premise that science should be based on the idea that knowledge
should come from direct experience or observation?
A. What did this idea separate psychology from?
Contributions of Wilhelm Wundt
5. How did Wilhelm Wundt separate psychology from philosophy?
A. What was the name of the book that helped to explain this notion?
B. What was Wundt’s educational background?
C. In what year and where did Wundt begin lay the foundation for the birth place of
psychology?
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D. Define introspection:
School of Structuralism
6. Who was a student of Wilhelm Wundt’s and initiated the school of Structuralism?
A. Why is this school considered important?
B. What was the rationale to the school of structuralism?
C. What was a problem with the methods they used to study conscious experience?
Gestalt psychology
7. Who studied how we perceive or organize mental processes?
A. How did the Gestalts disagree with the Structuralists?
B. What did they believe about perception?
William James and the School of Functionalism
8. Where did William James study and what was his educational background?
A. What was the title of his book that helped to popularize psychology in America?
B. Define James’s school of Functionalism:
C. How did Charles Darwin influence the school of Functionalism?
D. Structuralism implemented introspection; what did the Functionalism rely on?
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Legacy of William James
9. Identify some of the achievements of G. Stanley Hall.
10. Why should Mary Whiton Calkins be upset and disappointed with the field of psychology?
A. What were some of her accomplishments later in career?
11. How was Margaret Floy Washburn treated differently than Mary Whiton Calkins?
A. How did she influence the school of behaviorism?
Sigmund Freud
12. How did Freud believe personality and behavior; normal and abnormal could be
explained?
A. Define the unconscious:
B. How can the unconscious be accessed?
C. What did Freud’s study of the unconscious lead to?
D. Identify the name of Freud’s viewpoint that all behavior can be traced to the
unconscious and early childhood experiences?
John B. Watson and Behaviorism
13. In the early 1900s how did the study of psychology shift?
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A. Define overt behavior:
B. Whose work did the Behaviorist based their work on?
C. Who in American championed the ideas of Behaviorism and what did he focus on?
D. What was B.F. Skinner’s role in furthering the ideas of Behaviorism?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow the Humanistic Approach
14. When did the Humanistic approach emerge? And what is it referred to?
A. What was the focus of the Humanistic approach?
B. What did Carl Rogers and Maslow believe?
C. From working with Freud, how did Rogers disagree with him concerning their work?
D. How did Rogers differ from the Behaviorists?
E. What did Abraham Maslow support?
STOP COMPLETE Table 1 PAGE 8
Psychological Perspectives
15. What is a psychological perspective?
A. Identify the buzz words for the following psychological perspectives:
a. Biological:
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b. Behavioral-genetics:
c. Psychodynamic:
d. Behaviorism:
e. Humanistic:
f. Cognitive:
g. Cross-cultural:
h. Evolutionary:
Different area and Specializations in Psychology
16. What is the main difference between basic research and applied research?
A. Which type of psychologists examines how people change over their lifetime?
B. Which type of psychologists would be interested in improving people’s health, for
example in stressful situations?
C. Which type of psychologists looks at maximizing the workplace and helping people
work better at their job through finding methods that help them work better with
technology and human factors?
D. What is the difference between a clinical psychologists and a psychiatrist?
E. What is psychometrics?
F. What is the main initiative of community psychologists?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 11
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1. Psychology originated from philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) and physiology (brain
and body)
2. Behavior genetics- perspective of psychology studied influences of nature (genetics) vs.
nurture (environment)
3. Behaviorism- observable (overt) behavior- in order to be studied behavior must be based
on observable and identifiable behavior- John B. Watson (founder of American
behaviorism)
4. Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener- first school of psychology that
believed conscious experiences could be broken down into simplest components like
feelings, thoughts/ introspection- technique used by structualists to look inward at the
parts of consciousness but proved to be unreliable as subjects reported different answers
on different occasions.
5. Empiricism- knowledge has to come from experience or direct observation supported by
John Locke who stated the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) that we write our
experiences on- supports nurture side of the argument. Critical thinking- thinking that
includes scientific reasoning or empirical evidence (provided by Wilhelm Wundt who
introduced experimental design separating psychology from philosophy in 1879 in
Leipzig Germany, and questioning- not assuming or speculating
6. Mary Whiton Calkins- first women to finish requirements for PhD. but was denied by
Harvard
7. Margaret Floy Washburn- first women to be awarded PhD
8. Francis Sumner- first African American to be awarded PhD
9. William James- supporter for Functionalism- first American school of psychology that
applied Darwin’s thoughts in terms of how an organism adapts (natural selection) and
functions in its environment. Evolutionary perspective- viewpoint that suggests all
organisms will do whatever necessary to survive which include mating and defending
their young or offspring.
10. Historical order: Structuralism then Functionalism then Psychoanalytical then
Behaviorism
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Key Terms Definition Analogy
Psychology The scientific study of mental
processes and behavior
Psychology’s roots are from
philosophy and physiology
Science The utilization of systematic
methods to study and conclude
behavior and phenomenon
What separated psychology from
philosophy- scientific proof rather
than just ideals
Behavior Information that can be directly
observed
Overt behavior is behavior that
can be measured and observed
Mental processes Thoughts, feelings, and motivations
that cannot be directly observed
What you CANT observe/
psychology started out just as the
study of mental processes
Plato and Socrates Supported dualism belief mind and
body are separate and distinct
Led to the nature vs. nurture
debate
Aristotle Believed that the mind and body are same
Nature vs. Nurture Nature refers to genetics and
nurture refers to environment
Nature= NATURAL Behaviors-
did not have to learn
NURTURE stands for U R a
product of what happens to you in
the environment
Rene Descartes Believed in “interactive dualism”
that the mind and body are separate
but interact to produce conscious
experiences
Nature and nurture are responsible
for who you are and what you do
John Locke Supported “tabula rasa” the notion
that the mind is but a white paper
on which people add experiences
Supported nurture side of the
argument- a blank book that you
are born with and each day fills up
the pages
Critical thinking Thinking that is not limited to
speculation or assumptions, but the
consideration of all factors
Backbone for scientific thought
Empirical data Belief data come from direct
observation or experimentation
You don’t believe your friends
until provide you PROOF
Wilhelm Wundt Considered the “father of
psychology” credited with opening
first psychology laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany in 1879,
authoring Principles of
Physiologically Psychology, and
separate philosophy from
psychology
Separated psychology from
philosophy through providing
EMPIRICAL EVIDINCE through
his EXPERIMENTATION of
reaction time to sensory stimuli
Edward Titchener A student of Wundt, initiated the school of Structuralism
Structuralism An early school of psychology that
stressed conscious experiences
could be broken into parts or
structures
A good day can be broken down
into happy emotions,
interpretation, people/ similar to
PIECES of a puzzle
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Introspection A technique used by structuralists
to look inward and study the
elements of consciousness
Was not reliable because each day
participants saw the stimuli
different because each day they
felt different which affected what
they observed
William James Credited with “father of American
Psychology,” wrote the book,
Principles of Psychology, and
influenced the ideals of the school
of Functionalism
Think of “Jamestown” as the first
American colony and William
James the first American
psychologist
Functionalism An early American school of
psychology that focused on how
organisms function and adapt to
their environment
Americans have always
emphasized what you DO or
FUNCTION rather than what you
KNOW or HOW you know it-
Structuralists’ point of view
Natural selection Charles Darwin’s belief that nature
selects organisms that are best
suited to survive in a particular
environment
We are in a place for a reason
G. Stanley Hall A student of William James, he was the first American to earn his Ph.D.,
and initiated the American Psychological Association (APA), and
American Journal of Psychology
Mary Whiton
Calkins
Was the first woman to finish all
of her requirements for her Ph. D
but was not awarded because of
her gender, did later become the
first woman president of the APA
Think of Mary stating, “Y (Whi-
ton) did I not get my Ph.D.?”
Margaret Floy
Washburn
First woman to receive her Ph. D
and became the second woman
president of the APA
Margaret experience JOY (FLOY)
because she did get her Ph.D.!
Sigmund Freud Initiated the psychodynamic
perspective focusing on the effects
of early childhood and
unconscious determinants through
the use of case studies
UNCONSCIOUS
EARLY CHILDHOOD
John B. Watson A Behaviorists who focused on
measurable and overt behavior
Sherlock Holmes and WATSON
looked for OBSERVED clues
Carl Rogers A Humanistic psychologist who
disagreed with Freud’ emphasis
on the unconscious and rather in a
person’ unique characteristics and
growth
Think of Mr. ROGERS- he wanted
to make people FEEL GOOD on
his talk show
Abraham Maslow Humanistic psychologist who
believed people motivated to
reach self-actualization
Think of Abraham Maslow’s
initials AB- we are always trying to
get As and Bs
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___ 1. Psychology originated from which two
areas of study.
A) Empiricism
___ 2. John Locke's belief that the "mind is
but a white paper that we write
experiences on."
B) John B. Watson
___ 3. A technique used by Structuralists that
means to look inward at conscious
experiences.
C) Margaret Floy Washburn
___ 4. The belief that science should be based
on knowledge taken from experience or
observation.
D) Sigmund Freud
___ 5. William James's ideals led to which
school of thought that emphasizes how
an organism functions and adapts to its
environment.
E) Natural selection
___ 6. According to Charles Darwin, nature
selects organisms best suited for
survival in its environment.
F) Functionalism
___ 7. The first woman to finish the
requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology
but was not awarded because of her
gender.
G) Tabula rasa
___ 8. The first woman to actually be awarded
her Ph.D. in psychology.
H) Philosophy and Physiology
___ 9. Emphasized the role of the unconscious
and early childhood experiences in the
development of personality and
psychological disorder.
I) Mary Whiton Calkins
___ 10. Believed that psychology should focus
on overt or observable behavior which
led to the school of Behaviorism.
J) Introspection
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Perspective of
psychology
A particular viewpoint and approach to
studying various phenomenon and
behavior
Everyone has a perspective
or opinion of how things
happen
Cognitive perspective Focused on the study of how the brain
processes, stores, and retrieves
information
Thinking
Biological
perspective
The study of the nervous systems, parts
and functions of the brain, and neural
communication’s via their influences on
behavior
Brain and Body
Social-cultural
perspective
The study of how social and cultural
factors affect people’s behavior and
viewpoints
Where you live and cultural
heritage
Psychodynamic
perspective
The study of how early childhood
events and unconscious determinants
affect people’s thoughts, feelings, act
Unconscious and Early
Childhood
Behavioral
perspective
The focus of overt or observable
behavior and how that is affected by
learning and social situations
How you act or behave
from what you learn
Evolutionary
perspective
The study of how species adapt and
survive in particular environments
Natural Selection and
Charles Darwin
Humanistic
perspective
The beliefs that behavior is affected by
free will and decision-making, and the
pursuit of human satisfaction and
potential
Be the best HUMAN you
can be
Behavioral-genetics
perspective
Studied the role of nature vs. nurture
and the effects it has on development
Nature vs. Nurture
Positive psychology The focus of human strengths and
potential
Feel good- Do good
Industrial-
organizational
psychology
A field of psychology that focuses on
improving worker performance and
productivity at the workplace
Also called consultants and
human resources or
personnel directors
Health psychologist A field of psychology that studies how to improves the lives of others
Psychiatrists Treat people often with psychotic disorders utilizing medications-
which they are qualified to prescribe
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___ 1. A perspective of psychology that
emphasizes the brain, nervous system,
and the endocrine system.
A) Biological
___ 2. A perspective of psychology that
examines the role of nature vs. nurture
on development.
B) Behavioral genetics
___ 3. A perspective of psychology that Carl
Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused
on human potential and free will.
C) Evolutionary
___ 4. A perspective of psychology that
examines mental processes, thinking,
and problem-solving.
D) Psychiatrist
___ 5. A perspective of psychology developed
by Sigmund Freud that focused on the
unconscious and early childhood
experiences.
E) Industrial-organizational psychologist
___ 6. A perspective of psychology that
emphasized the study of overt or
observable behavior.
F) Psychodynamic
___ 7. A perspective of psychology that
emphasized the ideals of Charles
Darwin and focused on the survival of
species.
G) Behavioral
___ 8. A type of psychologist that focuses on
the improvement of working conditions
and work productivity.
H) Cognitive
___ 9. A type of psychologist who can
prescribe medications for psychological
disorders.
I) Health psychologist
___ 10. A type of psychologists that focuses on
improving the well-being and health of
people.
J) Humanistic
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Term “Buzz word(s)” Term “Buzz word(s)”
John Locke Tabula rasa, blank
slate Rene Descartes Interactive dualism
Nature Genetics, natural Nurture Environment, work,
learn
Wilhelm Wundt Experimental,
Germany Structuralism Parts, Titchener
Introspection Inward, unreliable William James American,
Functionalism
Functionalism Adapts, functions Natural selection Darwin, survival,
nature, instincts
G. Stanley Hall First Ph.D., president
APA Mary Whiton
Calkins
No Ph.D. woman
Margaret Floy
Washburn
Ph. D. first woman Sigmund Freud Unconscious, early
childhood
Psychodynamic Perspective, Freud,
unconscious Psychoanalysis Treatment,
unconscious
Behaviorism Overt, observable
behavior John B. Watson American Behaviorist
Humanistic
perspective
Free will, human
potential Carl Rogers Humanistic, self-
worth
Abraham Maslow Self-actualization-
potential Cognitive
perspective
Thinking,
remembering
Biological
perspective
Brain, nervous
system Behavioral-genetics Nature vs. nurture
Evolutionary Darwin, survive,
mating, instincts Community
psychologists
Need, impoverished
Industrial-
organizational
psychologist
Workplace, job
satisfaction Psychiatrists Medical degree,
prescriptions
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States of
Consciousness
Chapter 7
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States of Consciousness
1. What is conscious awareness?
2. What is the level just below the level of consciousness for which it is easy to retrieve this
information?
3. What is the level of consciousness that includes material absent from conscious awareness,
but still can influence personality and behavior?
Exploring Levels of Consciousness
4. What is dualism?
5. What refers to the mind and the body are of the same?
A. How is materialism supported?
States of Consciousness
6. What is a state of consciousness?
A. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream that always is changing but keeps
flowing?
B. What is an example of a stream of consciousness?
Circadian Rhythms
7. What are circadian rhythms?
A. What is considered the internal clock that is located in the hypothalamus that receives
information from the retina in response to lighting conditions?
B. In response to light what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus instruct the pineal gland to
release?
C. What happens when melatonin is released? Suppressed?
D. When external cues are not present how does this affect circadian rhythms?
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E. How does jet lag occur?
Stages of Sleep
8. How are researchers able to study sleep?
A. Define beta brain waves:
B. Alpha brain waves:
C. Theta brain waves:
D. Delta brain waves:
9. Which brain waves are present in NREM stage 1 of sleep?
A. How long does NREM stage 1 last?
B. What are vivid sensory experiences, like falling in NREM stage 1 called?
C. What is a myoclonic jerk in NREM stage 1 characterized by?
10. Which brain waves are present in NREM stage 2 of sleep?
A. What is a characterization of NREM stage 2?
11. Which brain waves are present in NREM stage 3 of sleep?
A. What is NREM stage 3 of sleep referred to?
12. Which brain waves are present during REM sleep?
A. Where do most dreams occur?
B. What refers to muscle activity that is nonexistent or suppressed?
C. What is occurring to physiological activity during REM sleep?
D. What refers to the brain being awake and the body experiencing muscle atonia during
REM sleep called?
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Sequence of Sleep Stages
12. How many cycles of sleep does a person normally experience?
A. List the Sequence of a sleep cycle:
Begins with _________________________ that lasts a few minutes then is followed by about 20
minutes in ____________________. Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in ______________
Once a person is relaxed and sleeping deeply the sequence ___________________ and the
person goes back to NREM stage 2 then the person enters ___________________ which lasts
about 5-15 minutes.
B. As sleep throughout the night continues how is REM sleep, NREM stage 2 and
NREM stage 3 sleep affected?
C. As a person gets older what is occurring to NREM stage 3 sleep?
i. Give an example:
Functions of Sleep
13. How does not getting enough sleep affect a person?
A. What occurs when a person does not get enough REM sleep?
i. What is REM rebound?
Sleep theories
14. Which neurotransmitters and associated with sleep?
A. Which area of the brain is in charge of attention and arousal?
B. Which system is comprised of nerves that run through the reticular formation that
affect our level of arousal?
C. Which areas of the brain is responsible for REM sleep?
15. What does the restorative theory of sleep suggest about the need for sleep?
A. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons especially
with forming new memories?
B. Which parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?
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C. What does NREM sleep allow; which is why NREM occurs in the beginning of
sleep?
16. What does the Adaptive theory of sleep suggest?
A. How does the evolutionary perspective influence the adaptive theory of sleep?
17. Which theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is nothing to do?
Sleep Disorders
18. What is the most common sleep disorder?
A. When is help required for most sleep disorders?
B. What is the sudden falling asleep into REM sleep without warning at non opportune
times?
C. What is sleep apnea?
D. When does sleep walking or somnambulism occur?
i. What is usually the cause associated with sleep walking?
E. When does nocturnal enuresis or bed wetting occur?
F. What is the difference between night terrors and nightmares?
G. How is REM sleep disorder characterized?
i. Why and when does this disorder occur?
H. What sleep disorder refers to grinding one’s teeth during sleep?
Dream Theories
19. What is lucid dreaming?
20. How is the brain affected during REM sleep?
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A. Which neurotransmitters are reduced during REM sleep?
21. Who suggested that thoughts, feelings, and wishes are repressed into the unconscious?
A. What is the goal of dream analysis?
B. In his book, Interpretation of Dream, how did Freud refer to dreams?
C. According to Freud, what is the remembered content or meaning of a dream?
D. What is the symbolized part of the dream; the deep seated wishes of the unconscious?
22. Describe the Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming:
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 1 PAGE 23
Hypnosis
23. How is hypnosis described?
A. What are the two most popular reasons why someone would seek hypnosis?
B. What refers to suggestions that maybe carried out after a person is hyptonized?
C. What refers to the absence of memory that occurs when a person can’t remember the
process of being hypnotized?
24. Who belied that hypnosis is a splitting of consciousness called “dissociation”?
A. Describe the neodissociation theory of hypnosis:
B. Which stream of consciousness refers to a stream that is distinct that the person being
hypnotized is not aware of?
25. Which theory of hypnosis believes that hypnosis is not an altered state but rather a role
one believes he or she play?
A. Who supported the Role and Belief expectancy theory?
Psychoactive Drugs
26. Which area of psychology studies that effects of drugs?
A. How does a drug affect the brain?
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B. What refers to a drug mimics or excites a neurotransmitter?
i. What refers a drug that blocks or inhibits a neurotransmitter?
Effects of Drugs
27. What occurs when a drug interferes with personal and social meaning?
A. When does psychological dependency occur?
B. What is the body’s need for a drug called?
i. What occurs when a body does not receive the required amount of the drug one
is addicted to?
ii. What refers to the more of a drug a person consumes the more of the drug is
needed?
Types of Drugs
28. What are physiological effects of taking depressants?
A. What are some examples of depressants?
29. Which group of drugs speed up in the central nervous system and increase the release of
norepinephrine and dopamine?
A. What are some examples of stimulates?
B. What could occur that is comparable to schizophrenia from the abuse of stimulants?
30. Which type of drugs are agonists for endorphins that cause sleepiness and relieve pain?
A. What are some examples of opiates?
31. Which neurotransmitter does hallucinogens or psychedelics affect?
A. What are some examples of hallucinogens?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 26
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1. An EEG measures brain activity- alpha waves- alert but drowsy could fall asleep/ beta
waves- is wide awake/ delta waves- deep sleep during NREM stage 3/ Reticular
formation part of the brain in charge of arousal (ARAS- ascending reticular activating
system- comprised of afferent nerves that run through reticular formation in charge of
arousal)
2. Circadian rhythms- occur every 24 hours based on environmental cues- if no
environmental cues have a tendency to drift toward a 25 hour schedule; monitored by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus- sensor in the hypothalamus- which receives input from the
retina about lightness which based on this instructs the pineal gland to either release or
decrease that amount of the hormone melatonin – increase when dark then become tired/
; could be affected by jet lag
3. Each sleep cycle (stage 1 – 2 – 3 - 2- REM (does not go back into stage 1 which is just
falling asleep) is 90 minutes- last four hours of sleep mainly spent in REM and Stage 2
NREM sleep.
4. Restorative sleep theory- Stage 3 NREM (deep sleep); body repairs itself
(physical/muscle damage) delta waves are produced here- no brain activity;
sleepwalking, sleep talking, bed wetting, and night terrors occur here (due to immaturity
of nervous system and babies tend to spend the most of sleep in Stage 3/ REM sleep is
when the brain repairs itself
5. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep –occur in the pons and midbrain- vivid dreams
occur; also known as paradoxical sleep - muscles are paralyzed, relaxed but other
systems (the brain and autonomic nervous system) working, nightmares occur here / as
night progresses more time is spent in REM
6. Freud’s view of dreams – wrote book titled Interpretation of Dreams / manifest content-
remembered part of a dream / latent content- underlying meaning of dream - what Freud
was interested in as it describes unconscious conflicts (dream analysis)
7. Activation-synthesis model of dreaming (Hobson and McCarley) – dreams are nothing
more than neural bursts (activation) and our brain puts these bursts together to form a
story (synthesis)
8. Insomnia- most common sleep disorder- inability to fall asleep and stay asleep/
narcolepsy- sudden falling asleep when should not/ Night terrors- occur in Stage 3
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NREM / Nightmares occur in REM sleep/ REM rebound- when not get enough sleep go
right into REM sleep instead of normal sleep cycle
9. Tolerance- more you do the more you need/ withdrawal symptoms associated with
physical addiction/ Alcohol- affects GABA- neurotransmitter that calms brain down/
stimulants affects dopamine- pleasure neurotransmitter associated in the hypothalamus
of the limbic system- cocaine can cause induced psychosis- because of too much
dopamine activity/ Opiates are agonist or mimic endorphins- body’s natural painkillers.
10. Hypnosis- state theory- during hypnosis an altered state of consciousness is produced
(unconscious) as described by Ernest Hilgard dissociation theory of hypnosis which
involves tapping into the unconscious or hidden observer/ role theory- a person just acts
as if they were hypnotized based on what others tell them they should feel or act
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Conscious awareness The mental processes a person is
aware of at present moment
You are CONSCIOUS or aware of
your surroundings
Preconscious or
subconscious level
Located just below conscious
awareness making it relatively
easy to access
What you had for dinner the
previous night- not consciously
thinking about it at the time asked
but easy to remember
Unconscious level Information not retrievable into
conscious awareness, but still can
influence thoughts and behavior
Unconscious- you are UNAWARE
Dualism Belief that the mind and body are
separate
TWO people dual against each
other in a match
Materialism Mind and body are the same
Stream of
consciousness
According to William James,
thoughts, perceptions, feelings
are continuously flowing through
conscious awareness
Like a river that is continuously
flowing towards you
Theory of mind The understanding that themselves and others have thoughts, feelings,
and experiences unique to themselves
States of
consciousness
Mental awareness at a particular
moment
Your PRESENT state of mind-
presently thinking about
Automatic processes State of consciousness that
requires little attention but still
aware of what is going on around
you
Sitting in a classroom you are
aware who is sitting around you
even though you are not paying
attention to them
Circadian rhythms Repeated fluctuations within the
body over a 24 hour period
Circadian is like a circle
Suprachiasmatic
nucleus
An “internal clock” located in the
hypothalamus receives
information from the retina about
light/ darkness- this input then
causes pineal gland to produce
melatonin making one tired or
decrease causing to wake
This is like a sensor for outdoor
lights that detects when it is getting
dark or light out then responding by
turning off or on your outdoor
lights
EEG Measures brain activity: beta waves- wide awake/ alpha waves- awake
but tired/ theta waves- ready to fall asleep/ delta waves- low brain
activity, deep sleep
NREM sleep (non
rapid eye movement)
Stages of sleep 1-3 one ends up in
deep sleep stage 3
N means you are NOT aware that
you are sleeping
Hypnagogic
hallucinations
Vivid sensory experiences, like
falling, in NREM stage 1
You often observe someone nod off
and quickly pop up
Mycoloinc jerk Involuntary muscle spasm that
occurs in NREM stage 1
When a person leg or arms shakes
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REM sleep (rapid eye
movement)
Brain becomes active, dreams
occur, also called paradoxical
sleep as brain is awake but body
is asleep
You are R(em) dreaming in REM
sleep/ but your body is asleep
which is why you don’t fall out of
bed
REM rebound Entering right into REM sleep
instead of normal sleep cycle
because of a lack of REM sleep
People that fall asleep and instantly
start dreaming
Ascending reticular
system (ARAS)
Nerves that run through the
reticular formation affecting level
of arousal
Pay particular-reticular attention
Pons/ Midbrain Responsible for REM sleep
Serotonin/ GABA Neurotransmitters responsible for cycle of sleep
Restorative theory of
sleep
REM restores brain, NREM
restores the body
Restoring your brain and body
because you are tired
Adaptive theory of
sleep
Sleep is necessary for survival
according to the evolutionary
perspective
Bad things happen at night so you
adapt and spend that time safe in
bed
Behavioral theory of
sleep
People sleep because there is
nothing more to do
If there is nothing on TV you
basically give up and go to bed
Insomnia Most common sleep problem
preventing people from falling
asleep or staying asleep
I for insomnia- “I can’t sleep!”
Narcolepsy Suddenly falling into REM sleep at improper times
Sleep apnea Difficult breathing periods during sleep
Night terrors Very frightening experiences that
occur during NREM stage 3 of
sleep
Very frightening because the child
can’t remember the dream
Nightmares Conscious recalls of scary events
that occur during REM sleep
REM means you REMEMBER the
dream or nightmare
REM sleep behavior
disorder
Physically acting out dreams
during sleep
Dogs are prone to act out their
dreams like stimulating running
Sleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep You grind your teeth you won’t
have any left to BRUSH
Lucid dreaming One believes can control their dreams/ lucy controls her dream
Interpretation of
Dreams
A book by Sigmund Freud that
suggests dreams are “a royal road
to the unconscious mind”
In therapy, Freud would use a
person’s dreams as a road map to
their unconscious
Manifest content According to Freud, the
remembered story of a dream
MAN I had a crazy dream- which
you remember to tell
Latent content According to Freud, the symbolic, unconscious part of the dream
Activation-synthesis
theory of dreaming
Dreams result from random
neurons that fire while amygdala
(emotion) and hippocampus
(memory) try to make sense
Like a fireworks show- you are
making sense out of the lights
which often shows images
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___ 1. Suggested that consciousness is like a
stream that always changes but keeps
on flowing.
A) Circadian rhythms
___ 2. Repeated fluctuations within the body
that occur over a period of 24 hours.
B) Beta waves
___ 3. Referred to an internal clock within the
hypothalamus that receives information
from the retina concerning lighting
conditions.
C) William James
___ 4. A hormone produced by the pineal
gland that when released will cause a
person to become tired.
D) Manifest content
___ 5. Brain waves that indicate a person is
awake but drowsy.
E) Suprachiasamatic nucleus
___ 6. Stage of sleep where delta waves
exceed 50% resulting in the person not
experiencing any sensory stimulation
and very hard to wake up.
F) NREM stage 3 and REM
___ 7. Stage of sleep that is referred to as
paradoxical sleep when the brain is
awake but the body is asleep; where
most dreams occur.
G) Night terrors
___ 8. Last few cycles of sleep are mainly in
_________ and________
H) Melatonin
___ 9. Type of sleep disorder that can be very
frightening and often occurs in NREM
stage 3 not allowing the person to
remember the content or imagery of the
dream.
I) NREM stage 3
___ 10. According to Sigmund Freud, the
remembered portion of the dream.
J) REM sleep
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Key term Definition Analogy
Hypnosis An altered state of consciousness that may make a person more
susceptible to suggestion that could affect thinking and behavior
Posthypnotic
suggestion
Suggestions that could be carried
out after the person is hypnotized
Post means AFTER
Posthypnotic amnesia Events that cannot be recalled during hypnosis
Neodissociation theory
of hypnosis (divided
consciousness view
hypnosis)
According to Ernest Hilgard,
people experience multiple
streams of consciousness during
hypnosis, including “hidden
observer” unattainable to hypnotic
suggestions
Like someone putting a wall in
the middle of a stream producing
two different streams
Role and belief
expectancy theory of
hypnosis
Hypnosis is just a person playing a
role expected by the hypnotist
Like an actor or actress playing a
ROLE
Psychopharmacology The study of how psychoactive drugs affect a person’s thoughts and
actions
Blood-brain barrier A protective barrier that prevents
certain substances from entering
the brain
Like a pool filter that does not
allow harmful agents that could
ruin the filter
Agonist Drugs that mimic a
neurotransmitter
Like a duplicate key that fits a
lock and opens the door
Antagonist Drugs that block the effects of a
neurotransmitter
Like a key that fits the lock but
does not open door preventing
real key from entering
Psychological
dependency
A person’s belief and reasons to
take a drug
A PERSON’S reasons why he or
she needs a drug
Physical dependency A body’s need to take a drug due
to continued consumption
The BODY’s reasons why it
needs a drug
Withdrawal symptoms Intense cravings for drug resulting
in unpleasant feelings and
symptoms if not consumed
The body DEMANDING it
needs a drug
Tolerance Increased amount of drug needed
to produce an effect
The more you do the more you
need
Depressants Slows down the central nervous
system, increases NT GABA,
slows down brain activity
GABA- g for go to sleep which
eventually happens when you
take depressants/ alcohol
Stimulants Speeds up activity in the central nervous system, increase NT’s
norepinephrine and dopamine linked to pleasure and arousal
Nicotine, caffeine, cocaine/ S for speed up
Opiates Causes sleepiness, relieve pain through mimicking the NT endorphins/
Motrin
Hallucinogens Also called psychedelics, distort perceptions and moods/ LSD
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___ 1. A theory of hypnosis that suggests
people experience distinct multiple
streams of consciousness.
A) Blood-brain barrier
___ 2. A second stream of consciousness that
is so distinct from consciousness that it
is unattainable by the subject.
B) Hidden observer
___ 3. Refers to the understanding that people
who are hypnotized will not be able to
remember the hypnotic session.
C) Posthypnotic amnesia
___ 4. A theory of hypnosis that suggests it is
not an altered state of consciousness
but rather an expected role one should
entail under hypnosis.
D) Depressants
___ 5. An area of the brain that protects and
prevents harmful substances from
passing through.
E) Tolerance
___ 6. A type of drug that mimics a
neurotransmitter producing similar
effects.
F) Opiates
___ 7. The more a drug is consumed the more
of the drug is needed to produce an
effect.
G) Agonist
___ 8. A type of drug that affects the NT
GABA and slows down activity in the
central nervous system.
H) Hilgard's neodissociation theory of
hypnosis
___ 9. A type of drug that affects the NT
dopamine and speeds up activity in the
nervous systems.
I) Role and belief expectancy theory
___ 10. A type of drug that serves as an agonist
for endorphins.
J) Stimulants
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Term “Buzz Word (s)” Term “Buzz Word (s)”
Consciousness Aware Preconscious/
Subconscious
Just below/ accessible
Unconscious Unaware, Freud Dualism separate
Materialism Same States of
Consciousness
Present state of mind
William James Stream of
consciousness Circadian rhythms 24 hours, fluctuations
Suprachiasmatic
nucleus
Sensor, internal clock Pineal gland Melatonin release
Melatonin Hormone, Tired EEG Identify brain waves
Beta waves Wide awake Alpha waves Drowsy
Theta waves Beginning sleep Delta waves Deep sleep
NREM stage 1 First few minutes Hypnagogic
hallucination
falling
Myoclonic jerk Muscle spasm NREM stage 2 Sleep spindles, bursts
NREM stage 3 Deep sleep REM sleep Dreams, beat waves
Paradoxical sleep Brain awake/ body
asleep/ REM Muscle atonia Body sleeping
Sleep cycles 4-6 REM sleep/ NREM 2 Longer night goes on
REM rebound Right to REM sleep Serotonin, GABA NTs for sleep
Reticular
formation
Attention, arousal Ascending reticular
activating system
Nerves in reticular
formation
Pons, Midbrain REM sleep Restorative sleep
theory
REM- brain/ NREM
body
Adaptive theory
of sleep
Survival best in day/
evolutionary theory Insomnia Most common, can’t
sleep
Sleep apnea Stop breathing Narcolepsy Sudden sleeping
Night terrors NREM, no memory Nightmares REM, memory
Sleep walking NREM stage REM sleep disorder Act out dreams
Lucid dreaming Control Interpretation of
Dreams
Freud’s book royal road
Manifest content Remembered portion Latent content Symbolic, unconscious
Activation-
synthesis theory
Neurons firing in
pons Hypnosis Altered state
Posthypnotic
suggestion
After hypnosis Posthypnotic
amnesia
Can’t remember
hypnosis
Ernest Hilgard Neodissociation ,
separate streams Hidden observer 2nd stream, unaware,
unconscious
Role/belief theory Acting out hypnosis Psychopharmacology Study drugs
Agonist Mimics NTs Antagonist Blocks NTs
Withdrawal
symptoms
Body needs,
headache Tolerance More do more need
Depressants GABA,slows, alcohol Stimulants Speeds up, dopamine
Opiates Agonist endorphins Hallucinogens Serotonin, altered
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Personality
Chapter 10
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Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach
1. How did Freud’s personality development begin?
A. How did Freud believe that personality was influenced?
B. What are wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that are not consciously present but
could affect personality/behavior?
The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
2. What did Freud believe personality is the result of?
A. Which component is present at birth and is completely unconscious; not affected by
morals or values?
B. Where does the Id’s psychological energy come from?
i. Which part is to preserve life like getting hungry?
ii. Which part is responsible for aggressive and destructive behaviors?
C. What governs the Id and demands immediate gratification?
3. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the Id and is partly conscious
and represents the rational, decision-making part of personality?
A. What does the ego rely on in terms of delaying gratification of the Id until a more
appropriate time?
4. When does the superego emerge?
A. What does the Superego represent?
i. What does one experience if they don’t live up to the demands of the superego?
Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms
5. What does the ego use to mediate intrapsychic conflicts from the urges of the id and
demands of the superego with the hope of reducing anxiety?
A. Describe the following defense mechanisms:
1. Repression:
Example:
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2. Rationalization:
Example:
3. Projection:
Example:
4. Reaction formation:
Example:
5. Sublimation:
Example:
6. Displacement:
Example:
7. Compensation:
Example:
8. Denial:
Example:
9. Regression:
Example:
Stages that Occur Through Personality Development
6. How did Freud believe that personality develops?
A. How is each stage characterized?
B. What occurs if the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy the needs associated
with that particular stage?
D. How does fixation affect people later in life?
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
7. What is possible fixation associated with the oral stage (0-1 age)?
8. Which activity is occurring during the anal stage (2 years)?
A. What is a possible fixation of this stage?
9. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the phallic stage (3-5 age)?
A. What does this lead to the start of?
10. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the latency stage (late childhood)?
11. What starts during the genital stage (adolescence)?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 1 PAGE 41
Neo-Freudians View of Psychology- Carl Jung
12. How did Carl Jung disagree with Freud?
A. What did he believe people are instead of progressing through developmental stages?
B. How did he define the personal conscious?
i. What is the collective unconscious?
ii. What are generational symbols or perceptual themes contained in the
collective unconscious?
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Neo-Freudians
13. What did Alfred Adler believe people desire?
A. What does childhood inferiorities lead to later in life?
14. What did Karen Horney believe could lead to anxiety and defensive personality traits?
A. Define moving toward relationships:
B. Moving against:
C. Moving away:
Evaluating Psychodynamic Approach
15. What is the main criticism of the psychodynamic approach?
A. What did Freud primarily use to study people and what is the problem?
B. What cultures did he only focus on?
Trait theories
16. What are internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time?
A. What do trait theories provide?
B. What is the difference between personality traits and personality types?
Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory
17. Who was one of the first researchers to identify over 18000 traits?
A. What is a cardinal trait?
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B. Which traits do most people have that are easily identifiable and have a strong
influence on personality?
C. Which traits are more isolated to specific situations and change over time?
Trait theorists
18. Who developed a questionnaire that used a factor analysis, a mathematical formula that
explains how traits are related to other traits?
A. What did he find through a factor analysis?
i. As a result, what did he identify?
19. Who believed that people could be described through introversion-extroversion and
emotionality-stability of which are inherited or born with?
A. Define introvert:
B. Extrovert:
C. Emotionality:
D. Stability:
The Big-Five Model of Personality
20. Who used a factor analysis to identify five central or source traits?
A. Define the five traits:
1. Openness:
2. Conscientiousness:
3. Extraversion:
4. Agreeableness:
5. Neuroticism:
Evaluation of the Trait Approach
21. What is trait theory good at?
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A. What does the trait theory lack?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 44
Social-Cognitive Approach
22. What did Social-cognitive approach suggest about personality?
A. What did Julian Rotter believe shaped personality?
i. What refers to when a person believes he or she has control over their
environment?
ii. What refers to when a person believes he or she has not control and their
environment dictates their outcome?
Albert Bandura
23. Who believed in reciprocal determinism that cognitive, behavior, and environment
interact to shape personality?
A. How did Bandura define self-efficacy beliefs?
Identify the parts of Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism:
Larry has high self-efficacy or confidence pertaining to tonight’s basketball game
__________________ he shows up to practice early ____________________ and as a result the
rest of the team feeds off of his energy and plays better ____________________.
Walter Mischel
24. How did Walter Mischel define cognitive personal variables?
A. What did he conclude about personality?
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Evaluation of the Social-Cognitive Approach
25. What is an advantage of the social-cognitive approach?
A. However what does it not address?
Humanistic Approach
26. How does the humanistic approach explain personality?
A. What did the Humanistic approach believe about people?
B. What does phenomenology refer to?
Humanistic Theorists
27. Who believed that people have an actualizing tendency or an innate drive that motivates a
person to reach their full potential?
A. What is a self-concept?
B. What is the acceptance of a person for who they are instead of what they do?
i. What does this lead?
C. What refers to affection based on meeting a conditions or rules?
i. What does this lead to?
Abraham Maslow
28. According to Maslow, what is deficiency orientation?
A. Which orientation occurs when people focus on what they have, how they perform,
and the importance of achievements?
Evaluation of Humanistic Perspective
29. What is a criticism of the humanistic approach?
Assessing Personality
30. Objective/ Self-report Personality Tests: Multiple Choice- True False/ NEO-PI=
measures the Big 5 personality traits/ MMPI- most widely used personality test- 500 True-False
Questions (originally designed to measure mental health problems)
A. What are some of the advantages of using a self-report objective test?
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B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with this these test?
31. Projective Tests- unstructured stimuli- subjective scoring on interpretation/ Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) ambiguous scenes/ Rorschach inkblot test- a series of 11 inkblots
A. What are some of the advantages associated with a projective test?
B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with a projective test?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 3 PAGE 46
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1. Psychodynamic approach (Sigmund Freud) / Unconscious - not aware but controls
personality / Preconscious or subconscious - easy to retrieve- memories; thinking about
what you had for dinner last night / Id – present at birth located in the unconscious and
demands immediate gratification because it operates on pleasure principle/ Ego – the
decision maker; largely conscious and operates on reality principle; tries to find ways to
satisfy the Id while being realistic. Superego - morals and ethics; formed through
defense mechanism of identification with same sex parent that arises from resolving
Oedipus complex in the psychosexual phallic stage
2. Defense mechanisms - ego uses to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and
superego / Repression - found in all defense mechanism; automatic unconscious
ejection/rejection of traumatic desires, thoughts / Regression - retreat back to infantile
reaction / Denial- don’t accept truth / Reaction Formation- say or do opposite of
unacceptable urge / Projection- mentally putting weakness onto other people; I’m
overweight, now I will say everybody else is overweight to make feel better /
Rationalization- justify behavior through excuses / Displacement - taking out physical
anger on less threatening person or object especially when having a bad day /
Sublimation - substituting acceptable actions or thoughts for unacceptable unconscious
thoughts or actions; playing football instead of displaying aggression/ Compensation-
doing something nice to make up for doing something bad
3. Neo-Freudians- followers of Freud- Alfred Adler - Inferiority complex - motivation to
become superior by overcoming childhood inferiority or being dependent on parents /
Karen Horney- thought Freud was too male dominated; believed social relationships
responsible for personality development / Carl Jung- collective unconscious-
generational knowledge that is passed down through generations- information contains
archetypes which are universal symbols- snakes are evil- passed down from past
ancestors that help promote survival by providing bad feelings also believed personality
comes from energy of being an introvert- keeping to oneself or extrovert being around
other people and social situations.
4. Humanistic perspective - emphasized free will and self-growth and awareness that is
thought to be innate / Carl Rogers- self-concept - beliefs about oneself that are influenced
by conditional positive regard- the belief that you are only loved when you meet their
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expectations or rules which leads to distorting self-concept or lying/ or unconditional
positive regard- no matter what you do or who you are people will love you which leads
to a healthy self-concept or congruence// Rogers also believed in the actualzing
tendency- the innate and internal motivation to be competitive and succeed
5. Trait theory – a description of behavior like a personal ad / Gordon Allport researched
traits- believed people have one cardinal trait- the most influential trait that determines
personality (not present in everyone) and also source traits or central traits- very few-
building blocks of personality/ surface traits or secondary traits- what other people can
see often based on the social setting / cardinal trait= caring like MLK/ source traits=
kind, trusting, dependable/ surface traits- impatient in stressful situations
6. Hans Eyensck- certain traits are inherited like: extraversion or introversion/ emotionality
(neuroticism) or stability and a person’s level of psychoticism- are welfare or caring for
other people
7. Raymond Cattell – used a Factor Analysis - mathematical formula that shows how
certain traits or items are related to other traits which resulted in 16 source traits in people
/ Paul Costa and Robert McCrae narrowed the 16 down to the Big Five Traits- Openness
or curious, Conscientiousness or organized, Extraversion or outgoing, Agreeableness or
forgiving, Neuroticism or anxious (OCEAN)
8. Social-cognitive perspective- Albert Bandura- Reciprocal determinism- personality
results from 3 parts: cognitive (self-efficacy beliefs- our thoughts about how we will do at
a task our confidence), behavior, and environmental factors which means each part can
influence the other part / Julian Rotter- stated our expectations of events or outcomes
determine our personality- external locus of control – other people and situations control
you / internal locus of control- you control your life and situations/ Walter Mischel-
believed in cognitive personal variables- and believed that expectations about a situation
dictate personality and that because of this personality is not as consistent as people
believe
9. Measuring personality- Projective personality tests- tests to assess the unconscious that
are left for interpretation by tester; Rorschach inkblot test- comprised of 11 inkblots /
TAT thematic apperception test- ambiguous scenes or pictures requiring a participant
to tell a story- also used to measure a person’s need for achievement motivation-
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problems with projective tests is that they are vague and require interpretation by tester
which maybe biased/ Objective personality or self-report inventories test are multiple-
choice or have a specific question and answer- easy to grade but participants can’t
explain their answers- the MMPI is the most widely used objective personality test that
was originally designed to measure abnormal behavior
10. Barnum effect- people believe that everything they hear or read describes themselves
like a horoscope. Halo effect- we believe if someone is good at something or attractive
then they are good at everything- one good quality equals many good qualities/ Horn
effect- one bad quality equals many bad qualities
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Personality Unique and consistent patterns of thinking, behavior, and feeling
Sigmund Freud Through treating people with disorders felt
that not all symptoms had physical causes
leading to the development of his theory of
personality development and the
psychodynamic approach
Stressed the unconscious and
early childhood experiences
in the development of
personality
Unconscious Contains wishes, inner conflicts, and
memories that are not attainable by
conscious awareness
U for unconscious U are not
aware of the unconscious
Preconscious or
subconscious
awareness
Memories and information that are not
presently in conscious awareness but can
be easily accessed- memories
What had for dinner the last
night- even if not thinking
about easy to retrieve
Id Component of personality is present at
birth, primarily unconscious, operates
according to the pleasure principle, and is
not affected by ethics and morals
Id stands for I DO whatever I
want whenever I want
Pleasure
principle
Governs the id and demands immediate
gratification
Responsible for temptation
Libido An individual’s psychological energy provided by sexual energy
Ego Component of personality that emerges
from the energy of the id, partly conscious,
operates on reality principle, and represents
the decision-making part of personality
The ego GOES and makes a
decision
Reality principle Delays the demands and needs of the id
until a more appropriate and better time
“The REALITY of the
situation is that it is wrong”
Superego Component of personality that develops
around age 5 or 6 and represents a person’s
ethics, reasoning, and morality of right vs.
wrong
SUPERMAN had a
SUPEREGO
He always did good
Defense
mechanisms
According to Freud, the demands of the id
and reasoning of the superego cause
“intrapsychic” conflicts for which defense
mechanisms used to mediate these conflicts
Defense mechanisms
DEFEND your personality by
battling anxiety- the enemy
Repression A defense mechanism involving the
unconscious banning painful and bad
memories from conscious awareness
The P in repression stands for
PRESSING DOWN into the
unconscious
Rationalization A defense mechanism that provides
excuses or explanations that justify
thoughts or behaviors
Telling your parents you
could not concentrate,
teacher
Projection A defense mechanism directs one’s
personal undesirable thoughts and feelings
onto others
To PROJECT is to direct
your thoughts onto another
person
Reaction
formation
A defense mechanism where a person
behaves in a way that is opposite of their
actual thoughts and feelings
To REACT means ME ACT
the OPPOSITE of WHO I
AM
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Sublimation A defense mechanism that finds an
acceptable behavior to counteract an
unacceptable thought or feeling
You SUBSTITUTE A BAD
THOUGHT with A GOOD
BEHAVIOR
Displacement A defense mechanism that directs anger
away from real threat or target onto a target
that will not cause any harm or threat
TO displace means to
PLACE your anger onto
something won’t fight back
Compensation A defense mechanism makes an attempt to
make up for guilty thought or action
Buying flowers for someone
when you feel bad
Denial A defense mechanism that refuses to accept
the reality or truth of the situation
Deny- “yeah-yeah”
Regression A defense mechanism that occurs during
stressful times and in reaction the
individual reverts back to childish
behaviors and reactions
The G in Regression stands
for GOING back to infancy/
crying when you don’t get
your way
Psychosexual
stages
According to Freud, personality develops through four stages that include
the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stage
Fixation A defense mechanism occurs when the id did not get adequate time to
search a specific erogenous zone (area of the body associated with
pleasure) during a psychosexual stage and becomes fixated with that zone
leading to compensation with the characteristics of that zone
Oedipus
complex
Occurs when son learns attraction t mother
is inappropriate and later through the
defense mechanism of identification sides
with the father allowing the superego to
emerge
When the son can
IDENTIFY with the father or
male role model then the son
will listen and the dad can
teach or model the superego
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___ 1. A level of awareness that is one is
unaware of that is comprised of wishes,
inner conflicts, and memories.
A) Repression
___ 2. A structure of personality present at
birth, controlled by the pleasure
principle, which seeks immediate
gratification, largely unconscious, and
is not affected by ethics and morals.
B) Id
___ 3. The ego, which is the decision-maker
of personality, relies on what principle
that delays gratification of the id.
C) Projection
___ 4. A type of defense mechanism that
automatically excludes traumatic and
unwanted thoughts into unconscious.
D) Displacement
___ 5. A type of defense mechanism that
directs a person's insecurities and
undesirable feelings towards another.
E) Regression
___ 6. A type of defense mechanism that
involves reverting back to infantile
types of behavior in certain situations.
F) Reality principle
___ 7. A type of defense mechanism that
shifts anger and aggression towards a
target of non-threatening stature.
G) Unconscious
___ 8. A type of defense mechanism that
occurs when the individual is stuck or
locked in a particular zone due to the Id
not achieving time to explore.
H) Sublimation
___ 9. Through the defense mechanism of
identification in the phallic stage, a boy
is able to identify with his father who
then is able to teach right vs. wrong
allowing which component of
personality to develop?
I) Fixation
___ 10. During the latency stage, a boy is able
substitute an unacceptable urge for a
productive activity referred to as:
J) Superego
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Neo-Freudians Followers of Freud who modified and taught his theories
Carl Jung A neo-Freudian who disagreed with
Freud concerning libido and
psychosexual stages, but believed a
person is an introvert (someone who
prefers privacy) or an extrovert (someone
who is social and outgoing)
I for introvert- “I prefer to be
me myself”
The Ex for extroverts prefer to
do EXTRACURRICULAR
events
Personal
conscious
According to Jung, repressed material like Freud’s unconscious
Collective
unconscious
According to Jung, past experiences and
knowledge inherited and passed between
generations
A COLLECTION of GOOD
ADVICE passed down from
ancestors meant to help you
Archetypes Symbols in the collective unconscious A snake is a symbol for evil
Alfred Adler A neo-Freudian who believed people
have innate desire to overcome childhood
inferiorities and as a result develop a
superiority complex
The A for Alfred and A for
Adler means that if you get 2
As in a class you are superior
Karen Horney A neo-Freudian who disagreed with Freud about the development of
women and believed harmony is social relationships affects personality
Personality
traits
Internal characteristics stable and
consistent in many situations
Similar to a description in a
personal ad
Gordon Allport A trait theorist who believed people
possess three traits: cardinal traits- rare
and only present in unique people/ central
or source traits- very influential in their
personality description/ secondary or
surface traits- specific to certain
situations and tend to change over time
Cardinal trait- Martin Luther
King- leadership
Central or source traits- few but
describe who we are
Secondary or surface traits-
traits other people would use to
describe us
Factor analysis A mathematical formula that explains
how traits are related to other traits
Similar to what Match.com
Raymond
Cattell
Through a factor analysis believed certain central traits are related to certain
secondary traits and that people have 16 basic personality factors shown
through the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
Hans Eysenck Believed that people could be described
through either introversion-extroversion
and emotionality-stability and
psychoticism dimension all of which are
nature or born with
Introversion- shy
Extraversion- outgoing
Emotionality- dramatic
Stability-doesn’t get upset
Psychoticism- welfare others
Big-Five Model
of Personality
According to Paul Costa and Robert
McCrae, people have 5 central or source
traits: openness, conscientious,
extraversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism
Remember:
Openness- curious
Conscientiousness- reliable
Extraversion- outgoing
Agreeableness- forgiving
Neuroticism- anxious
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__ 1. Carl Jung believed that each person has
a personal conscious, similar to Freud's
unconscious, but also suggested that
beneath this is a collection of past
experiences shared by ancestral
backgrounds and containing archetypes
or shared symbols referred to as:
A) Neuroticism
___ 2. Who believed that personality is
affected by one's pursuit to be superior
and overcome childhood inferiorities?
B) Trait
___ 3. A relatively stable, enduring or long-
lasting, predisposition to act a certain
way:
C) Factor analysis
___ 4. Gordon Allport believed that some
people possess a dominating trait that
solely defines who one is referred to as:
D) Secondary or surface traits
___ 5. Traits that are easily recognizable and
have a strong influence on personality:
E) Alfred Adler
___ 6. Traits that are more specific to certain
situations and change over time:
F) Central or source traits
___ 7. Raymond Cattell used a mathematical
formula that explained how certain
traits are related to or can predict other
traits.
G) 16 Personality Factor
___ 8. Who believed that people could be
described along an extroversions-
introversion and emotionality-stability
dimension.
H) Cardinal trait
___ 9. Raymond Cattell administered the
__________ questionnaire to assess
personality.
I) Collective unconscious
___ 10. According to Paul Costa and Robert
McCrae the big five source traits
include openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, and:
J) Hans Eysenck
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Julian Rotter Social-cognitive approach who
emphasized people’s expectations
If you EXPECT to have a
bad time you will
Internal locus of
control
A person believes that he or she
could control environment
I for internal “I am IN
CONTROL”
External locus of
control
A person believes he or she has no
control in environment can lead to
learned helplessness
E for external “Everyone and
Everything else is in control”
Reciprocal
determinism
According to Albert Bandura,
personality is interaction of
cognition, behavior, and
environmental factors
How you THINK affects
how you ACT (BEHAVE)
which then affects your
environment
Self-efficacy beliefs Confidence a person has about their
abilities and situations
Similar to the “little engine
that could- I think, I can”
Collective self-efficacy You social support system Friends and family
Cognitive personal
variables
According to Walter Mischel, a
person’s thoughts, emotions, and
expectations affect how people
behave and is responsible for
different personalities
Disagreed with personality
being consistent throughout a
person’s life but more
dependent on present
situations
Humanistic approach
(phenomenological
approach)
Personality is the result of self-
awareness, creativity, personal
responsibility, and free will
Emphasize you being the
BEST HUMAN YOU CAN
BE/ BE ALL YOU CAN BE
Self-concept According to Carl Rogers, how a person describes him or herself
Actualizing tendency According to Carl Rogers, an innate
desire to achieve one’s personal
potential and satisfaction
The “little voice” that tells
you can do one more rep or
run one more mile
Unconditional positive
regard
Acceptance of a person for who they are not necessary what he or
she does “Love you no matter what”
Conditional positive
regard
Affection based on what a person
does instead of who he or she is
“I will love you if you meet
the following conditions”
Deficiency orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person loses focus of
self-actualization and strives for materialistic goals
Growth orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person focuses on
what they have, their efforts, and pursuit of achievements
NEO-PI test An objective or self-report inventory test that measures and indicates
the Big 5 Personality Traits
MMPI
An objective or self-report inventory and the most widely used
personality test that is comprised of 500 T-F questions
(Like the WAIS is the most popular intelligence test)
Thematic Apperception
Test
A projective test developed by Henry Murray that uses picture
scenes to measure a person’s need for achievement (TAT) test
Rorschach Inkblot test A projective test developed by Hermann Rorschach that instructs a
person to respond to what he or she sees in a inkblot
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___ 1. According to Julian Rotter, a person's
belief that he or she has control over
their environment and their outcomes.
A) Incongruence
___ 2. Albert Bandura's belief that personality
is the result of cognitive, behavioral,
and environmental factors.
B) Internal locus of control
___ 3. Refers to the confidence a person has
about their abilities to complete or
attempt a task or challenge.
C) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
___ 4. According to Walter Mischel, refers to
a person's thoughts, emotions, and
expectations which show personality
inconsistency and consistency.
D) Carl Rogers
___ 5. A perspective of psychology that
emphasizes an innate drive to reach
potential and be the best human.
E) Cognitive personal variables
___ 6. Believed that people have innate drive
or actualizing tendency to reach their
potential.
F) Self-efficacy
___ 7. The acceptance of a person for who
they are rather than what they do,
which in turn will lead to a healthy self-
concept.
G) Humanistic or phenomenological
perspective
___ 8. Refers to when conditional positive
regard may negatively affect a person's
self-concept through lying and trying to
live up to people's expectations or
conditions
H) Reciprocal determinism
___ 9. A type of self-report or objective test
that includes 500 T-F question to assess
personality and is considered one of the
most popular personality tests.
I) Unconditional positive regard
___ 10. A type of projective test developed by
Henry Murray and Christina Morgan
that uses pictures or scenes to measure
unconscious desires for achievement.
J) MMPI
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Term “Buzz Word(S)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”
Sub(pre)conscious Memories, just below Id Temptation, aggressive
Pleasure principle Immediate
gratification, Id Ego Decision-maker, adult
Reality principle Mediator, ego Superego Morals, ethics
Defense
mechanisms
Band aids, reduce
anxiety Repression Gone, not aware
Rationalization Excuses Projection Placing blame, faults
Displacement Taking it out on Sublimation A distraction
Compensation Make up for Denial Don’t think about
Regression Go back, infantile Fixation Stuck, make up for
Defense
mechanism
identification
Superego, same sex
parental bonding Neo Freudians Carl Jung, Alfred
Adler, Karen Horney
Collective
unconscious/ Jung
Passed down
unconscious info Archetypes Symbols in the
unconscious
Superiority
complex/ Adler
Not weak anymore Karen Horney Relationships, anxiety
Cardinal Trait
(Allport)
Dominating single
trait, rare Central (source)
traits
Few, building blocks of
personality
Secondary
(surface) traits
Depends on situation Factor analysis Trait math formula
shows connections
16 Personality
Factors (Cattell)
Factor analysis Introversion
(Eysenck)
Born with shy
Extroversion Born with outgoing Emotionality Born with dramatic
Stability
(Eysenck)
Big 5 Traits 1. Openness- curious 2. Conscientiousness- organized
3. Extraversion- outgoing 4. Agreeableness- forgiving
5. Neuroticism- anxious
Julian Rotter Expectations guide
personality Internal /
External locus of
control
I control vs. I don’t
have control
Bandura-
Reciprocal
determinism
Thoughts affect
behavior changes
environment
Self-efficacy Confidence to do well
Cognitive
personal variables
Thoughts, emotions,
expectancies Humanistic- Self-concept (Rogers)
who I am
Unconditional
positive regard
Love you no matter
what Congruence- What I say and what I
do match
Conditional
positive regard
I love you if…… Incongruence What I say what I do
don’t match
Self-report
objective tests
Good- comparison
easy score, people lie Projective tests Freud, interpretation,
unconscious
MMPI objective
test
Most popular
personality test, 500 NEO-PI
objective test
Big 5 personality traits
TAT projective
test
Ambiguous scenes,
achievement Rorschach
projective test
11 inkblots,
unconscious
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Testing and Individual Differences
Chapter 9
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Theories of Intelligence
1. What is intelligence?
2. Who was the father of psychometrics, which is the measurement of knowledge defined by
scores on a test?
A. What did he believe about intelligence?
i. Who did he only study?
3. Who used a factor analysis, a statistical method used to show the relationship between
variables to study intelligence?
A What did he believe about intelligence?
B. What did he believe contributed to the g factor?
4. How did L.L. Thurston challenge Charles Spearman’s theory?
A. What did Thurston propose about intelligence?
B. What did J.P Guilford suggest about intelligence?
i. How many types of intelligence did Guilford find through a factor analysis?
5. Who believed that emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and manage the
emotions of oneself and other?
6. Who developed one of the most popular theories of intelligence?
A. Define the three types of intelligence that Sternberg came up with?
1. Analytical intelligence:
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2. Creative intelligence:
3. Practical intelligence:
7. Who believed that human beings possess strengths and weaknesses defined in multiple
intelligence?
A. How did Garnder base his theory?
B. Define the different types of multiple and separate intelligences:
1. Linguistic:
2. Logical-mathematical:
3. Musical-compose:
4. Bodily-kinesthetic:
5. Spatial:
6. Interpersonal:
7. Intrapersonal:
8. Naturalistic:
Influences of Intelligence
8. What type of studies have offered support that intelligence is primarily nature or born with?
9. What support or argument offers support that intelligence is more nurture?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 1 PAGE 58
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Testing Intelligence: Individualized Testing
10. Who wrote the first modern intelligence test to assist the French government in
identifying special need students?
A. Describe the mathematical formula that Binet came up with to determine intelligence?
i. What is a potential problem with his method?
11. Who proposed multiplying the score from MA/CA by 100 that would equal the
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?
12. Who from Stanford University translated Binet’s French test into English resulting in the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale?
A. What was this test considered?
13. Who developed an intelligence test to be measured in both children (WISC) and adults
(WAIS)?
A. How was the test comprised?
B. How are the scores calculated?
C. Where did most of the scores fall?
D. What did these results indicate?
Aptitude and Achievement Testing
14. Which type of test is designed to measure a person’s performance potential; such as the
SAT?
15. Which test is designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular subject or area;
like an AP exam?
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Individual and Group Testing
16. What are the advantages of an indivualized test?
A. What are the disadvantages of an individualized test?
17. What are the advantages of a group test?
A. What are the disadvantages of a group test?
Measuring Tests
18. What is the test’s ability to yield or give the same results each time given as test-retest
strategy?
A. What is split-half reliability?
19. What refers to how well a test measures what it was designed to measure?
A. What refers to information included on a test in terms of how well the test measures
what it was designed to measure?
B. What refers to the ability of test to predict how well a person will do in the future?
C. What refers to how well a test is designed to measure an outcome?
20. What is the process of setting a common standard by comparing one’s score to those
attained by a pretested group?
Evaluating Intelligence Tests
21. What are some examples of biases that appear on intelligence tests?
Diversity in Cognition and Creativity
22. What refers to the ability to generate novel ideas or products?
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A. What is the ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem?
B. What is the ability to narrow down to a single best solution or answer to a problem as
a good test taker is able to do?
Unusual Cognitive Abilities
23. What is considered gifted?
A. Who used a longitudinal study 1500 10 year old gifted children called Terman’s
termites?
B. What did he find?
C. What does the drudge theory suggest about gifted children?
D. What has been sited as saying that intelligence scores have gradually increased over
the last several decades and years?
24. What are the intelligence scores of those that are considered mentally challenged?
A. Mild:
B. Moderate:
C. Severe:
D. Profound:
Factors Associated with Mental Impairment
25. What is a genetic disorder caused by presence on an extra 21st chromosome?
A. Describe fetal alcohol syndrome:
B. What is a genetic disorder caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome causing
cognitive impairment?
C. What is Williams Syndrome?
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Autistic Spectrum disorder
26. What refers to impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or
compulsive behavior?
A. When is autism diagnosed?
Savant Syndrome
27. What refers to cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities that are
displayed on a genius level?
A. Whose intelligence theory supported cases of Autism?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 60
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1. Psychometrics- Sir Francis Galton- father of the measurement of knowledge
2. Divergent thinking- discovering or brainstorming as many ideas as possible- important for
creativity/ convergent thinking- narrowing down ideas to overall good choice or idea
3. Intelligence - Charles Spearman - g factor or single gene (general intelligence) responsible
for everything which is determined by a single number like an IQ test/ LL Thurston- believed
were 7 primary mental abilities each independent/ Howard Gardner- people have separate
multiple intelligence which helps to explain savant syndrome when you have a special skill
but are overall mentally challenge/ Robert Sternberg- three types of intelligence- analytical-
problem solving like math and science in school, practical- using information for interacting
in the environment, creative- applying information to different situations like what is learned
in elective courses
4. Emotional Intelligence- Daniel Goleman- interpersonal intelligence- ability to understand
emotions of others/ intrapersonal intelligence- ability to understand one’s emotions.
5. Measuring intelligence: Alfred Binet- designed first intelligence test based on how children
solved problems rather than what they know first used in French schools / David Wechsler-
WAIS test- mostly widely used IQ test based on verbal and performance scores which score
is then based on how you perform COMPARED to other people in your age bracket Wilhelm
Stern- developed the IQ quotient- MA (mental age) divided by CA chronological age
multiplied by 100 equals IQ / Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test to be used in America
called the Standford-Binet Test (good for children but no MA bracket for adults)
6. Test construction - standardization- defining scores by comparing it to a previous group
who took the test / Validity- what does the test measure broken down into content validity-
questions that cover specific material or correct material/ construct validity- how well the test
was written- questions understandable/ criterion (predictive) validity- questions answer a
specific question or theory- questions that are designed to see if students are reading the
book/ Reliability- same results every time the test is given and taken / test-retest is a way to
measure reliability is by giving test over and over and looking for similar results- ACT test is
reliable as students tend to get same scores/ split-half- comparing odd and even questions
also measures reliability
7. Normal curve, also known as a bell-shaped curve; majority falling around average
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8. Aptitude tests make predictions on how well you will do, such as the ACT / Achievement
test- measure mastery or what you are supposed to know, like the AP Psych test
9. Measures of Central Tendency / mode - most frequently used number / median- middle
number or score / mean- average
10. Skewed distribution - atypical scores that fall away from the average or mean
11. Measures of Variation – Range - difference from lowest to highest score / Standard
deviation- how much scores vary from mean
12. Statistical significance- resulting data is not determined by chance but raw data
13. Inferential statistics- allow the researcher to apply his or her results to the general
population
14. Flynn effect- intelligence scores have risen over the last few decades
15. Savant syndrome- person who has cognitive impairments but excels in one or more abilities
of genius level/ Down syndrome- trisomy 21- extra 21st chromosome/ Fragile X syndrome-
mutated gene on the X chromosome/ Autism- impairment in social communication and
interaction/ 70 IQ indicated mentally challenged/ over 135 IQ genius studied by Lewis Terman-
“terman’s termites.
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Intelligence The cognitive abilities that a person uses
to think, reason, and for problem-solving
People win on jeopardy know
answer but answer quickly
Sir Francis Galton The father of psychometrics
Psychometrics The measurement of knowledge and ability by using defined tests
Factor analysis Statistical method used to show
relationships between variables used to
study intelligence
Match.com - someone who
likes to be outside is
RELATED to outgoing
G factor According to Charles Spearman, there is
a single intelligence responsible for all
types of thinking
Similar to your GPA- one
number indicates all of your
work
7 primary mental
abilities (PMAs)
According to L.L. Thurston, 7 sets of
independent intellectual abilities
Similar to your grade for
each class in schedule
Emotional
intelligence
According to Daniel Coleman, the ability to perceive and manage the
emotions of oneself and others /Important for therapists
Triarchic theory of
intelligence
According to Robert Sternberg, 3 types
of intelligence: analytical intelligence- a
person’s accumulated knowledge at
school, creative intelligence- ability to
generate new ideas, and practical
intelligence- ability to interact
successfully with one’s environment
Sternberg wore thinking CAP
C- creative- thinking outside
of the box A- analytical-
math and science grades P-
practical- working well with
other
Multiple
intelligence
According to Howard Gardner, human
beings possess separate multiple
intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, musical, kinesthetic,
spatial, interpersonal (emotions of
others), intrapersonal (emotions of
oneself), and naturalistic
Like a GARDEN has
MULTIPLE items in the
garden
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___ 1. According to Sir Francis Galton, the
measurement of knowledge and ability
by using defined tests.
A) Psychometrics
___ 2. Believed through a factor analysis that
there is a single intelligence called the
g factor responsible for areas of
intelligence.
B) Howard Gardner
___ 3. Believed that each person has 7
primary mental abilities (PMAs) which
are sets of independent intellectual
abilities that each person possesses.
C) Robert Sternberg
___ 4. According to Daniel Coleman, the
ability to perceive and manage the
emotions of one and others.
D) Emotional intelligence
___ 5. Discovered through a factor analysis
that there are over 180 types of
intelligence.
E) J.P. Guilford
___ 6. Developed the Triarchic theory of
intelligence that persists of analytical,
creative, and practical intelligence.
F) Creative intelligence
___ 7. Component of the Triarchic theory of
intelligence that persists of a person's
accumulated knowledge gained through
school; school smarts.
G) Analytical intelligence
___ 8. Component of the Triarchic theory of
intelligence that refers to the ability to
generate new ideas.
H) Practical intelligence
___ 9. Component of the Triarchic theory of
intelligence that is a person's ability to
interact with one's environment; street
smarts.
I) L.L. Thurston
___ 10. Believed that human beings possess
independent strengths and weaknesses
referred to as multiple intelligence.
J) Charles Spearman
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Mental Age According to Alfred Binet,
mental age abilities of certain
age determined: wrote the first
intelligent test
“he is 6 years old (chronological
age) but he reads at an 8th grade
level(mental age)
Intelligence Quotient
(IQ)
According to Wilhem Stern, a formula that divides mental age by
chronological age then multiply by 100 equaling IQ
Normal distribution bell-shaped curve majority of scores falling around middle average
Aptitude test Designed to measure a person’s
performance potential
The P stands for- A-
PREDICTION test
Achievement test Designed to measure a person’s
knowledge of particular topic
The C in achievement stands
for “C what I have learned”
Reliability Giving a test multiple times and receiving the same results through
test-retest procedure
Split-half reliability Assessing reliability where odd and even questions are compared
Validity How well a test measures what
that test is designed to measure
To validate means to make sure
its real- like a valid license
Content validity The material on a test matches the material meant to be tested
Criterion (predictive)
validity
The ability of test to make predictions about future performances
Construct validity How a test is designed written How the test is Constructed
Standardization Process comparing a score with
previous scores administered
under identical conditions
A good basketball player sets the
STANDARD for future
basketball players to meet
Creativity Ability to generate new and novel ideas
Divergent thinking Ability to generate multiple
solutions to a problem
The D stands for DISCOVER
new ideas/ like brainstorming
Convergent thinking Narrowing down to one best
alternative for a problem
To converge means to CLOSE
in on one good idea
Mental impairment IQ that generally falls below a score of 70
Giftedness IQ that generally is above 135
Autism Impairments of social and communication skills
Asperger syndrome Display very attentive skills and sometimes obsession with routines
Savant syndrome Cognitive impairments, but possesses abilities at genius level
Stanford-Binet
Intelligence scale
Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test
to be used in the United States
Lewis Terman was
DETERMINED to bring
Binet’s test to the USA
Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale
(WAIS)/Wechsler
Intelligence Scale
Children (WISC)
Written by David Wechsler,
intelligence tests based on verbal
and performance tests where scores
are compared to people of the same
age
This is the most popular
intelligence test because
scores can be compared to
people of the same age/ not
tied to mental age
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___ 1. Wrote the first modern intelligence test
that was designed to assist the French
government in identifying special need
students.
A) Standardization
___ 2. Developed the formula for the
intelligence quotient (IQ)- mental age
(MA) divided by chronological age
(CA) multiplied by 100.
B) Wilhelm Stern
___ 3. Adopted Alfred Binet's test for use in
America and called it the Stanford-
Binet test.
C) David Wechsler
___ 4. Developed a way to measure
intelligence in children and adults
through the development of two tests:
verbal and performance test that then
could be compared to people of the
same age; called the WAIS and WICS.
D) Lewis Terman
___ 5. Tests that are designed to measure a
person's performance potential on
future tasks.
E) Alfred Binet
___ 6. Tests that are designed to measure a
person's knowledge of a particular
subject or area.
F) Reliability
___ 7. The tests ability to yield consistent
results after repeated testing or test-
retest or split-half procedures.
G) Content validity
___ 8. A type of validity that dictates if a test
measures what it is designed to
measure.
H) Criterion/predictive validity
___ 9. A type of validity that measures a
specific measurement or a future type
of ability or performance.
I) Achievement tests
___ 10. The process of setting a common
standard by comparing one's scores to
those attained by a previous group.
J) Aptitude tests
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Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)
Intelligence Cognitive abilities Sir Francis Galton Father of tests
Charles
Spearman
G factor one single L.L. Thurston 7 primary mental
abilities
J.P Guilford 180 types of
intelligence Daniel Coleman Emotional
intelligence
Robert
Sternberg
3 type of intelligence
thinking CAP Howard Gardner Multiple and
separate
Alfred Binet First test Wilhem Stern IQ- MA/CA times
100
Lewis Terman Stanford-Binet test David Wechsler
(WAIS, WISC)
Age comparison
test
Verbal test Definitions, math,
memory Performance test Manipulation,
assembling
Aptitude test Potential Achievement test What you know
Reliability Same results Test-retest Give it twice
Validity Test does what it is
supposed to do Content validity Questions match
what was studied
Criterion
validity
Makes predictions Construct validity Well written
Standardized Same conditions,
comparison Divergent
thinking
Brainstorming
Convergent
thinking
One best idea Gifted child 135 Lewis Terman
Mentally
challenged
Below 70 Down syndrome Extra 21st
chromosome
Fetal alcohol
syndrome
Alcohol Fragile X
syndrome
Mutated X
chromosome
William’s
Syndrome
PKU toxins Drudge theory Hard work and
nature
Flynn effect Scores going up Autism Communication
impairment
Savant
syndrome
Special ability Cultural and SES
bias
testing
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Quarter Midterm 1
Review
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History of Psychology 1. Who believed in dualism, that the mind and body are separate through ideas being innate or a
person being born with? Socrates and Plato
a. Who believed that the mind was connected to the body and that ideas came from
experience? Aristotle
b. Rene Descartes believed that the mind and body are separate entities, but do interact
to produce conscious experiences, which is referred to as Interactive Dualism
2. The modern debate of are we products of heredity or products of our environment is
referred to as the nature vs. nurture/ nature meaning genetics and nurture meaning
environment.
a. If a person was born with an addiction to alcohol this would support which side of
the debate? Nature
b. If a person drank alcohol with his buddies every night and as a result developed
an addiction to alcohol this would then support which side of the debate? Nurture
3. Who was considered one of the founders of modern science and believed that research
should be based on experimental design and experience? Francis Bacon
a. According to John Locke, science should be based on knowledge that comes from
experience and observation referred to as empiricism rather than intuition and
speculation
b. According to Locke, the mind was a blank slate on which people “wrote” their
experiences as they lived them referred to as ___________________
Contribution of Wilhelm Wundt
4. Who was a German physiologist, credited as the founder of modern psychology as he
was one of the first researchers to apply laboratory techniques that helped psychology
separate from philosophy in 1879 through his opening of the first psychology laboratory
in Leipzig, Germany?
___________________________________
a. What technique did Wilhelm Wundt use to look inward into a person’s mind where
he observed and measured people’s conscious experience to the presentation of
stimuli?
__________________________________________
b. What was the name of Wundt’s book, which suggested psychology should be
separated from philosophy? Principles of Physiological Psychology
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School of Structuralism
5. Which Wilhelm Wundt student started the school of structuralism? Edward Titchener
a. A school of thought that was based on the idea that conscious experiences could be
broken down into structures or parts was called ___________________________
b. What problems did the technique of introspection present?
Introspection did not prove reliable- subjects reported different responses to the same
stimulus, could not be with used with children or animals
William James and the School of Functionalism
6. William James began his career as a physiology teacher at Harvard University, but later
concentrated on aspects of psychology. What was the name of James’s influential
psychology book that helped to popularize psychology in America?
Principles of Psychology
a. James’s ideas and beliefs were important to the formulation of a new
school of thought called ______________________________
7. The study of how an organism functions and adapts to its environment was studied in the
school of Functionalism. This school’s emphasis on observation techniques was different
than the school of structuralism, which relied on introspection that turned out to be
unreliable because subjects often reported different perceptions (did not take into
consideration people’s moods/ and mentally challenged people did not understand what
they looked at.)
a. Functionalism relied on naturalistic observation and could be applied to several areas
of interest: school, work, family
Legacy of William James
8. Which William James student became the first person in the United States to earn a Ph.D.
in psychology, initiate the first psychological journal- American Journal of Psychology,
and started the American Psychology Association?
G. Stanley Hall
a. Which other James student was denied her Ph.D. in psychology, even though she
did finish all of the requirements, but later become the first woman president of
the APA? ___________________________________
b. Which Edward Titchener student actually became the first woman to earn her
Ph.D. in psychology, and later become the second president of the APA?
_________________________________________
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Sigmund Freud
9. As new ideas challenged the schools of structuralism and functionalism, who believed
that personality and behavior could be explained through the role of the unconscious- the
part of person that he or she is unaware of, but affects personality behavior?
_________________________________________ a. Freud’s theories led to the development of psychoanalysis, which studied the
origins and influences of personality, mental disorders, and the treatment of
disorders.
John B. Watson
10. Behaviorism dismissed the role and study of consciousness (structuralism and Freud) but
instead focused on overt behavior- behavior that could be observed and objectively
measured. Whose work with the digestive system of dogs and later development of
classical conditioning helped lead to the development of behaviorism?
Ivan Pavlov
a. Who, in America, extended the ideas of Ivan Pavlov, and focused on how behavior
developed by behaviors that could be modified through environmental stimuli?
__________________________________________
b. Who agreed with Watson that behavior should be studied overtly, and also that
reinforcement and punishment could affect a person’s motivation and behavior?
B.F. Skinner
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
11. Behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated psychology during the early 1900s, but what
new school of thought emerged in the 1950s, referred to as the “third force of
psychology,” and believed that not all human behavior and mental processes could be
explained by associations, rewards and punishments, or unconscious conflicts?
______________________________________
a. Who influenced the development of the humanistic thought?
_______________________________________
b. Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality development through his work with
his patients, which led him to disagree with Freud’s viewpoints of the role of the
unconscious, and emphasize more of conscious experiences such as a person’s unique
potential and psychological growth. As a result, he focused instead on how self-
determination and free will affect a person.
a. Which Humanistic psychologist developed a theory of motivation that underlined
psychological growth through a person’s pursuit of self-actualization or self-
mastery?
______________________________________
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___ 1. Which of the following statement best describes empiricism? *RC: E for evidence E
for experience*
A) Research that is based on speculation and opinions.
B) Research that draws upon replication rather that retention.
C) Research that is based on knowledge and experience through observation.
D) Research that is based on what other researchers have speculated.
E) Research that makes use of pseudoscientific facts
___ 2. Who was credited with separating psychology from philosophy through setting up an
experimental design in Germany? *RC: Look for a German name*
A) William James D) Wilhelm Wundt
B) Mary Whiton Calkins E) Sigmund Freud
C) Edward Titchener
___ 3. Which of the following was one of the first psychological techniques to be used to
study mental processes; but let to be a unreliable measure? *RC: Remember in means
to look inward*
A) Introspection B) Lesioning C) Masking D) Empiricism E) Inquiring
___ 4. Who was responsible for initiating the field and study of Behaviorism in America?
*RC: remember the B stands for Behaviorism*
A) Wilhelm Wundt D) Ivan Pavlov
B) Sigmund Freud E) John B. Watson
C) William James
___ 5. Who was denied a Ph.D. in psychology because of her gender even though she
completed the requirements? *RC: Remember "Whi didn’t I get my Ph.D.!*
A) Margaret Washburn D) Anna Freud
B) Anne Frank E) Betsy Ross
C) Mary Whiton Calkins
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Psychological Perspectives
1. Identify the following characteristics pertaining to certain psychological perspectives
(viewpoints that explain behavior and thinking)
Perspective Origins of
Influences
Area of Interest
Biological
(Neuroscience)
Physiology Interaction between physical bases- brain,
nervous system, endocrine system and
human behavior
____________
____________
Nature versus nurture
debate
How genes and environment influence our
behavior
_____________
Sigmund Freud Importance of unconscious influences, early
life experiences affecting the unconscious
and personality development and
therapeutic methods designed to show and
resolve unconscious conflicts and
motivations known as psychoanalysis
______________
John B. Watson
B.F.Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Albert Bandura
Focus on observable behavior through
observation and measurement
Study how behavior develops and how
modified through behavioral techniques
such as reinforcement and punishment
______________
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Importance of the self-concept and how the
self-concept develops through free will,
self-determination, and reaching one’s
potential
Cognitive Jean Piaget
Noam Chomsky
Importance of mental processes that include
thinking, language development, problem-
solving strategies, and memory
Cross-cultural
(Sociocultural)
Emerged in the 1980s
as psychologists
became increasingly
interested in the role
of diversity
Focus on how thinking and behavior are
affected by cultural and environmental
factors such as poverty or environmental
factors such as poverty or environmental
settings
______________
Charles Darwin’s
book, On the Origins
of Species by means
of Natural Selection
How natural selection, innate necessary
characteristics passed from generation to
generation that enable survival
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Different areas of Specialization in Psychology
2. Identify the subfields of psychology:
Specialty Subfield of
Psychology
Area of Study
Biological psychologist Relationship between the brain and nervous system, how
biological affect behavior
Cognitive psychologist Mental processes- thinking, language, problem-solving, memory
Experimental psychologist Research on psychological topics such as learning, emotion,
memory, etc.
Developmental psychologist Physical, social, and psychological changes over a lifetime
Personality psychologist Origins of personality and why people are alike and different
____________________ Psychological factors that affect a person’s health, immune
system; treatment strategies aimed at improving person’s lifestyle
Educational/ school
psychologist
How people of all ages learn and how a proper educational
environment can lead to improved learning
____________________
___________________
Proper matching of employees with specific jobs; how to improve
working conditions using psychological concepts
Social psychologist How certain social and cultural settings affect thinking- behavior
Clinical psychologist Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing
psychological treatments and prevention strategies
Counseling psychologist Helping people improve everyday functioning by providing
productive and positive thinking and acting skills
____________________
Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing
treatments and prevention strategies- they have medical degrees in
addition to training in psychology/ clinical psychologists don’t
have medical degrees so they can’t prescribe medication
____________________
____________________
Working to make sure that people who are unable or unwilling to
seek psychological treatment receive it
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___ 1. Which perspective in psychology stressed the role of the unconscious and early
childhood determinants? *RC: Think Freud*
A) Behaviorism D) Cross-cultural
B) Psychodynamic E) Evolutionary
C) Humanistic
___ 2. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were supporters of which of the following
psychological perspectives? *RC: Think about being the best HUMAN you can be*
A) Behaviorism D) Cross-cultural
B) Psychodynamic E) Gestalt
C) Humanistic
___ 3. Which of the following perspectives did Charles Darwin's research, described in the,
Origins of Species, help to initiate? *RC: Think of Natural Selection- Nature selects*
A) Behaviorism D) Evolutionary
B) Cognitive E) Functionalism
C) Psychodynamic
___ 4. Which type of psychologist focuses on improving working conditions, making
machinery and technology more applicable for people, and helping employees reach
their potential and perform at an optimum level? *RC: How you organize an industry
affects the way the industry runs*
A) Health psychologist D) Cognitive psychologist
B) Psychiatrist E) Industrial-organizational psychologist
C) Community psychologist
___ 5. Which type of therapist possesses a medical degree and is thus able to prescribe
medications to his or her patients? *RC: Think of which profession requires the most
amount of schooling*
A) Clinical psychologist D) Community psychologist
B) Social psychologist E) I/O psychologist
C) Psychiatrist
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1. The origins of psychology can be traced
to
(A) the unconscious mind
(B) philosophy and physiology
(C) botany and kinesiology
(D) working to reach one’s potential
(E) speculation and hindsight
2. Empiricism refers to
(A) scientific methods based on
information and knowledge derived
from direct observation or
experience
(B) scientific methods based on
speculation and intuition
(C) the wishes and motivations
embedded in the unconscious
(D) reaching and achieving self-
actualization
(E) how nature selects organisms best
suited for survival in a particular
environment
3. The method Wilhelm Wundt used to
study the elements of the mind was
called
(A) observation
(B) case study
(C) introspection
(D) dream analysis
(E) resistance
4. Sigmund Freud believed that
(A) research should be based on
observable and measurable data
(B) reaching one’s potential by
developing a positive self-concept
was important
(C) nature selects organisms best suited
for an environment
(D) cultural and social backgrounds play
a crucial role in development
(E) unconscious motivations and wishes
affect personality and well-being
5. Behaviorism was built around the idea
that
(A) research should be based on
observable and measurable data
(B) reaching one’s potential by
developing a positive self-concept is
important
(C) nature selects organisms best suited
for an environment
(D) cultural and social backgrounds play
a crucial role in development
(E) unconscious motivations and wishes
affect personality and psychological
well-being
6. Who contributed to the ideas of the
evolutionary perspective by suggesting
that nature selects organisms best suited
for survival in a given environment?
(A) Charles Darwin
(B) Sigmund Freud
(C) John B. Watson
(D) William James
(E) Wilhelm Wundt
7. Which school of thought focused on how
an organism adapts to the environment
rather than on the study of mental
components or parts?
(A) Structuralism
(B) Gestalt
(C) Psychoanalysis
(D) Behaviorism
(E) Functionalism
8. The belief that the brain and nervous
system affect behavior is fundamental to
which perspective of psychology?
(A) Evolutionary
(B) Psychodynamic
(C) Behavioral
(D) Cognitive
(E) Biological
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9. Faris has been conducting research that
may help people improve their ability to
process and retrieve explicit memories.
Which perspective does Faris’ inquiry
support?
(A) Evolutionary
(B) Psychodynamic
(C) Behavioral
(D) Cognitive
(E) Biological
10. A researcher supporting which
psychological perspective might recite
the following quotation: “I believe that
the memories and events of early
childhood contribute to unconscious
development affecting personality”?
(A) Evolutionary
(B) Psychodynamic
(C) Behavioral
(D) Cognitive
(E) Biological
11. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were
influential with the emergence and
development of which psychological
perspective?
(A) Evolutionary
(B) Psychodynamic
(C) Behavioral
(D) Cognitive
(E) Humanistic
12. The ideas of William James agreed with
and founded which psychological school
of thought?
(A) Structuralism
(B) Functionalism
(C) Gestalt
(D) Psychodynamic
(E) Behaviorism
13. For the past several years Jerry has been
conducting research on teenage smoking
and the possible long-term effects that
could later occur in adulthood. Jerry’s
research would coincide with which
subfield’s goals and ideals?
(A) Cognitive psychology
(B) Clinical psychology
(C) Psychiatry
(D) Biological psychiatry
(E) Developmental psychology
14. When describing her job, Jenny says she
makes sure that people who need
psychological care receive it. Jenny is
what type of psychologist?
(A) Cognitive psychologist
(B) Industrial psychologist
(C) Community psychologist
(D) Biological psychologist
(E) Developmental psychologist
15. Which subfield of psychology would
study how a stroke could affect the
functions of certain parts of the brain?
(A) Cognitive psychology
(B) Educational psychology
(C) Community psychology
(D) Biological psychology
(E) Psychometrics
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1. Answer: B. The development of psychology was influenced by questions and beliefs of philosophy
and the scientific approach and underlying principles of physiology
2. Answer: A. Empiricists believed in tabular rasa that the mind was a blank sheet on which experiences
were “written” and, as a result, should be based on actual experience and observations. This idea went
against the beliefs of the older philosophers
3. Answer: C. Introspection meant to “look inward” and was a technique relied on by Wundt and the
structuralists
4. Answer E. Sigmund Freud believed that the unconscious contributes to personality development by
providing inner conflicts that must be resolved
5. Answer: A. Behaviorism was developed around the idea that research should be based only on data
that could be observed and measured
6. Answer: A. Charles Darwin theorized natural selection, which is the premise that nature selects
organisms best suited for survival in an environment
7. Answer: E. Functionalism, a school of thought championed by William James, was predicated on the
consideration of how organisms adapt to the environment
8. Answer: E. The biological perspective stated that the brain and nervous system affect the behavior of
an organism
9. Answer: D. The cognitive perspective is based on research that examines how cognitive processes,
such as thinking, remembering, and communicating, occur
10. Answer B. Those supporting the psychodynamic perspective believed that events in early childhood
affect the development of the unconscious, which in turn affects how personality develops
11. Answer: E. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed in free will, self-determination, and the
importance of the self-concept, which gave rise to the humanistic perspective
12. Answer: B. Functionalism was a school of thought that focused on how an organism adapted to
enhance its survival in a particular environment. William James rejected the ideas of structuralism
and instead concentrated his studies on how organisms adapt and function
13. Answer: E. Developmental psychologists study ways in which psychological and physical changes
occur over a lifetime
14. Answer: C. Community psychologists make sure that people who either cannot seek help or are
unwilling to do so receive psychological care
15. Answer: D. Biological psychology studies the functioning of the brain and nervous system and how
that affects functioning and behavior
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States of Consciousness
1. The mental processes a person is aware of at any given moment, for example answering this
question, refers to conscious awareness
a. Resides just below the level of consciousness, which makes it easy to access, like a
recent memory is called the preconscious level
b. Absent from conscious awareness, but still could influence a person’s thoughts or
actions. Sigmund Freud was very interested in this area of consciousness as he believed
this to be comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories, which he referred to as the
unconscious level
Exploring the Levels of Consciousness
2. The belief that the mind and body are separate is referred to as dualism.
a. The suggestion that the mind and the body are one and the same is called materialism,
which was supported through damage to one’s brain causing that person’s consciousness
to be affected.
States of Consciousness
3. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream; always changing but always flowing?
____________________________
Circadian Rhythms
4. Throughout a day, human beings experience fluctuations in their physiological (body
temperature) and psychological processes (alertness.) These repeating fluctuations, such as
sleeping and waking, occur over a 24 hour period are referred to as _____________________
a. What is the “internal clock” located within the hypothalamus that monitors circadian
rhythms? ________________________________
b. Where does the suprachiasmatic nucleus receive information from in terms of whether
it is light or dark out? Ganglion cells of the eye
c. Neurons within the suprachiasmatic nucleus, trigger the decrease or increase of the
hormone melatonin produced by pineal gland. When it starts to become light outside the
suprachiasmatic nucleus recognizes this change and _______________ the production of
melatonin, which helps to wake us up. On the contrary, when it starts to become dark
melatonin production _________________ causing us to become tired.
d. What can possibly also affect circadian rhythms? Give an example:
Environmental factors/ jet lag flying from New York to LA
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Stages of Sleep
5. What instruments do researchers use to monitor a person’s different stages of sleep and brain
activity? ______________
a. A person who is awake and attentive would be showing __________ waves.
b. A person who is awake but inattentive or staring to become sleepy would be show
________________ waves.
c. Which type of waves follow alpha waves and indicate even slower brain activity?
Theta
d. Which waves show very low brain activity and area associated with deep sleep?
Delta
6. Identify the characteristics of the following sleep stages:
Sleep stage Brain Waves Characteristics
_______________
_______________
_______________
Alpha and
theta waves
Lasts only a few minutes/ Person can quickly gain
consciousness/ Experiences hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid
sensory experiences- sensation of falling- also myoclonic jerk-
involuntary muscle spasm throughout body that often awakes
person
_______________
Theta and start
of delta waves
Start of true sleep/ sleep spindles in EEG patterns- sudden
bursts of brain activity
_______________
Delta waves Considered NREM stage 3 when 20% of brain activity shows
delta waves
______________
______________
Beta waves Brain activity becomes more active, resembling that of an
awakened state; 85% of dreams occur in this stage
Muscle activity is suppressed- called muscle atonia
Physiological arousal is high- heart rate, blood pressure
Eyes move readily back and forth beneath eyelids- Rapid eye
movement- also called paradoxical sleep
Sequence of Sleep Stages
7. How many cycles do people experience of NREM and REM sleep each night?
Four to Six
1) Begins with NREM stage 1: lasts a few minutes
2) Followed by about 20 minutes in NREM stage 2
3) Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in NREM stages 3
4) Once a person is relaxed and deeply asleep in NREM stage 3 the sequence reverses
5) The person then goes back through NREM stage 2
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6) After NREM stage 2, the person enters REM sleep (not NREM stage 1), which usually
lasts for about 5 to 15 minutes
a. As sleep continues the periods of ________ sleep get longer and NREM stages 3
become ___________________
b. The last few sleep cycles are primarily NREM stage ____ and REM sleep
c. As a person gets older, what stages of sleep start to gradually decrease?
__________________________
d. As a young child, how much time is usually spent in NREM stage 3?
Two or more hours
Functions of Sleep
8. Studies of sleep deprivation have provided evidence that sleep is necessary for adequate
physiological and psychological functioning. What tasks seem to be affected the most by lack of
sleep?
Tasks are considered boring and repetitive
a. A person who does not get enough REM sleep will experience REM rebound, which is
defined by a person going right into REM sleep instead of the proper sequence of sleep.
Sleep Theories
9. Which theory of sleep suggests that sleep in necessary for the body to repair itself?
_________________________________
a. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons, which are
essential to understanding newly learned material?
______________________
b. What parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?
_______________________________
c. Which type of sleep is necessary for the body to physiologically repair itself?
NREM
10. Theory of sleep that suggests sleep is a behavior that promotes the survival of species and is
based on the evolutionary principles and suggests that humans and animals sleep when it is
dangerous to be awake is called adaptive theory of sleep
11. What theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is no more stimulation to keep us
awake? _________________________________
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Sleep Disorders
12. Fill in the chart explaining the characteristics of sleep disorders:
Sleep disorder Characteristics
Narcolepsy Falling suddenly into REM sleep at any time of the day
Sleep apnea Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep- stop
breathing
Somnambulism (sleep
walking)
Occurs in NREM stage 3
Nocturnal enuresis
(bedwetting)
Occurs in NREM stage 3
_______________ Occurs in NREM stage 3- high physiological arousal/
especially in children/ no recollection of the events
______________ Occurs in REM sleep
REM sleep behavior disorder Acting out your dream; connected with damage to the
lower brain centers/ common in older men
Sleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep
Dream Theories
13. What stage of sleep do dreams occur most vividly? __________________
a. People who feel that they can control their dreams in terms of outcomes and decisions
is referred to as __________________
b. During REM sleep which part of the brain is inactive, making it hard to form new
memories? _____________________
c. Sigmund Freud, who was very interested in the content of dreams thought that during
dream analysis he could tap into a person’s unconscious. What was the name of Freud’s
influential book that outlined his approach?
_________________________________
d. According to Freud, dreams consisted of two parts: the __________ content consisted
of the remembered meaning of the dream; and the ________ content was the symbolized
part of the dream that Freud thought represented the deep wishes of the unconscious.
e. The idea that signals within the brain activate other areas of the brain, including the
amygdala an hippocampus, and that the brain synthesizes these signals as it attempts to
provide meaning refers to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming
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___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for receiving information from the retina
regarding light or darkness; then initiates the pineal gland to release or decrease the
production of melatonin? *RC: think of a light sensor that activates or deactivates the
outdoor lights depending if it light or dark out*
A) Hippocampus D) Fovea
B) Thyroid gland E) Bipolar cells
C) Superchiasmatic nucleus
___ 2. According to an EEG, if a person was wide awake then that person would display
which type of brain waves? *RC: remember you Beta be awake when you take an
exam*
A) Alpha B) Beta C) Delta D) Theta E) Maya
___ 3. Paradoxical sleep is defined as: *RC: remember paradox indicates opposite*
A) REM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is wide awake.
B) REM sleep where the legs continue to move despite no brain activity.
C) REM sleep that is measured by beta waves in the brain and no movement in the
body.
D) NREM sleep where the brain is wide awake and the body is wide awake.
E) NREM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is awake.
___ 4. According to Sigmund Freud, the part of the dream that could lead to possible
unconscious conflicts and if often not understand by the person who dreamt it is
referred to as the__________ component. RC: remember man I had a crazy dream-
which means the part of the dream you can remember*
A) Pons B) Symbolic interlude C) Manifest D) Fixated E) Latent
___ 5. Night terrors differ from nightmares because night terrors occur in: *RC: remember
delta waves means deep sleep which means the brain is turned off; not recording*
A) NREM stage 1 D) NREM stage 3
B) REM sleep E) Sleep thinking periods
C) First 20 minutes of NREM stage 2
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Hypnosis
1. An altered state of consciousness that could produce increased responsiveness to suggestion
that could in turn lead to changes in behavior and thinking is called __________________
Explaining hypnosis
2. Suggestions that are made my hypnotist that maybe carried out after the person has been
hypnotized are called posthypnotic suggestion
a. meaning that can’t be recalled of what took place during the hypnotic session is called
posthypnotic amnesia
b. Who determined that during hypnosis people experience a splitting of consciousness
called “dissociation” referred to the neodissociation theory of hypnosis where a person
experiences distinct multiple streams of consciousness?
___________________
c. The first stream of consciousness is tuned to the hypnotist’s suggestions, while the
second stream is so distinct from consciousness that is unattainable to the subject, which
he called the _________________
d. Nicholas Spanos believed that hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness as
Hilgard believed, but rather an expected role that a person believed he or she should
perform or act when being hypnotized. This theory is called ______________________
______________________
Psychoactive Drugs
3. An area of psychology that studies the effects of psychoactive drugs on the brain and nervous
system is called psychopharmacology
a. The blood-brain barrier helps prevent certain substances from entering brain tissue,
but if does bypass this barrier will affect the way a person thinks and feels.
b. If a drug mimics/excites it is called __________ versus if a drug blocks/inhibits the
role of a neurotransmitter it is called an ___________________
Effects of Drugs
4. Occurs when a pattern of drug use interferes with personal and social meaning and
functioning is called substance abuse
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a. When a person chooses to take a drug despite knowing the ramifications it could cause
in other areas of his or her life is called psychological dependency
b. Referred to as addiction, results in the body’s dependence on the drug to function is
called physical dependency and if the body does not get the required drug then a this
person will experience unpleasant headaches, shaking, or intense cravings for the drug
called ______________________
c. The type of a drug a person continuously does; the greater need for the drug which
refers to a person’s ___________________________
Types of Drugs
5. Identify the effects of drugs:
Drug
Classification
Physical effects on the
brain and body
Example Psychological effects
_____________
Slows activity in central
nervous system
Increases GABA-
neurotransmitter that
inhibits brain activity
Alcohol,
barbiturates,
sleeping pills,
tranquilizers,
GHB- club
drugs
Mild euphoria,
talkativeness, friendly,
reduces inhibitions,
aggressiveness, impair
judgments
____________
Speeds activity in nervous
systems
Increases neurotransmitter’s
norepinephrine (arousal) and
dopamine (pleasure)
Amphetamines,
cocaine,
caffeine,
nicotine,
ecstasy
Increased mental
alertness, reduce fatigue,
produces induced
psychosis- schizophrenic
like symptoms-
hallucinations
____________
Causes sleepiness and
relieves pain
Agonist for endorphins
Opium,
morphine,
heroin
Intense rush of euphoria,
feelings of contentment,
severe withdrawal
symptoms
_____________
Also called psychedelics
Similar to nt serotonin-
regulates moods and
perceptions
LSD, ketamine,
mescaline,
marijuana
Loss of contact from
reality, altered emotions,
perceptions,
hallucinations
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___ 1. Which of the following statements would Ernest Hilgard agree with in terms of
describing his theory of hypnosis? *RC: if a log fell into a stream it would divide or
produce two separate streams; however both streams are still flowing in the same
direction and to the same place*
A) That a person is simply playing a part acting in a way that he or thinks they
should act during hypnosis.
B) That the brain switches from left to right brain causing the power of suggestion to
exist.
C) Mirror neurons are activated which cause a person to feel or sense they are being
hypnotized
D) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as
the hidden observer which taps into the unconscious and is subtle to hypnotic
suggestion.
E) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as
the partial observer which taps into the unconscious.
___ 2. Motrin’s and Tylenol mimic endorphins through blocking pain signals; this would
classify them as a: *RC: think of a key that is duplicated; not the same but can still
unlock and lock- same as the original*
A) Antagonist B) Mirrors C) Agonist D) Plasticity E) Replication
___ 3. If a person continues to use or expose themselves to a drug; then over time that
person is going to require greater quantities in order to achieve the designer effects of
that drug. This greater need is referred to as: *RC: the more you do; the more you
need- you can tolerate more*
A) Withdrawal symptoms D) Tolerance
B) Dependency E) Resistance
C) Physical need
___ 4. Alcohol, which is classified as a depressant, slows down neural activity and activates
which of the following neurotransmitters that is known to slow down brain activity.
*RC: saying GABA slowly calms you down through slowing down your brain
activity*
A) Serotonin B) Dopamine C) Acetylcholine D) GABA E) Substance P
___ 5. If a person abuses the stimulant cocaine and raise the level of dopamine in their
system then they could experience symptoms comparable to schizophrenia. This is
referred to as: *RC: psychosis means break- break from reality*
A) Pleasure principle D) Induced psychosis
B) Reaction formation E) Lavational psychosis
C) Sublimation
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1. Susanne is paying close attention to her
teacher as he lectures about the history
of psychology. Which level of awareness
describes Susanne’s attentiveness?
(A) Conscious awareness
(B) Preconscious awareness
(C) Nonconscious awareness
(D) Subliminal awareness
(E) Nocturnal awareness
2. Carlos's friend asks Carlos what he ate
for dinner last night. Carlos hesitates a
few moments and then is able to
remember. Which level of awareness
describes his ability to remember last
night's dinner?
(A) Conscious awareness
(B) Preconscious awareness
(C) Nonconscious awareness
(D) Subliminal awareness
(E) Nocturnal awareness
3. Jen is excited to be taking the AP
psychology exam. She is fully alert and
ready to handle the task at hand. Which
waves of brain activity is Jen displaying?
(A) Delta
(B) Theta
(C) Beta
(D) Alpha
(E) Circadian
4. As Tracy sits in class she grows tired.
She is having a hard time paying
attention to the teacher and often loses
her place in her book. Tracy is
experiencing which type of brain waves?
(A) Delta
(B) Theta
(C) Beta
(D) Alpha
(E) Circadian
5. REM sleep is characterized by
(A) delta brain activity and muscle
atonia
(B) cessation of breathing and heavy
snoring
(C) muscle atonia and high levels of beta
activity in the brain
(D) vivid sensory imagery
(E) myoclonic jerks displayed by the
body
6. As an individual sleeps throughout the
night, which two stages of sleep become
longer?
(A) NREM 1 and NREM 2
(B) NREM 1 and NREM 3
(C) REM and NREM 2
(D) REM and NREM 3
(E) NREM 3 and NREM 4
7. Jon traveled from Nashville to Los
Angeles yesterday. He has had a hard
time adapting to the time change. Last
night he found it hard to fall asleep and
during the day he has had a hard time
staying awake. The time change has
affected Jon’s
(A) circadian rhythms
(B) memory consolidation
(C) adrenal cortex
(D) biopsychological timing
(E) ultradian rhythms
8. What hormone, when released by the
pineal gland, causes a person to become
drowsy and tired?
(A) Adrenaline
(B) Corticosteroid
(C) Catecholamine
(D) Melatonin
(E) Testosterone
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9. The restorative theory of sleep suggests
that ___ sleep helps the brain to restore
and ___ helps the body to recover.
(A) NREM; REM sleep
(B) REM; NREM sleep
(C) REM; REM sleep
(D) NREM; NREM sleep
(E) NREM Stage 3; NREM Stage 4
10. Jim has reported that he can control his
dreams and affect the content of his
dreams. This is referred to as
(A) wishful thinking
(B) NREM sleep
(C) lucid dreaming
(D) hallucinogenic dreaming
(E) the Muller-Lyer illusion
11. Nate has had problems quitting smoking
in the past. A friend suggested he see a
hypnotist. Nate was a bit reluctant but
agreed. After the hypnotic session, the
hypnotist told Nate that he would no
longer have the urge to smoke. This is
referred to as
(A) posthypnotic suggestion
(B) posthypnotic amnesia
(C) suggestion of the mind
(D) posthypnotic fugue
(E) social conforming
12. The role theory of hypnosis states that
(A) a hypnotist produces a “hidden
observer” unresponsive
(B) people fall into a deep sleep
(C) altered states of consciousness are
produced
(D) a dissociation is produced and
causes multiple streams of
(E) hypnotized people are acting in
accordance with the socially
accepted behavior of what is shown
during hypnosis
13. Which of the following is characterized
by an altered state of consciousness in
which the power of suggestion is able to
affect behavior?
(A) Shock therapy
(B) Operant conditioning
(C) Token economy
(D) Systematic desensitization
(E) Hypnosis
14. Ever since Deb quit smoking, she has
experienced terrible headaches, nausea,
and a tremendous craving for nicotine.
Deb is experiencing what kind of
symptoms?
(A) Toxic
(B) Withdrawal
(C) Hormonal
(D) Synaptic
(E) Distortion
15. Depressants depress activity in the
central nervous system by causing neural
communication to slow down. Which of
the following is an example of a
depressant?
(A) Heroin
(B) Cocaine
(C) LSD
(D) Alcohol
(E) Caffeine
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1. Answer: A. Conscious awareness describes mental activities a person is aware of at a given moment
2. Answer: B. Preconscious awareness resides just below conscious awareness, which makes it easy to
retrieve the content into conscious awareness
3. Answer: C. Beta waves show brain activity, indicating that a person is awake and attentive
4. Answer: D. Alpha brain waves indicates that the person is awake but drowsy and inattentive
5. Answer: C. REM sleep is characterized by beta brain activity and full relaxation in the body and
muscles
6. Answer: C. A person progresses through NREM Stages 1–4 and then reverses from NREM 4 to 3
and then 2. After NREM Stage 2, REM sleep takes over. As the night goes on, more time is spent in
REM sleep and in NREM Stage 2
7. Answer: A. Jon is experiencing jet lag, and it has affected his circadian rhythms, which cycle periods
of wakefulness and tiredness
8. Answer: D. Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in response to darkness monitored by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus
9. Answer: B. REM sleep is necessary for the brain to revitalize neural communication, and NREM
sleep is necessary for the body to rebuild muscle
10. Answer: C. Lucid dreaming occurs when a person feels that he or she can control the content of his
or her dreams
11. Answer: A. The posthypnotic suggestion refers to the hypnotist’s instruction that is to be carried out
by the subject after the hypnotic session
12. Answer: E. The role theory of hypnosis suggests that people who undergo hypnosis are conforming
to the demands of the expected roles associated with the process of hypnosis
13. Answer: E. Hypnosis uses techniques to help subjects relax, enabling suggestion to cause changes in
behavior
14. Answer: B. Withdrawal symptoms are physiological changes that result from the body’s not being
able to get a drug on which it has depended
15. Answer: D. Alcohol is an example of a depressant. It depresses, or slows down, the central nervous
system
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Personality 1. The unique and consistent pattern of behavior, thinking, and feeling that makes up an
individual is called personality.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach
2. Sigmund Freud believed that personality is influenced by the ______________, which is
comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that we are unaware of but that still
affect our behavior.
a. All of the mental processes a person is aware of at an given moment is called the
_____________________ awareness
b. All of them memories and information that are not presently in conscious awareness
but can easily be recalled is called the ____________________ awareness
The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, and Superego
3. Freud believed that personality is the result of psychological energy that produces three
distinct components of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. The unconscious
portion of personality, present at birth, primitive, not affected by values, ethics, or morals
is called the ________________
a. The id’s psychological energy comes from two opposing instinctual drives: Eros and
Thanatos. The nature of the Eros is to preserve life by alerting an individual to hunger,
thirst, and sexuality.
a. Freud believed a person’s sex drive, or libido produces psychological energy.
b. The death instinct, which is responsible for aggressive and destructive behavior
Freud called the Thanatos
c. The id is governed by the ____________________, which demands immediate
gratification- for example a baby that cries until he or she gets taken care of.
b. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the id?
a. The ego is partly conscious and represents the rational, decision-making part of
the personality. The ego relies, on the ______________ principle, which, when
necessary, delays the demands and the needs of the id until an appropriate time.
c. Emerges at age five or six and represents the internal voice of reason, or the judge and
jury of our behavior is called the ________________. A person who does not live up to
the expectations of the superego experiences guilt and anxiety.
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Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms
4. Freud believed that urges of the id and the demands of the superego could cause conflicts,
and that the role of the ego is to mediate such conflicts called “intrapsychic.” In order to
reduce this anxiety and protect itself the ego relies on defense mechanisms.
a. Fill out the following chart describing the different types of defense mechanisms:
Defense
Mechanism
Definition
______________
The exclusion from conscious awareness of a painful, unpleasant,
or undesirable memory or urge/ remember suppression is a
conscious decision to forget about something
_______________ Providing excuses or explanations to justify thoughts or behaviors
_______________ Ascribing or assigning one’s undesirable feelings or thoughts to
others
_________________
________________
When a person behaves that contradicts their actual thoughts
________________ Attempting to turn unacceptable thoughts or actions into socially
acceptable behaviors
________________ Shifting anger and hostility to a less threatening target
_______________ Trying to make up for unconscious impulses or fears
_______________ Not being willing to accept the truth
________________ In times of stress, an individual’s reverting to a behavior that is
associated with an earlier stage of development
Stages that occur Through Personality Development
5. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of five distinct psychosexual
stages- each associated with an area of pleasure (erogenous zones) in which the
unconscious searches for satisfaction. IF the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy
the needs associated within a particular stage then _______ occurs, a defense mechanism
that occurs when the individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage because
his or her needs were either under- or- over-gratified during that stage.
Freud’s Psychosexual stages
6. Identify the milestones and fixations associated with each stage:
Oral Stage (birth-1 year old)
Pleasure: associated with mouth area
Activities: putting objects in mouth such as a pacifier, biting toys
Fixation: oral fixation- compulsion of oral activates in adulthood- smoking, biting nails
Anal Stage (two years old)
Pleasure: associated with anal area
Activities: proper toilet training: child learning control over bowels
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Fixation: anal retentive- obsessive neatness or perfection/ anal expulsive- messiness
Phallic Stage (3-5 years old)
Pleasure: associated with genitals (one’s own)
Occurs when the son displays incestuous feelings for his mother and resistance towards
his father is referred to the Oedipus complex
On the other hand, the Electra complex occurs when girls question why boys have certain
body parts that they do not resulting in incestuous feelings for their father and resentment
of their mother.
Boys resolve and reduce the anxiety caused by the Oedipus complex and castration
anxiety by forming an alliance with their father this result in the defense mechanism of
____________________ which involves imitating the father’s attitudes and values
allowing them ___________________ to develop
Latency Stage (late childhood)
Sexual feelings lay dormant as boys emphasize same sex friendships and develop social and
intellectual skills. Through the defense mechanism of ___________________ the child redirects
sexual energy into social and emotional acceptable outlets
Genital Stage (adolescence)
Sexual impulses reemerge with emphasis on genitals- theirs and others with the hopes for
forming loving, intimate relationships
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___ 1. According to Sigmund Freud, the component of personality that is governed by the
pleasure principle, completely unconscious, and comparable to animal-like behavior?
*RC: think of "I" like to do whatever "I" like*
A) Ego B) Id C) Superego D) Oedipus E) Latency
___ 2. A type of defense mechanism, that involves behaving or thinking in an opposite
manner when compared to the truth or true motivation. *RC: think about whey
people may laugh during a funeral- they ACT in an opposite way*
A) Projection D) Reaction formation
B) Rationalization E) Denial
C) Displacement
___ 3. Which of the following would be an example of projection? *RC: remember when
you project you are displaying your personality onto other people or situations*
A) Lacy slams her pen on the table when she gets a poor test score.
B) Julie does not admit that she cheated on the test.
C) Mario claims that everyone else was cheating on the test.
D) Jim laughs right before he is going to find out if he got into college.
E) Jimmy accuses his girlfriend of cheating when he's been the one cheating.
___ 4. Rachel begins to cry when she gets pulled over by the police for speeding. This
reaction seemed to work when she was an infant in terms of getting her own way.
According to Freud, this is an example of which type of defense mechanism? *RC:
remember the G stands for Going back*
A) Displacement D) Compensation
B) Repression E) Rationalization
C) Regression
___ 5. During which psychosexual stage does the superego develop as a result of the defense
mechanism of identification? *RC: remember when you identify with someone then
he or she can teach you right and wrong; you learn to say P-lease in the P-hallic
stage*
A) Oral B) Latency C) Phallic D) Genital E) Freudian
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The Neo-Freudian View of Personality
Neo-Freudians were followers of Freud who taught and delivered his theories and ideas, but as
time went on many neo-Freudians developed their own ideals and viewpoints
Carl Jung
1. Carl Jung disagreed with Freud primarily on the role of the libido. He believed that it
was not primarily for sexual interest, but also brings human growth and conflict. He also
did not believe in distinct personality stages, but rather a person is either an
____________, someone who prefers privacy and ponders his or her own actions and
thinking, or an _______________, someone who receives energy through being active
and part of the outside social world.
a. Jung also believed in a collection of past experiences shared by all people that are
inherited from ancestors and passed from generation to generation referred to as
the ____________________________
b. Jung further believed that the collective unconscious contains _______________-
which are generational symbols of perceptual themes and symbols- snake
representing evil
Alfred Adler
2. Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome inferioriti3es experienced in
childhood. These _______________________stem from our reliance on others
(primarily parents) in caring for us when we were not able to care for ourselves. This
leads to a desire to be _________________, which results in different personality styles
to achieve this.
Karen Horney
3. Karen Horney was the first female personality researcher and disagreed with Freud that
women experienced penis envy, but rather social restraints made women feel inferior to
men. She believed males experienced womb envy instead. She believed that conflicts
within social relationships could result in personality problems. She identified 3 types of
personality styles:
a. Moving toward need for approval
b. Moving against demand for control
c. Moving away desire for independence
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach
4. Researchers have given limited support to the psychodynamic perspective with the main
criticism proving the existence and consequent influence of the unconscious. There is
little empirical evidence to back up his theory, and since Freud used case studies it is hard
to generalize his findings to the population. In addition, Freud’s theory was based on
Western European thought not American values.
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Trait Theories
5. Internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time, and displayed through
multiple situations are called personality traits. Trait theories predict how people will act
or think in most situations.
Type versus Trait
6. Traits provide a list, or number, of descriptors (quantitative) that are used to describe a
person, whereas types address whether a person “fits” that particular type, or whether he
or she has certain characteristics. Feeling type has the traits: affection, sympathy, and
dependability (qualitative)
Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory
7. Who was one of the first trait theorists to identify traits?
Gordon Allport
a. He grouped the 18,000 traits he identified into 2 groups: central/ source traits and
secondary traits/ surface traits. Easily recognized and have a strong influence on
personality are called _________________________
b. Traits more specific to certain situations and have less of an effect on personality
are called ______________________________
Raymond Cattell
8. Raymond Cattell based his research on Gordon Allport’s research and used a
questionnaire that asked people to rate themselves on a number of traits for which ones
best described them. He then used a technique which is a mathematical formula that
explains how traits are related to one another called a ________________________.
This would show how certain central traits would give rise to certain secondary traits.
a. Through factor analysis, Cattell was able to identify 16 basic personality factors-
he verified his findings through a Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
Biological Trait Theories
9. Who believed that people inherited certain personality factors and could be described
along introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability dimensions?
_______________________________
a. People who were moody and worried were characterized as _________________
b. People who were calm and relaxed were characterized as _________________
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The Big-Five Model of Personality
10. What two researchers believed that Raymond Cattell identified too many traits and Hans
Eysenck identified too few and rather used a factor analysis to develop the big-five model
of personality?
a. What are the big five traits?
1. __________________: curious, insightful, imaginative, creative
2. ___________________: organized, reliable, hardworking
3. _________________: active, energetic, affectionate
4. __________________: forgiving, generous, trusting
5. ____________________: anxious, tense, vulnerable
Evaluation of the Trait Approach
11. The trait theory is good at labeling behavior, but does not explain why a person acts a
certain way. This perspective also does not consider how social situations could affect a
person’s traits. The big-five is accepted by many, but does fail to show why people
possess those traits.
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___ 1. According to Carl Jung, archetypes or universal symbols are contained in the
___________ which is passed from generation to generation for the purpose of
assisting in healthy development and pursuit of successful outcomes. *RC: think
about a phone that comes equipped with apps already built into the phone that will
help you to use your phone*
A) Personal unconscious D) Personal fable
B) Collective conscious E) Relational information
C) Collective unconscious
___ 2. Which of the following statements would Alfred Adler agree with in terms of
personality development? *RC: think of getting two As- that makes you superior*
A) James gives up half way through his math test because it is too hard.
B) Lacy laughs at a student who fails a test.
C) Rich catches up and passes several contestants at the finish line.
D) Lucy does not study for 3 midterms because she is lazy.
E) Mike can ride his bike with no hands but then falls off.
___ 3. According to Gordon Allport, a person who just gets nervous when he talks in front
of people would be displaying which type of trait? *RC: remember on the surface
refers to how people act some of the time or dependent on the situation but it is not
the source of who they are*
A) Cardinal B) Central C) Source D) Surface E) Primary
___ 4. A mathematical formula that is used to show how traits or factors are related; used by
Raymond Cattell to establish the 16 personality inventory in called a: *RC:
match.com uses a statistical test to show how one trait predicts many traits*
A) PPI D) Programmed inventory
B) Tally and Tell E) MMPI
C) Factor analysis
___ 5. Which of the following is NOT considered one of the Big 5 source traits? *RC:
remember OCEAN or CANOE*
A) Extraversion D) Openness
B) Agreeableness E) Neurotic
C) Revengeful
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Social-Cognitive Approach
Social-cognitive theorists believed personality to be the interaction of cognitive, behavioral,
and environmental factors.
Social-Cognitive Theorists
Julian Rotter
1. Who believed that people’s expectations shape behavior and personality?
Julian Rotter
a. Those expectations are based on either a person believing he or she could control
environmental influences called ______________________________
b. Or a person believing that he or she cannot control environmental factors called
_________________________________ like surgery
Albert Bandura
2. Who believed that personality is the result of the interaction between thoughts, behavior,
and environmental factors? _______________________ which he referred to as
_________________________________
a. Bandura also believed that the expectations that play a role in how a person
behaves or acts called _____________ are also very important in how people act.
Evaluation of the Social –Cognitive Approach
3. An advantage of the social-cognitive approach is that it includes cognitive, behavioral,
and environmental factors. However, it does not include any information pertaining to
the unconscious.
Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach explains personality by describing how people differ in terms of self-
awareness, creativity, decision-making, and responsibility. A humanistic psychologist believes
that all people have an innate or inborn drive that promotes and directs growth and helps them
achieve the potential.
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Humanistic Theorists
Carl Rogers
4. Carl Rogers developed his theory based on a belief that people have an innate drive that
motivates a person to reach his or her full potential called the ______________________
a. Rogers termed how a person perceives him or herself as their ________________
b. The acceptance of a person for who he or she is/ is called ________________
____________ which leads to congruence when a person can be him or herself
and not worry about trying to impress others with false beliefs or actions- self-
concept matches or is congruent with reality. This results in an accurate and
healthy self-concept.
c. Rogers believed that conditional love or _______________________ could to an
unhealthy self-concept by the person acting in incongruence when self-concept
does not match reality. This could occur if a person believed that only when
certain conditions are met that love and affection will be shown or given.
Abraham Maslow
5. Abraham Maslow believed the pursuit of fulfilling and realizing one’s potential which he
called _______________________________
a. People may lose focus of self-actualization through focusing on materialistic,
meaningless goals referred to as deficiency orientation
b. When people focus on what they have, how they perform, and the importance of
their achievements they exhibit growth orientation
Evaluation of the Humanistic Perspective
6. The humanistic perspectives see a person as unique, which is based on the importance
they place on events and situations. However, some believe that this perspective is too
optimistic and naïve by believing that every person is good.
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Assessing Personality
7. Personality tests are either objective (self-report) or subjective (projective tests.)
a. Identify the following characteristics of personality tests:
Type of
test
Format Advantage Disadvantage Example
O
B
J
E
C
T
I
V
E
Self-
report
Multiple-
choice/ true-
false
Questions can be
machine score
saves time and
money- ensures
reliability
A score for each
test can be
interpreted by the
test-giver,
providing a label
that people can
understand
People can fake
responses, answer
how they think they
should answer, rush
through questions,
may not understand
the questions.
maybe cultural bias
with the answers
1. NEO-PI
measures the big
five personality
traits
2. _________ most
widely used
personality tests/
500 TF questions/
originally designed
to measure mental
health
Type of
Test
Format Advantage Disadvantage Example
P
R
O
J
E
C
T
I
V
E
Unstructured
stimuli that
are
subjective
scored
The
psychodynamic
approach uses
projective tests
because vague
stimuli tend to
reveal contents of
the unconscious
making it hard for
a person to fake
responses because
they don’t know
what researcher
is asking
Researcher’s
subjective
interpretation may
not accurately
describe test taker
Tests are not
reliable as daily
emotions play a
factor in answers
1. _____________
_______________ developed by Henry
Murray- picture
scenes to measure
need for
achievement
2. ____________
______________ developed by
Hermann
Rorschach- inkblot
are described by
test taker
Applications of Personality Tests
8. Personality tests are administered for a variety of reasons. Industrial-organizational
psychologists, who try to improve work conditions by improving the ways businesses operate
and by placing people in the right jobs based on their personality.
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___ 2. According to Albert Bandura, what are the three components of the reciprocal
determinism explanation? *RC: think about a person's bad attitude could change the
way people act which could result in a distrustful classroom*
A) Cognitive, motivation, environment
B) Cognitive, behavioral, parental ok
C) Behavioral, environmental, sibling input
D) Cognitive, behavioral, environmental
E) Attitude, brains, adjustment
___ 3. According to Carl Rogers, which of the following would demonstrate unconditional
love resulting in a healthy self-concept? *RC: remember U are U with
Unconditional*
A) Larry behaves differently with his friends than he does his family.
B) Mitch is afraid to tell his coach he does not want to play soccer any longer.
C) Beth feels that her boyfriend will not like her real aspirations in life.
D) Rick can tell his mother that he failed a test in class.
E) Norman sneaks past his father and out the door.
___ 4. Which type of objective test is comprised of true-false questions originally designed
to test abnormal traits? *RC: if you can't think your more honest in your answers*
A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) FUN
___ 5. Lindsey was asked to look at a series of inkblots that were supposed to help her
understand why she cannot remember certain events from her childhood. Which type
of subjective test is Lindsey participating in? *RC: remember if you don't know what
you are looking at; you don't know what your expected to report*
A) MMPI B) TAT C) OPER D) Rorschach E) Vagueness
___ 1. Raymond decides to give up trying to study for his AP test; when asked why he
commented, what is the point he does not know how the teacher is going to test.
According to Julian Rotter, what was the reason why Raymond stopped studying?
*RC: remember Ex means extraneous or other factors that determine the outcome*
A) Internal locus of control D) Self-actualization
B) Personal inventory E) Self-fulfilling prophecy
C) External locus of control
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1. Personality is defined as
(A) infrequent and often omitted
behavior
(B) a unique and consistent pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting
(C) a universally accepted way of
viewing behavior
(D) a perception based on past
experiences and viewpoints
(E) something that happens by chance or
is based on one’s current situation
2. Which of the following individuals
developed his personality theory from
treating people with symptoms that had
no physical causes?
(A) Gordon Allport
(B) Raymond Cattell
(C) B.F. Skinner
(D) Sigmund Freud
(E) Carl Rogers
3. Sigmund Freud believed that a person’s
thoughts, feelings, and behavior are
determined by
(A) various unconscious influences
(B) the interaction of thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors
(C) central and secondary traits
(D) self-actualization
(E) secondary traits
4. A baby cries hysterically when he or she
can’t reach a toy, not stopping until
immediate gratification is given by his or
her caregiver. Freud would suggest that
this child’s immediate gratification is
based on the
(A) reality principle
(B) pleasure principle
(C) actualizing tendency
(D) moral principle
(E) inferiority complex
5. Suzy was tempted to cheat on her exam,
but quickly remembered that cheating is
wrong and immoral. Freud would say
that the thought that cheating was wrong
came from the
(A) ego
(B) id
(C) superego
(D) collective unconscious
(E) unconditional positive regard she
received as a child
6. Will received an “F” on his exam. He
quickly pointed out to fellow classmates
that certain exam questions were not
covered on the review. Will is exhibiting
which type of defense mechanism?
(A) Compensation
(B) Displacement
(C) Sublimation
(D) Rationalization
(E) Regression
7. During which psychosexual stage does
the defense mechanism of identification
emerge, allowing the superego to
develop?
(A) Anal stage
(B) Oral stage
(C) Genital stage
(D) Phallic stage
(E) Latency stage
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8. Stan is the youngest in a very
competitive family. As a result, Stan
often does not get attention or succeed in
family activities. Stan’s classmates have
noticed that he strives to win at all
classroom activities to make himself feel
superior to his classmates. Which Neo-
Freudian would state that Stan’s
competitiveness is in response to his
childhood experience?
(A) Carl Jung
(B) Karen Horney
(C) Alfred Adler
(D) Erik Erikson
(E) Carl Rogers
9. Everyone who knows him describes
Tom as a caring person. No matter what
the situation, he is always there to offer
support to those who need it. According
to Gordon Allport, Tom’s display of
caring would be an example of what
trait?
(A) Stable
(B) Central
(C) Secondary
(D) Preferred
(E) Loving type
10. A mathematical formula that is used to
describe the relationships among traits is
called
(A) factor analysis
(B) case study
(C) naturalistic observation
(D) longitudinal study
(E) survey
11. The big-five traits: conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism,
(A) optimism
(B) pessimism
(C) openness to experience
(D) happiness
(E) self-actualization
12. According to Albert Bandura, reciprocal
determinism is the interaction of
thinking, behavior, and
(A) environment
(B) verbal skills
(C) stability
(D) optimism
(E) conditions
13. Carl Rogers said that the ___ is (are) an
innate drive that motivates all human
behavior toward growth.
(A) unconscious
(B) central traits
(C) actualizing tendency
(D) wish fulfillment
(E) ego
14. Jane was asked to look at a series of
ambiguous pictures and describe what
she saw. This would be an example of
which type of personality test?
(A) Case study
(B) Naturalistic observation
(C) Surveys
(D) Projective
(E) Factored
15. The MMPI is classified as a(n)
(A) objective or self-report inventory
test
(B) projective test
(C) descriptive study
(D) interview
(E) experiment
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99
1. Answer: B. Personality is a unique pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting and is consistent
in various situations
2. Answer: D. Sigmund Freud believed that some people who displayed neurotic disorders did
not have physical causes to explain their behaviors. He believed that other factors should be
considered such as biological drives and past psychological factors, which also could explain
personality development.
3. Answer: A. Freud believed that unconscious processes, the main influence on a person's
thoughts and behaviors, were the underlying causes of personality
4. Answer: B. Freud believed that the id operates according to the pleasure principle, which
constantly demands gratification
5. Answer: C. Freud defined the superego as the part of personality that tells a person what is
or is not acceptable, thus serving as a moral guide
6. Answer: D. Rationalization provides excuses that justify a wrong decision or act to reduce
anxiety
7. Answer: D. Freud believed that through resolution of the Oedipus complex in the phallic
stage the defense mechanism of identification occurs allowing the superego to develop
8. Answer: C. Alfred Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome childhood
inferiorities in order to gain control over their lives
9. Answer: B. Gordon Allport labeled central traits as the traits most easily noticed by others;
these traits are in control of behavior in all situations
10. Answer: A. Factor analysis was used by trait researchers to establish relationships and
predictability among traits
11. Answer: C. Openness to experience is the part of the big-five model. This dimension is
described as curious, imaginative, and original
12. Answer: A. Albert Bandura believed that personality emerges through a combination of
thinking, behavior, and environment
13. Answer: C. Carl Rogers believed that people have an actualizing tendency that is an innate
drive that guides behavior resulting in personality
14. Answer: D. In projective tests subjects look at vague stimuli and report their feelings and
thoughts
15. Answer: A. The MMPI is most commonly used objective test or self-report inventory tes
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Testing and Individual Differences 1. The cognitive abilities (thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) of a person based on
his or experiences is called intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
2. Who is considered the father of psychometrics, the measurement of knowledge and
ability by using defined tests?
Sir Francis Galton
a. What did Galton believe to be credited for intelligence?
Heredity (nature)
b. What was a criticism of Galton’s work?
He only studied males
c. Charles Spearman was the first to use a statistical method to show the relationship
between variables to study intelligence, which was called a __________________
d. From this type of method, Spearman believed that there was a single intelligence,
which he called __________________ or g factor. If a person was intelligent in one area,
then he or she was intelligent in other areas. He also noted that within the g factor there
exist specific intelligences, or s factors.
e. L.L Thurston believed that Charles Spearman oversimplified intelligence and that one
type of intelligence was not enough. Thurston believed that each person has sets of
independent abilities that each person possesses in varying degrees which he referred to
as _______________________________. He believed that each person has 7 PMAs.
f. Who was the first to suggest that were over 180 different types of intellectual abilities
and thus challenging Thurston and Spearman? J.P. Guilford
g. Robert Sternberg hypothesized that there were there different types of intelligences:
analytical, creative, and practical, known as the ______________________________
i. According to Sternberg, a person’s accumulated knowledge gained through
education or book smarts is called _______________________ intelligence
ii. The ability to generate novel (new) ideas and solutions is called ___________
intelligence
i. The ability to interact with one’s environment or street smarts is called
______________________ intelligence.
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h. Howard Gardner believed that intelligence tests do no show a person’s true cognitive
abilities. He believed human beings possess numerous strengths and weaknesses, which
he called __________________________ (MI.) These include: linguistic intelligences-
learning a new language, logical-mathematical- math and science, musical- playing
music, bodily-kinesthetic- physical abilities, spatial- using spatial relations to solve
problems, interpersonal- understanding the motives of others, intrapersonal- ability to
understand one’s own emotions, and naturalistic- ability to understand the environment.
i. Gardner based his research on people with traumatic brain injures- one who
suffers brain damage to a specific area of the brain can still perform other
functions of areas not affected, for example those with damage to the Broca’s area
may not be able to speak, but can still tie their shoes.
i. The most recent theory, proposed by Salovey and Mayer, popularized by Daniel
Goleman suggested that the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of oneself and
others, which is referred to as ___________________________, is believed to be the
most important type of intelligence leading to success in life.
Influences on Intelligence
3. Kinship studies, or studies of family members, show that identical twins have a strong
correlation to genetics and intelligences. Siblings tend to have a moderate correlation. But,
adoptive children raised in the same house do also show a moderate correlation lending support
to the nurture or environmental argument. One of the most frequently cited studies on
intelligence the Seattle Longitudinal Study looked at how adult cognitive abilities change over a
span of 40 years, which found little change in intelligence scores, unless Alzheimer’s or other
brain injury, does support the nature theory of intelligence.
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___ 1. Who believed in a single factor or g factor responsible for overall intelligence? *RC:
remember Spearman was the g man*
A) Howard Gardner D) Robert Sternberg
B) Matt Livington E) Nancy Findow
C) Charles Spearman
___ 2. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included
information that you would use in a math and science course? *RC: remember
Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*
A) Practical B) Analytical C) Creative D) Interpersonal E) Intrapersonal
___ 3. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included
information that you would use for interacting with other people in social situations?
*RC: remember Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*
A) Creative B) Practical C) Analytical D) Linguistic E) Spatial
___ 4. Who challenged Spearman's theory of intelligence by suggesting that people have
multiple and separate types of intelligence; validated with his work with Savants
*RC: A garden has multiple and separate items*
A) Charles Goosman D) Howard Gardner
B) L.L. Thurston E) Maxine Smith
C) Robert Sternberg
___ 5. According to Daniel Coleman, which type of emotional intelligence involves being
able to read one's own emotions and expressions? *RC: remember everyone gives
themselves an A when reading their own emotions*
A) Interpersonal B) Intrapersonal C) Spatial D) Creative E) Linguistic
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Testing Intelligence
1. Depending on the situation, an intelligence test can be administered on an individual or a
group basis.
Individualized Testing
2. In 1904, Alfred Binet was the first to create a test to measure intelligence to assist the
French government in identifying special needs students. He believed that intelligence
could be determined by dividing mental age (MA) by chorological age (CA.)
________________ of an individual was based on the number of test questions he or she
answered correctly. The problem was chronological age keeps on going up, but mental
age may not also go up creating lower intelligence over time.
a. In 1912, German psychologist Wilhelm Stern proposed multiplying the score derived
from the MA/CA calculation by100. This new formula would be known as the
________________________________ (IQ)
b. Lewis Terman, at Stanford University, was responsible for translating Binet’s work
into English, creating the __________________________(SBIS) the most widely used
intelligence test until David Wechsler created his own.
c. David Wechsler created two intelligence tests for both children and adults known as
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS.) These tests had two separate scales __________, which tested verbal
abilities and ______________________, which tested solving problems divided into 7
subtests. Instead of using the SBIS formula to calculate IQ, he compared the individual’s
score to the scores of people of the same age known as deviation IQ with most scores
falling between 90 and 110.
Aptitude and Achievement Testing
3. Group tests are given to assess either an individual’s readiness to perform at a certain level or
an individual’s knowledge of a particular subject. Tests designed to measure a person’s
performance potential are called ____________ tests, which examples include SAT, ACT, GRE.
a. Tests designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular area are called
__________________________ tests, examples include AP exams.
b. Which tests allows the test taker to dictate the flow of questions, establish
greater rapport with the test administrator, but the test maybe more expensive and
more time consuming to give, and can only test one person at a time?
Individualized
c. Which tests are easy to administer, scoring is objective, relatively
inexpensive, but less rapport with test taker, responses are often too restricted,
and the subject can’t dictate the flow of questions?
Group
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Measuring Tests
4. Fill out the following chart on terminology used to measure tests:
Terminology Definition
________________________ The tests ability to yield consistent results after repeated
testing/ test-retest- giving a twice and comparing results
Validity _______________ How well a test measures what it was designed to
measure
________________ Information included on the test measures what it is
designed to measure- history test has questions on history
__________________
_________________
Ability of a test to predict how well a person will do in
the future/ ACT predicts how well you will do in the
future
_________________
How well the test is designed to measure a specified
theory/ the questions were a little font and so those with
vision problems may have hard times
_________________________ The process of setting a common standard by comparing
one’s score to those attained by a pretested group
Evaluating Intelligence Tests
5. Many factors could affect intelligence tests: cultural, socio-economic status, room
temperature, person’s ability to concentrate.
Diversity in Cognition
Creativity
6. The ability to generate novel ideas or products and possibly goes hand-in-hand with
intelligence is called creativity
a. To examine the relationship between creativity and intelligence psychologists use to
measure a person’s ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem called
_________________________ thinking. These people who score high on divergent
thinking tests actually score lower on IQ tests.
b. Tests that show how a person narrows down alternatives to a single best solution or
answer is called _____________________ thinking, which these people who do well on
convergent intelligence tests actually score higher on IQ tests.
Unusual Cognitive Abilities
7. Who was one of the first to use a longitudinal study on giftedness and believed that having a
superior IQ, above 135, meant that a person was going to be successful in life?
Lewis Terman
8. Significantly delayed or impaired learning of language or motor skills, and having an IQ
below 70 indicated mentally challenged
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a. Fill out the following table:
Level IQ Characteristics
Mild 50-70 Approximately 85% fall within this category
May display few physical symptoms
Academic learning is limited to about 6th grade
Moderate 35-49 Display signs of impaired motor and physical symptoms
Live with a caretaker/ Mentally compared to a child of ages 4-7
Severe 20-34 Require constant supervision/ Limited language abilities
Significantly impaired motor abilities
Mentally compared to a child between 3 and 4
Profound Below
20
Struggles to feed oneself/ Language is limited to grunts
May never walk/ Compared mentally to a 3 year old
Factors associated with Mental Retardation
9. Also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra 21st
chromosome resulting is mental retardation known as down syndrome. People with this disorder
are mostly mildly or moderately retarded.
a. Results in permanent physical and cognitive impairment and is the result of the
mother’s consuming alcohol during pregnancy known as fetal alcohol syndrome
b. A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome known as
fragile X syndrome
Autism Spectrum Disorder
10. Impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or compulsive behavior, and
is one of the fast growing unusual cognitions is called autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a. What three main forms of ASD are there?
Autism, Asperger disorder, & pervasive disorder/ not otherwise specified
b. These children are usually diagnosed between ages of 2-4 and show impairment of social
skills and functioning refers to autism
c. These children appear to show no delay in language and communication skills, but they
typically display very narrow, yet highly attentive , preoccupations with subjects to the point of
obsession describes Asperger’s disorder
d. There are numerous studies that show genetically inherited, lack of mirror neurons, result of
certain vaccinations.
Savant Syndrome
2. A person who has cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities
that are displayed on a genius level is referred to as savant syndrome. This syndrome has
been used to give Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory validation.
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___ 1. Who developed the first type of intelligence test based on his work with French
children? *RC: Think about always striving to get an A o a B on your first test*
A) Howard Gardner D) Wilhem Stern
B) Lewis Terman E) Charles Spearman
C) Alfred Binet
___ 2. If a person is 10 years old and scored an 8 on Lewis Terman's Stanford-Binet
Intelligence test then according to Wilhelm Stern what would this child's score be:
*RC: remember MA divided by CA*
A) 8 B) 8.8 C) 5 D) 6 E) 9
___ 3. The two parts of the WAIS test or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale are: *RC:
Remember there are age divisions because it gives people a better opportunity to win
competing against people their own age- they tend to perform the same*
A) Verbal and emotional D) Creative and Practical
B) Verbal and performance E) Verbal and Creative
C) Performance and emotional
___ 4. A teacher decides to give a test a second time later in the school year to measure if the
students would get the same scores. This teacher is measuring: *RC: remember if a
friend shows up each day on time to pick you up for school then that is a reliable
friend*
A) Validity D) Standardization
B) Content validity E) Predictive validity
C) Reliability
___ 5. Students throughout the county are taking the same test at the same time of the day
under uniform conditions; these results will later be used for comparisons with other
students who will take the same exam. This process is called: *RC: when a good
basketball player leaves a team he or she sets the standard for future basketball
players to be compared to*
A) Reliability D) Predictive validity
B) Split-half reliability E) Standardization
C) Content validity
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1. Ava excels in her art class, but has
tremendous difficulty in math and English.
According to Robert Sternberg, Ava
displays what type of intelligence?
(A) Analytical
(B) Practical
(C) Creative
(D) General
(E) Emotional
2. The psychologist who developed the first
modern intelligence test used to help the
French government with the placement of
special needs students was
(A) Charles Spearman
(B) Robert Sternberg
(C) Howard Gardner
(D) Lewis Terman
(E) Alfred Binet
3. Anan is taking a final exam in his calculus
class. All of the questions on the exam relate
to material that was covered over the course
of the year. Therefore, the test can be said to
display high
(A) criterion validity
(B) standardization
(C) reliability
(D) content validity
(E) test-retest reliability
4. Garrett scored a 28 the first time he took the
college entrance exam. Six months later, he
took it again and scored a 29. Because his
scores were so close together, the test would
be considered to have strong
(A) content validity
(B) normalization
(C) standardization
(D) reliability
(E) split-half reliability
5. Together with 200 other high school
students, Claude is taking a timed test that is
said to predict how well a person will do in
his or her first semester in college. Claude is
most likely taking what type of intelligence
test?
(A) Individualized
(B) Group
(C) Motivational
(D) Stamina
(E) Interest
6. Which of the following best illustrates
Spearman’s concept of g?
(A) Lisa does well in mathematics, but
poorly in chemistry.
(B) Fatima does not know the capital of her
state but can compose music
successfully.
(C) Quon is an excellent baseball player
who has received a scholarship to play
in college.
(D) Sarah has maintained straight A’s
throughout high school.
(E) Sammi who is a world class artistic
roller skater.
7. Bailee recently took the Weschler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and
scored one standard deviation above the
mean. Bailee would most likely have an IQ
of
(A) 115
(B) 85
(C) 130
(D) 95
(E) 100
8. Mr. Trevor believes that students with high
IQs are more likely to succeed in life than
are those with low IQs. Which psychologist
would most likely agree with Mr. Trevor?
(A) Daniel Goleman
(B) Lewis Terman
(C) Robert Sternberg
(D) Noam Chomsky
(E) Leon Festinger
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9. Professor Yanders recently conducted a
study that examined the IQs of 1000
different families. He concluded that if
parents had high IQs, their children would
also have high IQs. Professor Yanders
believes in which view of intelligence?
(A) Standard
(B) Nature
(C) Nurture
(D) Longitudinal
(E) Factoring
10. Jason received a low score on the Weschler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) but is
capable of navigating his way through a
busy city without the assistance of a map.
According to Robert Sternberg, Paul
displays what type of intelligence?
(A) Creativity
(B) Analytical
(C) Practical
(D) Emotional
(E) General
11. Which of the following best illustrates the
concept of divergent thinking?
(A) Mackenzie is good at listening to other
people and helping them with their
problems.
(B) Gloria is an excellent softball player
who receives a scholarship to play in
college.
(C) Tony does extremely well in school, but
has a difficult time making friends.
(D) Richard knows the lyrics of every song
he has ever heard.
(E) Ali designs workplace accommodations
for the physically impaired.
12. Which of the following is not considered an
advantage of individualized intelligence
tests?
(A) They allow good rapport between the
test taker and the person administering
the test.
(B) If a person is having a bad day the test
can rescheduled to accommodate
extenuating circumstances.
(C) They are cheap and easy to administer
to many people at once.
(D) The test taker can help dictate the pace
of the test.
(E) If the test taker has a question, he or she
can ask the test administrator for
clarification.
13. Which of the following would score high on
the emotional intelligence scale?
(A) Jaelyn can complete crossword puzzles
quickly.
(B) Claude is good at interpreting the
emotions of others.
(C) Pauline is good at fixing mechanical
machines.
(D) Marcus knows how to make spaghetti.
(E) Elle has invented a new device to help
others learn to read.
14. Who was the first psychologist to propose
that intelligence is the result of nature?
(A) Robert Sternberg
(B) Howard Gardner
(C) Charles Spearman
(D) Sir Francis Galton
(E) Lewis Terman
15. Bailee takes a test on sensation and
perception on Friday. She then retakes the
same test one month later. The reason why
Bailee is taking two administrations of this
test is to establish
(A) construct validity
(B) criterion validity
(C) achievement motivation
(D) split-half reliability
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1. Answer: C. According to Sternberg, a person who excels at creating new ideas and products has a
high level of creative intelligence. Analytical intelligence is similar to book smarts, and a person who
has a high level of this form of intelligence generally does well on standardized tests. A person who
has a high level of practical intelligence displays street smarts, is aware of his or her surroundings,
and is able to think quickly to process information
2. Answer: E. Alfred Binet is credited with developing the first modern intelligence test, used to help
identify special needs students in France
3. Answer: D. Any test that includes questions that pertain to the subject matter studied is said to have
content validity. It is valid to ask an algebra question on an algebra test
4. Answer: D. Tests that yield the same results on different occasions are considered reliable. Since the
scores did not very much, could be concluded Garrett’s results would be similar in subsequent tests
5. Answer: B. Group intelligence tests can be administered to a large number of people at the same
time. They are the opposite of an individualized intelligence test, which is given in a one-on-one
situation
6. Answer: D. Spearman’s concept of g states that those who excel in one area excel equally in other
areas. The basic concept is that intelligent people are intelligent in all areas
7. Answer: A. The average IQ for the WISC and WAIS tests are equal to 100, and one standard
deviation is equal to 15 points. Therefore, one standard deviation above the mean would be 115,
while one standard deviation below the norm would be 85
8. Answer: B. Lewis Terman believed that students with above-average IQs would be more successful
in life than those with average or below-average IQs. This led him to conduct a longitudinal study of
1,500 students with above-average IQs
9. Answer: B. The nature view of intelligence states that IQ is the result of genetics or heredity, and
therefore if the biological parents are intelligent, their children will also be intelligent
10. Answer: C. According to Robert Sternberg, there are three types of intelligence: analytical
(book/academic smarts), creative (the ability to generate new ideas), and practical (street smarts)
11. Answer: E. Divergent thinking occurs when a person is able to think of multiple solutions to a
problem. Convergent thinking happens when a person is able to think of one possible answer
12. Answer: C. Individualized intelligence tests are more expensive and time consuming than group
13. Answer: B. Emotional intelligence ability to interpret emotions of others and manage own emotions
14. Answer: D. Sir Francis Galton conducted the first kinship studies in trying to determine the origins of
intelligence. He believed that intelligence is the result of genetics
15. Answer: E. Test-retest reliability is used to measure the reliability of a test administered over two
separate occasions. If the test is reliable, the score should remain similar
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Motivation, Emotion, & Stress
Chapter 5
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Theories of Motivation
1. What drives people to do the things they do either from internal or external factors?
2. Which theory of motivation explains motivation through instinctual behavior?
A. What is a not learned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus?
i. Give an example of an instinct:
3. What is the premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems
at a constant stable level?
A. Give an example of homeostasis:
4. What is a biological requirement essential for proper bodily functioning?
A. If a need is not being met then what is produced which is a physiological state of
tension or arousal that needs to be reduced?
B. According to Clark Hull, which theory of motivation suggest that a person is
motivated to reduce a drive through satisfaction of a need that is detected through
homeostasis?
i. Give an example:
5. What does curiosity create?
A. Which theory of motivation suggest that people try to maintain a steady or optimum
level of arousal through different types of behavioral activities?
i. Give an example of this theory:
6. When do people perform at their best?
A. What does the Yerkes-Dodson law suggest about when a person performs at their
best?
7. Which theory of motivation suggest that some types of external stimuli push people to
positive stimuli and can also pull people away from negative stimuli
i. Give an example of the incentive theory:
8. Not all motivation can be explained through incentives or biological factors; give an
example:
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Humanistic Theories of Motivation
9. Which theory of motivation suggest that people seek to make a positive self-concept and
are motivated to reach their potential?
A. What did Humanist believed about potential?
B. Who developed the hierarchy of needs?
C. How is a person motivated to go through the hierarchy of needs?
D. Identify the different levels:
E. What is striving and realization of one’s talent and potential and is at the top of
hierarchy of needs?
i. What plays a role in reaching self-actualization?
F. Who suggest that the needs identified in the hierarchy of needs do not need to be
satisfied in a particular order?
i . Give an example:
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Hunger
10. Is there more to hunger than simply “pangs?”
A. Where are the most important s signals for hunger or satiation?
B. Which hormone is released in response to food moving from the stomach to the
bloodstream indicating short-term satiation?
C. Which hormone is released into the bloodstream as fat supplies start to rise indicated
long-term satiation?
D. What is the purpose of glucose?
i. What happens when glucose levels drop?
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ii. Which hormone is used to convert glucose to energy?
iii. What happens when insulin levels rise and glucose levels drop?
The Brain’s Role in Hunger
11. Which area of the brain is considered the control center for the brain?
A. Which part of the hypothalamus stops hunger?
i. What happens if the ventromedial hypothalamus is destroyed?
B. Which part of the hypothalamus initiates hunger?
i. What happens if the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed?
ii. Which hormone is produced by the lateral hypothalamus that initiates hunger?
Body Weight
12. What regulates the expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vital function?
A. Identify factors that affect the BMR:
Set Point Theory
13. What is a person’s ideal weight that is maintained through homeostasis and the BMR?
A. What will eventually cause the set point to rise?
i. What happens to fat cells once they are formed?
Obesity
14. What is the measure of a person’s body weight in proportion to his or her height?
A. Define Normal BMI: Overweight: Obese:
B. What do obese people experience?
C. How do external incentives affect people’s hunger?
i. What does the BMI not consider?
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Eating Disorders
15. What is an eating disorder characterized by dramatic drop in calories consumed and an
obsession with exercise?
A. What is an eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amounts of
food and purging?
Achievement and Motivation
16. What type of motivation is shown by people who are driven to master a task or achieve a
personal goal like self-actualization?
A. Which type of motivation occurs when people try to outdo or beat other people and
who need recognition?
17. Who was the first psychologists to study people’s need for achievement?
A. How did Murray study achievement needs?
18. Who believed that a person’s level of self-efficacy or level of self-confidence before they
face a task is essential to a person’s level of motivation?
A. What is collective self-efficacy?
19. Which theory, according to Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, suggest that people need to be
competent- good at something, have autonomy- some control, and relatedness- need to be
appreciated in order to perform good at a behavior?
Motivation and Work
20. Which area of psychology applied and studied the psychological concepts to optimize the
workplace as an effective and productive environment?
A. Which division addresses worker satisfaction and productivity?
B. Which division matches the right employee to the right job placement?
C. What does theory Y suggest about worker motivation?
D. What does theory X suggest about worker motivation?
E. What refers to a worker who is completely focused on his or her task and is not
affected by time or distraction?
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Introduction to Emotions
21. What are emotions based on; identify the 3 parts and give an example?
A. How are emotions different than moods?
Biological Aspects of Emotions
22. Which nervous systems play critical roles in the interpretation of emotions?
A. Which nervous system arouses or excites the body resulting in fight-or-flight
response?
i. What does fight produce?
ii. What does flight produce?
iii. How is fight recorded differently than flight?
B. What are polygraphs or lie detectors designed to measure?
i. Do most people agree that polygraphs can indicate whether a person is lying or
not?
C. Which hemisphere in the brain is associated with the experience and expression of
emotion?
D. Which part of the brain is critical in learning emotions, recognizing emotional
expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?
E. Which area of the brain plays a role in the expression of emotion?
i. Which motor system forms voluntary facial expressions?
ii. Which motor system forms natural face expressions?
Theories of Emotion
23. Which theory of emotion suggest that emotion is simply the result of changes or
fluctuations in the body?
A. Give an example:
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24. Which theory of emotion suggest that thalamus receive information about emotional
stimuli and relays the information simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and cerebral
cortex?
A. Give an example:
25. Which theory of emotion states that it is the result of the interaction of two factors:
physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal?
A. Give an example:
26. Which theory of emotion states is the result of cognitive appraisal of a situation and how
it may affect their well-being?
A. Give an example:
27. Who suggested that some emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition
is not always necessary for emotion; we feel before we think- information goes to amygdala
before the cerebral cortex?
A. What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about emotion?
28. Which theory of emotion suggests that facial expressions can affect your emotions?
A. What is a criticism of the James-Lange theory of emotion?
B. What is a criticism of the Schechter-Singer theory (Two-factor) of emotion?
C. What is the difference between the cognitive-mediational theory and Schechter-Singer
theory of emotion?
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Emotional Expression
29. Who studied facial expressions and when they are displayed? Pain: Smiling:
Sadness and anger: Fear:
30. Who believed that facial expressions are universal but how they differ are within their
cultures?
A. What are display rules or cultural norms?
B. What is the process of letting another person’s emotional state guide your own
behavior?
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Introduction to Stress
31. What is characterized by an emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that
exceed a person’s ability to control them?
A. Which field of psychology studied how people interpret stressful situations and how
the stress affects the body?
i. What 3 factors do health psychologist believe stress affects?
Types of Stress
32. What are stressors?
A. What are minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day?
B. What are events and situations that cause a person’s lifestyle to dramatically change?
i. According to the Readjustment Scale what are the hardest life changes?
Causes of Stress/ Conflicts
33. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 appealing or
favorable choices?
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A. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 unfavorable or
negative choices?
B. Which type of conflict occurs when a choice has both a good and bad point and is
considered the most stressful?
C. What is a multiple approach-avoidance conflict?
34. What occurs when a goal is being blocked?
35. What are extreme demands placed on person to perform or conform?
36. How can stress affect the body indirectly?
Stress and the Body
37. Stress directly affects the endocrine and the nervous system through changes in the body
known as fight-flight. Walter Cannon defined this as:
1. Hypothalamus activates-
2. Sympathetic nervous system activates-
3. Adrenal medulla releases-
4. Catecholamine circulate-
38. Who described how stress affected the body through the General Adaptation Syndrome?
A. Which stage is characterized by intense arousal to a threat: fight-or-flight?
B. Which stage is characterized by the body’s fighting the effects of stress through the
release of corticosteroids?
C. Which stage is characterized by the body becoming exhausted or sick due to running
out of corticosteroids?
39. Describe Hans Seyle’s second endocrine pathway for periods of prolonged stress:
1. Hypothalamus triggers:
2. Pituitary gland triggers release of:
3. ACTH triggers adrenal cortex to release:
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4. Corticosteroids increase release:
The Effects of Stress on the Immune System
40. What protects the body by attacking harmful bacteria and viruses with lymphocytes?
A. What do B lymphocytes do?
B. What do T lymphocytes do?
i. What is the area of psychology that studies how stress affects the
psychological, nervous, and the immune system?
Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness
41. Who was an American Psychologist who developed Positive Psychology to help promote
wellness and handle stress?
A. What is a sense of control which reduces stress?
B. Who tends to explains negative event through specific explanations?
i. Who tends to explain these events with personal vindication or fault?
C. Who researched the effects of Type A an d Type behavior?
i. Who are type A people?
ii. Who are type B people?
Coping Strategies
42. Who believed in catharsis which is the releasing and displacement of emotional tension;
believing it was good to release aggression?
43. What is constructive coping?
A. Problem focused coping involves addressing the problem; confronting.
B.. Emotion-focused coping involves controlling emotions when dealing with a problem.
i. Self-controlling
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ii. Distancing:
iii. Positive reappraisal:
iv. Accept responsibility
vi. Escape/avoidance:
vii: Downward comparison:
44. What do individualistic cultures, like America who are out for themselves, tend to use
when confronted with a problem?
A. What do collectivistic cultures, like Amish communities and are out for the good of
the group, use when confronted with a problem?
STOP COMPLETE TABLE 4 PAGE 132
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1. Homeostasis – the maintaining of a balanced internal state in the body (like body temp) /
Drive-reduction theory - needs like water and food not being met produce internal drives
like thirst and water which motivate a person to reduce the drives and satisfy the needs-
needs are monitored through homeostasis
2. Abraham Maslow - Humanistic Psychology- perspective of psychology that emphasizes a
person’s innate growth and free will through the motivation to reach self-actualization-
reaching fullest potential or being all you can be, (Maslow thought Abraham Lincoln and
Eleanor Roosevelt achieved self-actualization but never met) through addressing and
satisfying levels in the hierarchy of needs – physiological (hunger) first to be satisfied, then
safety, then love, then cognitive, finally self-actualization (very few people ever reach this
level) Clayton Alderfer- did not believe that each level had to be addressed before moving on
as seen with Ghandi- not physiological level to reach self-actualization
3. Optimum arousal theory (Arousal theory) - people are motivated to maintain an optimum
or best level of arousal; explains boredom, boring day you search for something more
exciting at night to make up for boring day/ Yerkes Dodson law of arousal - performance
best when situation offers moderate level of arousal - too boring don’t try, too hard and you
give up
4. Incentive theory - intrinsic motivation- doing tasks for personal reasons or satisfaction /
extrinsic motivation - doing tasks for extra incentives like money, extra credit- over
justification effect- is the result of giving extrinsic motivation for a behavior that was once
intrinsically performed that now is only done if something extra is given like getting paid to
play a sport
5. Industrial-organizational psychology- apply psychological aspects to improve workplace
and employee satisfaction and productivity done through organizational psychology (division
of (I/O) and matching employees with the proper job as administered by personnel
psychology (division of I/O) Theory Y- workers need to be challenged and are best
motivated through intrinsic motivation/ Theory X- workers are lazy and need extrinsic
motivation
6. Competence motivation- need to be best one can be/ Achievement motivation need to
outperform other people measured through the TAT test measured by David McClelland.
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7. Hunger - controlled by Hypothalamus / lateral hypothalamus starts hunger through the
release of the hormone orexin / ventromedial hypothalamus stops hunger / Glucose- sugar
that circulates through body- used for energy, when glucose is low we feel hungry / Insulin
converts glucose to energy- when goes up glucose does down and you get hungry
8. BMR- basal metabolic rate- rate at which body conserves or burn off calories- obese people
that have a BMI (body mass index of greater than 30 is obese and have a higher BMR.)
CCK short term signals for satiation or fullness/ Leptin- based on amount of fat in blood
stream long-term signals for satiation or fullness- leptin resistance- obese people that have
brains that don’t respond to amount of leptin in blood/ Set point theory- body weight is
maintained through homeostasis- ideal weight affects the way the BRM works
9. Theories of Emotion that involve the right hemisphere- William James and Carl Lange-
James-Lange theory- stimulus (seeing a snake) leads to physiological arousal and from this
arousal a person then experiences emotion (like heart beating then experience emotion of
fear); can’t support spinal cord injuries or that a heart can race for a number of emotions
which explains why polygraphs that just measure changes in the body and not a good device
to determine lying for example being nervous same body response as lying / Walter
Cannon/ Philip Bard- Cannon Bard theory- physiological response and interpretation of
stimuli by the brain occur at the same time through the thalamus relaying signals to the
autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex resulting in emotion- a snake causes the body
to show change as brain interprets this as a fearful stimulus at the SAME TIME/ Two-factor
theory- Schechter and Singer- consider more cognitive components and suggest
physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal taking place
“My heart is racing because I am about to take a test” resulting in emotion- often people
mislabel arousal in body, such as loving someone in a scary situation / Richard Lazaras -
cognitive mediational theory; appraisal or the interpretation of a stimuli results in
emotion… the interpretation of leaves starting to blow leads to fear (difference between Two-
factor and cognitive mediational theory is two-factor interprets changes in body and
mediational theory interprets the situation) Robert Zajonic- emotions happen without brain
interpretation; jump which means information goes directly to amygdala- emotional control
center that recognizes face expressions and the proper emotion associated with each/ Zajonic-
information does not first go to cerebral cortex or frontal lobes that interpret information
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10. Stress: Walter Cannon- Fight-or-Flight response- hypothalamus triggers sympathetic nervous
system which causes adrenal medulla to release catecholamine which include hormones
adrenaline and noradrenaline to be released in the body or through the endocrine system and
neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine to be circulated in brain preparing for a
fight or a flight reaction
11. Reacting to Stress: General Adaptation syndrome (Hans Seyle) - Alarm reaction (fight or
flight reaction), Resistance stage (release of stress-related hormones- corticosteroids which
reduce inflammation in body and provide energy to battle stress but reduces lymphocytes or
our white blood cells of the immune system making us more prone to get sick), Exhaustion
stage (body reserves become low and get sick)
12. Types of Stress: Conflicts - approach-approach- choosing between 2 equally like choices/
avoidance-avoidance- choosing between choices don’t like / Approach-avoidance- one item
has good and bad points- most stressful / Multiple approach-avoidance- 2 items have good
and bad points/ Life changes- according to social readjustment scale- parent die for child or
a spouse for adult is considered most stressful
13. Constructive Coping- emotion focused coping- handling emotions associated with a
problem/ problem-focused coping- addressing and fixing problem associated with problem/
Individualistic cultures, such as America who stresses ourselves, use problem-focusing
coping/ and Collectivistic cultures, that stress the good of the group, use emotion-focused
coping
14. Explanatory style- optimistic- give specific reason for outcome- pessimistic- give usual
negative general, vague explanation for outcome, often attack personally for outcome
15. Type A personality- very competitive and impatient prone to coronary heart disease number
1 killer among humans/ Type B- more relaxed
16. Catharsis theory- according to Freud- people must find socially acceptable outlets for
frustration and release pent up aggression or will self-destruct
17. Acculturative stress- stress trying to assimilate to a new culture
18. Biofeedback- being able to consciously control your autonomic nervous system and calm
yourself down
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Motivation Factors that drive individuals to
do the things that they do, which
include internal and external
factors
Motivation makes you want to do
something
Instinct theory Motivation occurs through
instinctual behavior
Instinct theory simply provides
labels but not give any explanation
for why motivation is occurring
Instinct An innate, unlearned, and
automatic response to a specific
stimuli
Geese fly South for the winter in
response to colder weather that
causes the instinct
Homeostasis The notion that the body
monitors and maintains internal
physiological systems at a
constant and certain level
Similar to a thermostat- the
thermostat monitors the air
temperature when the temperature
becomes too cold the thermostat
alerts the furnace to turn on
Need A biological requirement that is
necessary for the body to perform
at an optimal and desired level
Your body NEEDS food and water
to survive
Drive A psychological state of tension
or arousal that is produced by a
biological need not being
satisfied which results in a
behavior to reduce the drive
Hunger is a DRIVE that DRIVES
you to get food which is a NEED
that your body NEEDS
Drive-reduction
theory
Motivation is based on
performing behaviors that reduce
drives produced from needs not
being met
The NEED for water DRIVES (or
motivates) you to get out of bed thus
reducing the DRIVE and satisfying
the NEED
Arousal The result of several heightened
physiological states within the
body that include heartbeat,
breathing
Arousal is excitement- we are
motivated to do FUN things
Optimum arousal
theory
Motivation is based on people
trying participating in certain
activities that help to maintain a
steady or optimum level of
arousal within their body
Having a boring day you are
MOTIVATED to go out that night
and have FUN/ have an exhausting
day you are MOTIVATED to do
nothing that night/ thus
EQUALLING out your day
Yerkes-Dodson
law
People perform best in an activity
when the task is moderate or fair;
not too hard or not too easy
Fair is another way to describe the
Yerkes- Dodson law- if the
assignment or game is fair you will
try your best/ too easy don’t put in
your best effort/ too hard and you
give up before even trying
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Incentive theories Positive or favorable incentives
motivate people to perform the
activity; while negative
incentives push people away
from performing the activity
Incentives are extra things- extra
credit PUSHES you to do it/ while
detentions PUSH you away from
coming to school late
Altruism Motivation is based on helping
others because the effort makes
people feel good
Al-TRUE-ism- you are being a
TRUE and good person when you
help people
Humanistic
perspective
Suggests that people are
motivated to have a positive self-
concept, or beliefs about
themselves, allowing them to
reach their full potential
Humanistic perspective is interested
in making you the best HUMAN
possible through reaching your
potential and being who you really
are
Hierarchy of
needs
According to Abraham Maslow,
people are motivated to progress
through the hierarchy of needs
through satisfying each level
beginning with physiological
needs and ending at self-
actualization
Hierarchy of Needs are like stairs-
you have to step on each stair to get
to the top or the best you can be/ you
can’t study if you are hungry- have
to satisfy hunger before addressing
the next level
Self-actualization The striving for and realization of
one’s potential
The realization or actualization of
being the best you can be
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___ 1. An unlearned innate and automatic
response to a specific stimulus.
A) Optimum arousal theory
___ 2. The premise that the body oversees and
maintains its internal physiological
systems at a constant level.
B) Physical
___ 3. A motivational theory that suggests that
motivation is based on the desire to
reduce internal tension within the body
that is caused by biological needs not
being met as indicated by homeostasis.
C) Homeostasis
___ 4. A motivational theory that suggests
people try to maintain a steady or
optimum level of arousal or excitement
through various behavioral activities.
D) Incentive theory
___ 5. The suggestion that difficult tasks
cause arousal to be lower and easy
tasks cause arousal to be higher
maintaining that the right amount of
arousal people will perform their best.
E) Humanistic perspective
___ 6. Getting a bonus for working hard
would be an example of which
motivational theory.
F) Drive-reduction theory
___ 7. A perspective of psychology that
suggest that people seek to build a
positive self-concept and are motivated
to fulfill their potential.
G) Yerkes-Dodson law
___ 8. Abraham Maslow suggested that
people are motivated to satisfy each
level of the hierarchy of needs in order
to preach their full potential which he
referred to as:
H) Altruism
___ 9. Some people are motivated to be of
service of others because it makes them
feel good.
I) Self-actualization
___ 10. According to Abraham Maslow,
____________ needs must be satisfied
before psychological needs.
J) Instinct
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Key Term Definition Analogy
CCK A hormone that is released when
food moves from the stomach
into the bloodstream that signals
to the brain short-term satiation
or fullness
CCK is a very short word just like
short-term signals of satiation/ CCK
is what makes you put the fork
down and state you can’t eat
anymore
Leptin A hormone that is released into
the bloodstream as the fat
content begins to increase
signaling to the brain satiation
L for leptin L for long-term
satiation/ eat a fatty meal you are
going to be full for most of the day
Glucose Sugar that the body uses for
energy
Like gasoline that makes car run-
run out of gas car will stop running/
eat a snickers bar and satisfy your
hunger
Insulin A hormone that is used to
convert glucose to energy; when
insulin rises the glucose
decreases signaling hunger
Similar to a person (insulin)
shoveling coal or sugar into the fire
to make it burn
Ventromedial
hypothalamus
Area of the hypothalamus that stops hunger
Lateral
hypothalamus
Area of the hypothalamus that
imitates or starts hunger
L for lateral/ L for Let’s EAT
Orexin A hormone produced by the
lateral hypothalamus that
initiates hunger
Oreo (orexin) cookies make you
hungry
Basal metabolic
rate (BMR)
Oversees and regulates the use
or expenditure of energy used to
maintain the body’s vital
functions
Women have a slower BMR
As you get older BMR slows down
Obese people have a higher BMR
Set point theory of
hunger
The maintaining of a person’s
ideal weight through increases
or decreases in the BMR that is
monitored by homeostasis
Go above your set point your BMR
will burn calories to bring you back/
go below your set point the BMR
shuts down until you get back-
which is why you don’t eat you will
actually gain weight
BMI (body mass
index)
A person’s weight in relation to
their height; a score of over 30
indicates obese
The BMI does not consider bone
density or muscle mass which is
why may not be entirely accurate
Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder that includes an obsession with one’s weight,
vigorous exercise, and caloric intake
Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by a binge-and-purge method of
maintaining an unhealthy body weight
Competence
motivation (need
motivation)
A desire or motivation to master
or excel at a task or personal
goal
“I want to be the best I CAN BE”
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Achievement
motivation
The desire or motivation to
outperform other people
“I want to be the smartest person in
the CLASS”
Self-determination
theory
According to Edward Deci and
Richard Ryan, the need for
competence- being good at
something, autonomy- a sense of
control, and relatedness- need to
belong and appreciate- motivate
a person to perform a behavior.
What determines you are the best?
Being good at something
(competence)
Knowing you have done it on your
own (autonomy)
Other people know how good you
are (relatedness)
Thematic
apperception test
(TAT)
According to David McCelland,
the TAT, which has a person tell
a story of a scene he or she sees,
measures a person’s level for
achievement motivation
You see a picture of a person falling
down before the finish line- do you
say the person should get up or do
you think the person should rest
Self-efficacy beliefs According to Albert Bandura,
self-efficacy beliefs involve a
person’s confidence at
completing or doing a task
Similar to the Little Engine that
Could- “I think I can, I think I can”
Collectivistic self-
efficacy
A person’s overall support
system when performing or
completing tasks
The people in the crowd cheering
you during the game
Industrial-
organizational
psychology (I/O)
Area of psychology that applies psychological concepts and ideals to
optimize or improve the work place
Personnel
psychology
A division of I/O psychology
that attempts to match the right
job with the right employee
The person who decides whether or
not you get the job- the person who
hires you
Organizational
psychology
A division of I/O that addresses
worker satisfaction and
performance at their job
The person who trains and offers
support while you are on the job
Intrinsic
motivation
Motivation to achieve a personal
goal or self-satisfaction for
mastery
I for Intrinsic- “I want to be the best
I can” (competence motivation)
Extrinsic
motivation
Motivation to achieve an
external or outside reward for
performing a task
Ex for Extrinsic Ex for extra things
“I will only work hard if I get
EXTRA things”
Theory Y Workers motivated to work
through intrinsic motivation
Y for “Y do I work hard because I
want to be the best employee”
Theory X Workers motivated to work
through extrinsic motivation
X for extra “I only work hard for
Xtra things like pay raises”
Hawthorne effect Tendency for individual to perform better when singled out or given special attention
Similar to giving a student’s stickers resulting in working harder to get more stickers
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___ 1. A hormone when released acts as a
neurotransmitter in the brain signaling
short-term satiation.
A) Competence (need) motivation
___ 2. A hormone that is released in response
to the amount of fat be secreted into the
bloodstream signaling long-term
satiation.
B) Set point theory
___ 3. A hormone that converts glucose into
energy causing glucose levels to drop
signifying hunger.
C) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
___ 4. An area of the hypothalamus that is in
charge of stopping hunger.
D) Lateral hypothalamus
___ 5. An area of the hypothalamus that
initiates hunger.
E) Self-efficacy
___ 6. Regulates the expenditure and
conversion of energy used to maintain
our body's vital life functions.
F) Ventromedial hypothalamus
___ 7. A person's ideal weight regulated by
homeostasis and maintained by the
BMR.
G) CCK
___ 8. A type of motivation that is shown by
people who are driven to master a task
or achieve a personal goal.
H) Theory X
___ 9. According to Albert Bandura, a
person's level of confidence when
facing a task.
I) Leptin
___ 10. According to an Industrial-
organizational psychologist, a theory
that describes workers who are
motivated to achieve external factors
like a pay-raise.
J) Insulin
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Emotions Comprised of cognitive appraisal-
interpretation and thoughts,
physiological reactions- body
reactions, and expressive behaviors.
Interpret a part of a movie as
funny (cognitive) start to feel
good (physiological) then start to
laugh (expressive behavior)
Fight-or-flight
response
A body’s response to a threatening
stimuli through activation of the
sympathetic nervous system
When you are in danger you will
either fight or run away (flight)
Galvanic skin
response
Measures skin temperature that could
indicate certain emotions
Nervous you get COLD feet/
Angry you get HOT under collar
Polygraph (lie
detectors)
Machines that measure body
fluctuations within a person that
could indicate whether or not a person
is lying
Simply measures changes in the
sympathetic nervous system not if
you are lying or not
Amygdala A part of the brain that recognizes
emotional facial expressions and
interprets emotional stimuli
Never make Amy mad- she is
very emotional
Cerebral cortex A part of the brain central for the
expression of emotion
Similar to the CPU of a computer
Right
hemisphere
Area of the brain associated with the
expression and experience of emotion
Right hemisphere allows you to
display the RIGHT emotion-
funny movie you laugh
James-Lange
theory of
emotion
Emotion result of interpreting changes
that occur in the body
James will not laugh unless Lange
tells him to laugh
Cannon-Bard
theory of
emotion
Emotions are result of thalamus
relaying information to the cerebral
cortex, which interprets emotional
stimuli, while at same moment
information is sent to the automatic
nervous system, which initiates
changes in the body
Cannon and Bard start to laugh at
the SAME TIME
Two-factor
theory of
emotion
(Schechter-
Singer theory)
Emotions are the result of two factors:
a cognitive label, which labels a
change in the body, and the change in
the body that occurs.
Some people misinterpret the
change in body/ Going to prom
causes changes in body but you
believe these changes are from
your date
Cognitive
mediational
theory
Emotions are the result of a cognitive
appraisal or interpretation of a stimuli
or event
This is interpretation of the
situation NOT a change in your
body/ door slams shut and you
interpret this as scary
Facial feedback
hypothesis
Certain facial expressions will cause
you to feel certain emotions
If you simply smile you feel
happy
Display rules Cultural norms affect expression and
intensity of emotions
You don’t laugh at funerals
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___ 1. A division of the autonomic nervous
system that arouses the body and
produces the fight-or-flight syndrome.
A) Autonomic nervous system
___ 2. The hemisphere that is associated with
the expression of emotions.
B) Display rules
___ 3. An area of the brain that is critical for
learning emotions, recognizing
emotional expression, and the
interpretation of emotional stimuli.
C) Cannon-Bard theory
___ 4. Polygraphs do not necessary measure if
a person is lying but overall changes in
which nervous system?
D) Cognitive mediational theory
___ 5. A theory of emotion that suggests
emotion is the result of the
interpretation of bodily fluctuations.
E) Amygdala
___ 6. A theory of emotion that suggests
emotions are the result of the thalamus
receiving information about emotional
stimuli and relaying the information
simultaneously to the autonomic
nervous system and the cerebral cortex.
F) Two-factory theory/ Schechter-Singer
theory
___ 7. A theory of emotion that suggests
emotion is the result of the interaction
of two factors: physiological arousal
and a cognitive label that explains this
fluctuation in the body.
G) Pain
___ 8. A theory of emotion that suggests
emotions are the result of the cognitive
appraisal of a situation and how it
affects their well-being.
H) James-Lange theory
___ 9. According to Carroll Izard what facial
expression is present at birth?
I) Sympathetic nervous system
___ 10. Refers to cultural norms and how
emotions should be displayed.
J) Right
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Stress An emotional response to
circumstances or situations that
exceed a person’s ability to cope
Stress occurs when your routine is
disrupted or changed
Health psychologists Study how people interpret stressful
situations and the effect stress has
on the body
These are people that counsel
people have a heart-attack or
stroke to help them live healthier
lives
Stressors Circumstances, events, or situations
that cause stress
Traffic jams
Daily hassles Minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day
Life changes Events and situations that a cause a person’ life to dramatically change
as shown on the Social Readjustment Scale; death of spouse/parent most
stressful
Approach-approach
conflict
Having to make a choice between
two appealing items or choices
Choosing between 2 movies you
want to rent but only have money
for one
Avoidance-
avoidance conflict
Having to make a choice between
two non-appealing items or
choices
Not liking math classes but having
to choose one to graduate
Approach-avoidance
conflict
A choice that has both positive and
negative characteristics;
considered the most stressful
Most realistic- an option usually
has positive and negative points
Multiple-approach-
avoidance conflict
Two choices that have both positive and negative characteristics
Frustration Occurs when a goal is blocked from either losing or failure
Pressure Extreme demands place on a person to perform or conform
Flight-or-flight
syndrome
Hypothalamus triggers the
sympathetic nervous system to
activate adrenal medulla to release
catecholamine’s, which include
the hormones noradrenaline and
adrenaline and neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and epinephrine
that increase blood pressure,
respiration, slows down digestion,
dilates pupils
S for Sympathetic S for speeds up
Remember CATS are very quick
just like catecholamine’s that race
through body making you excited
Occurs when you first realize bad
news- your body responds before
you really understand what happen
Prolonged stress Hypothalamus triggers the
pituitary gland to release
adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) to trigger the adrenal
cortex to release the stress
hormones corticosteroids that
release stored energy
Pituitary gland is like a drippy
faucet- the drip is very slow but
does continue to drip throughout
the day like having a stressful
weak
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General adaptation
syndrome (GAS)
According to Hans Seyle, a person
goes through three stages of stress:
alarm stage- characterized by
release of catecholamine’s in the
fight-or-flight syndrome/ resistive
stage- body trying to cope with the
effects of stress through releasing
corticosteroids/ and exhaustive
stage- when body becomes burned
out or exhausted resulting in
sickness
ARE you stressed?
A for Alarm stage
R for Resistance stage
E for Exhaustive stage
Psychoneuroimmunol
ogy
A field that examines the connections between psychological, nervous
systems, and the immune system in relation to stress
Lymphocytes Battle harmful bacteria and viruses
Perceived control More control over a situation the less stress a person experiences
Optimistic
explanatory style
Explaining negative events
through specific explanations
O for optimistic/ O for there must
be a reason why the outcome
occurred
Pessimistic
explanatory style
Explaining negative events
through personal faults
P for pessimistic/ P for personal
reason
Type A behavior Characterized by aggressive,
competitive, and impatient
behavior; often leads to coronary
heart disease
A for angry person
Type B behavior A more relaxed type of behavior B for B relaxed
Catharsis According to Sigmund Freud, the
releasing or displacement of
emotional aggression and tension
Going and working out after a bad
day
Problem-focused
coping
Coping strategies that emphasize
addressing the problem
Addressing the PROBLEM-
switching classes because you
don’t like a fellow student
Emotion-focused
coping
Coping strategies that address
negative emotions associated with
a specific problem
Addressing the EMOTIONS
connected with the problem- not
getting mad when you see a certain
individual
Individualistic
cultures
Cultures, like America, that
emphasize the individual and
utilize problem-focused coping
Americans will usually go and tell
a person their feelings for that
person
Collectivistic
cultures
Cultures, like tribal cultures, that
focus on the group, and utilize
emotion-focused coping
Collectivistic cultures consider the
group before speaking their dislike
for a person
Acculturative stress Stress that occurs for people trying to assimilate into a new culture
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___ 1. A type of conflict when a person has to
choose between two appealing choices.
A) Catecholamine
___ 2. A type of conflict considered the most
stressful as one alternative has both
positive and negative characteristics.
B) Catharsis
___ 3. According to Walter Cannon, during
flight-or-flight syndrome the
hypothalamus causes the sympathetic
nervous system to activate the:
C) General adaptation syndrome
___ 4. A group of hormones when circulating
in the bloodstream increase heart rate,
blood pressure, respiration, pupils to
dilate and digestion to slow down.
D) Alarm stage
___ 5. According to Hans Selye, refers to how
stress affects the body in three stages.
E) Approach-approach conflict
___ 6. The first stage of the general adaptation
syndrome that is characterized by the
flight-or-fight syndrome through the
release of catecholamine.
F) Corticosteroids
___ 7. According to Hans Seyle, during
prolonged periods of stress the body
releases ________ that increases stored
energy but reduce the immune system;
occurs during the resistive stage of the
general adaptation syndrome
G) Type A behavior
___ 8. A type of behavior described by Meyer
and Friedman that is described as
impatient, competitive, and prone to
heart disease.
H) Approach-avoidance conflict
___ 9. According to Sigmund Freud, the
releasing and displacement of
emotional tension through various
positive outlets.
I) Problem-focused coping
___ 10. A type of constructive coping that
addresses the problem and conflicts
associated with the problem.
J) Adrenal medulla
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Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”
Instinct theory Automatic Instinct Innate, fixed
Homeostasis Maintaining Need Biological
Drive Tension Arousal Curiosity
Optimum arousal
theory
Boredom Yerkes-Dodson law Equal, fair
competition
Altruism Generous Incentive theory Something extra
Humanistic theory Innate, potential Hierarchy of needs Stair steps
Self-actualization The best CCK hormone Short-term satiation
Leptin hormone Fat, long-term Glucose Sugar, energy
Insulin Breaks down glucose Ventromedial
hypothalamus
Stops hunger
Lateral
hypothalamus
Starts hunger BMR Burns conserves
calories
Set point theory Ideal weight BMI Obese 30
Leptin resistance No effect on brain Competence
motivation
Be good at something
Achievement
motivation
Beat others Thematic
apperception test
Achievement,
ambiguous scene
Self-efficacy Confidence Collective self-
efficacy
Support system
Industrial-
organizational
Work, better worker Theory Y I want to be the best
employee
Theory X Xtra things Right hemisphere Emotion expression
Amygdala Recognizing emotions Cerebral cortex Expression of emotion
James/Lange
theory
Change in body Cannon-Bard
theory
Simultaneously brain
and body
Two-factor theory Body + cognitive label Cognitive
mediational theory
Appraise situation
Display rules Cultural norms of
emotion Health
psychologists
Study stress- effects
Approach-
approach
Two appealing choices Avoidance-
avoidance
Two negative choices
Fight-or-flight Catecholamine Norepinephrine NT arouses brain
General adaption
syndrome (Seyle)
Alarm- arouse
Resistive- fight
Exhaustive- sick
Corticosteroids Battle stress
T lymphocytes Attach viruses B lymphocytes Fight bacteria
Martin Seligman Positive psychology Optimistic Give a reason
Pessimistic Blame themselves Type A anger
Type B Relaxed Problem focused Americans,
Individualistic
Emotion focused Manage emotions Catharsis Blow off some steam
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Abnormal Psychology Chapter 11
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Introduction to Psychological Disorders
1. What is the focus of psychopathology?
A. How is a psychological disorder defined?
B. What is a psychological disorder that is usually distressing but allows one to think
rationally and function socially?
C. What is a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality;
experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions?
Explaining Disorders
2. Who was a French physician that worked to reform the treatments of people with mental
disorders?
A. What disease changed the focus to the brain for mental disorders?
B. Who worked to improve mental health facilities in America?
3. Which model believes that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be
diagnosed and cured?
A. Which model focuses on psychological reasons for disorders?
B. Which model addresses disorders in relation to gender, age, ethnicity, and social
factors?
C. What is the diathesis-stress model?
Classifying Disorders
4. What refers to the American Psychiatrics’ Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, which is the most widely used system for classifying psychological
disorders through providing common language to identify, classify, and treat psychological
disorders?
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Anxiety Disorders
5. What are the symptoms of an anxiety disorder?
Types of Anxiety Disorders
6. What is free-floating anxiety characterized by disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained
feelings of apprehension, and tenseness?
A. What is characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic attacks- intense
breathing, high heart-rate, and trembling?
B. What is a phobia?
i. What is extreme fear of social situations?
ii. What is a fear of leaving a place or open spaces?
iii. What is a specific phobia?
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
7. How is obsessive-compulsive disorder described?
A. What involves compulsively collecting of many different things without difficulty
letting go of these items?
B. What is a preoccupation with flaws in one’s body; often associated with anorexia?
C. What refers to skin picking to the point of causing damage?
D. What refers to compulsively pulling out their hair?
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Related Disorders
8. How is posttraumatic disorder classified?
A. What refers people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and become
emotionally withdrawn?
B. What occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life which
could disrupt routines?
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C. What occurs when a person experiences distress an anxiety following a traumatic
event that could have caused death or injury?
i. What is the difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD?
Causes of Anxiety Disorders
9. Identify some of the causes of anxiety disorders:
A. Heredity
B. Brain function:
C. Heightened:
D. Neurotransmission:
E. Emotion center:
F. Evolution:
G. Learning:
STOP COMPLETE Table 1 PAGE 146
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
10. How would you classify a somatic disorder?
A. What involves strong, unjustified fear of having physical illness or belief they are
getting sick?
i. What is the difference between illness anxiety disorder and hypochondriacs?
B. What occurs where there are numerous physical and complaints without verifiable
physical illness?
C. What is a conversion disorder?
Dissociative Disorders
11. How are dissociative disorders classified?
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A. What is characterized by a loss of memory in reaction to a traumatic event?
B. What was referred to multiple personality disorder- a rare and controversial
dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or more distinct and alternating
personalities?
Causes of Dissociative Disorders
12. What can dissociative disorders be linked to?
Depressive Disorders
13. How are depressive disorders classified?
A. Which mood disorder is characterized when a person for no apparent reason
experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods, diminished interest in activities, and
feelings of worthlessness?
B. Which disorder has symptoms similar to major depression but less severe and could
last for over two years?
Bipolar and Related Disorders
14. How is bipolar I disorder classified?
A. Which disorder has less severe symptoms of mania called hypomania?
B. What is a less severe case of bipolar?
C. Which type of mood disorder is characterized by depression that is triggered by a
back of light especially in the winter months?
Causes of Mood Disorders
15. Identify the causes of mood disorders:
A. Heredity:
B. Brain function:
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C. Neurotransmission:
D. Social-cognitive factors:
STOP COMPLETE Table 2 PAGE 149
Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder
16. How is schizophrenia diagnosed?
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
17. What are neologisms and word salad?
A. What is the inability to move and to hold body limbs in rigid positions for long
periods of time; referred to waxy flexibility?
B. What are false beliefs?
i. What are delusions of grandeur?
ii. What are delusions of persecution?
iii. What are delusions of sin or guilt?
iv. What are delusions of influence?
C. What are false sensory perceptions with auditory being the most common?
18. What are examples of positive symptoms of schizophrenia?
A. Which symptoms include an absence of pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no
emotion at all?
Causes of Schizophrenia
19. Identify the causes of schizophrenia:
A. Genetics:
B. Brain structure:
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C. Neurotransmission:
D. Prenatal viruses:
E. Age of Father:
STOP COMPLETE Table 3 PAGE 151
Personality Disorders
20. How are personality disorders classified?
Personality Disorders: Odd-Eccentric Cluster A
21. Define paranoid personality disorder:
A. Schizoid personality disorder:
B. Schizotypal personality disorder:
Personality Disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B
22. Define Borderline personality disorder:
A. Antisocial personality disorder:
B. Narcissistic personality disorder:
C. Histrionic personality disorder:
Personality Disorders: Anxious Fearful Cluster C
23. Define avoidant personality disorder:
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A. Dependent personality disorder:
B. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder:
Childhood Disorders- Externalizing or under controlled category
24. Which disorder mostly in boys shows a stable pattern of aggression, disobedience, and
other problematic behaviors?
A. What is ADHD?
Internalizing or over controlled category
25. What refers to constantly worrying about being lost, kidnapped, or harm caused by a
parent?
26. Which are not externalizing or internalizing disorders but show severe problems in
communication an impaired social relationships?
A. Give two examples:
B. Which is a less severe type on the autistic spectrum that shows high cognitive
functioning, impaired social relationships and engage in repetitive behaviors like
memorizing?
STOP COMPLETE Table 4 PAGE 153
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1. Philip Pinel demonstrated through syphilis that some disorders could have physical
origins/ negative criticism of labeling people with disorders can sometimes lead to self-
fulfilling prophecy- living up to expectations or label/ Deviant behavior being different
from most people within a culture/ Etiology- refers to finding possible causes that
contribute to psychological disorders
2. Anxiety disorders - feelings of nervousness and apprehension / Generalized anxiety
disorder - anxiety about generally everything / Panic disorder – unexplainable panic
attacks / Phobia - irrational fear- most common agoraphobia- fear of open places never
leaving home / Causes of anxiety disorders: high activity in Frontal lobe and Amygdala
shows a lack of GABA- neurotransmitter for slowing down brain activity and high
activity of neurotransmitter norepinephrine- in charge of arousal
3. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder – obsessions are thoughts, compulsions are
actions to relieve or distract thoughts / hoarding, body dysmorphic disorder, excoriation
4. Post-traumatic-stress and related disorder- reoccurring memory that interrupts daily
functioning / acute stress disorder, reactive disorder, adjustment disorder
5. Mood disorders - Major-depressive disorder - major depression for at least 2 weeks-
very severe often requires intervention / Persistent depressive disorder- milder form of
depression, can usually perform daily routines but can last year’s / Bipolar disorder -
extremes of altering between mania and depression / Bipolar 1 – manic phase you could
be a harm to yourself or others, requires hospitalization / Bipolar 2- depression with
hypomania (milder form of mania) / Cyclothymic disorder- similar to dysthymic for
depression, less extreme bipolar / Causes of mood disorders: for depression less activity
in Frontal lobe and neurotransmitters serotonin (too little for depression) norepinephrine
(too little for depression) and opposite for manic as well as low levels of dopamine-
pleasure
6. Dissociative disorders - self has become dissociated or separated from previous memories
and identity / Dissociative amnesia - loss of a certain memory or part of life due to a
traumatic event / Dissociative identity disorder - two or more distinct personalities not
aware of one another/ Causes could include repression of latent material or traumatic
episodes
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7. Somatic Symptom and related disorders- symptoms not due to physical reasons / /
Conversion disorder- anxiety or stress is converted in a loss of physical functioning or
sensory system- blindness due to traumatic event
8. Schizophrenia- psychotic- can’t distinguish between reality and fiction - positive
symptoms: addition of delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false sensory awareness-
auditory being most common) and disorganized thinking / Negative symptoms - loss of
cognitive abilities: (word salad language does not make sense often use neologisms-
made up words) and emotions- flat affect- no emotion/ Causes of schizophrenia: large
fluid-filled spaces (ventricles); smaller Thalamus; frontal lobe- slower thinking; more
receptor sites and over production of Dopamine / Prenatal viruses during pregnancy
9. Personality disorders - inflexible and lasting behavior / Anxiety related: Avoidant
personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected/ Dependent personality disorder-
very clingy/ Odd related: Paranoid personality disorder- distrust others/ Schizoid
personality disorder- hermits- no social relationships/ Schizotypal- other people avoid
because very odd- Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions and behavior/
Antisocial personality- lack of conscious may develop from conduct disorders in
childhood/ Narcissistic- preoccupation with importance of oneself not considering others
10. DSM-V- manual that provides classifications and techniques for treating disorders- made
by many professionals so everybody will be on the same page and allows for
understanding and proper treatment of a disorder / can stigmatize person when given a
label of a particular disorder Explaining disorders: Diathesis-stress model- suggests that
disorders are the result of genetics (diathesis) and how much stress a person encounters
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Psychopathology The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of
psychological disorders
Mental disorder Characterized by deviant, maladaptive, or harmful behaviors that
often disrupt thinking, feelings, and behavior
Deviant behavior Being different from behavior of most
people in a particular culture
Deviate means to be
different
Medical model
(neurobiological
model)
Suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses that
have specific symptoms that must be medically treated
Etiology The process of investigating all possible causes and factors that may
contribute to the onset of a psychological disorder
Biopsychosocial model Mental disorders are the combination of biological, psychological
and social factors
Diathesis-stress
approach/ model
Stress experienced in the environment may
trigger genetic predispositions to develop
a preexisting psychological disorder
Nature vs. nurture
Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders
(DSM)
A manual that provides psychologists with a common way to
classify and organize mental disorders (DSM-V is the latest edition)
Anxiety Characterized by worrying, apprehension, and increased physical
arousal within the body
Anxiety disorder Characterized by feelings of extreme apprehension that often
disrupts daily routines and functioning
Phobias Type of anxiety disorder where a person has an irrational fear of an
object or situation that should not cause that type of fear
Generalized anxiety
disorder
Type of anxiety disorder that includes
moderate anxiety that is persistent for a
long period of time and not connected to
any particular object or situation
Generally have fear
about everything
Panic disorder Type of anxiety disorder that involves sudden bouts or occurrences
of panic attacks that include rapid heart rate, heavy breathing, and
sometime fainting
Agoraphobia A fear of open spaces that may arise from a fear of having a panic
attack in public resulting in staying at home
Obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD)
Involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that can lead to ritualistic
types of behavior (compulsions))
Hoarding An OCD involves compulsive collecting of many different types of
things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go of those objects
Body dysmorphic
disorder
An OCD preoccupation with flaws in one’s body. This involves
continuously observing one’s body and obsession with one’s
appearance with comparisons to other people’s body. This is often
associated with anorexia but can include other body issues such as
feeling one is not muscular or premature blading even though others
do not notice.
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Exoriation An OCD, referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of
causing damage to one’s body
Trichotillomania An OCD, that occurs when a person compulsively pulls their hair
from their body to the point of causing bald spots often focusing on
eyelashes or eyebrows
Posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD)
Symptoms of anxiety in response to physical or psychological
trauma often leading to avoiding similar situations or stimuli
Reactive attachment
disorder
A PTSD that involves people who experience a traumatic event or
neglect and as result become emotionally withdrawn from inability
to form a secure attachment
Adjustment disorder A PTSD that occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a
change of life, which could disrupt routines and making progressive
changes
Acute stress disorder A PTSD that occurs when a person experiences distress and anxiety
following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury.
The onset of the symptoms for acute stress disorder occurs two days
to four weeks after the trauma whereas a difference between acute
stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not diagnosed until four
weeks after the traumatic event has occurred.
External locus of
control
People who believe they have no control over their situations that
could lead to learned helplessness or giving up in various situations
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___ 1. Early 1800s Philip Pinel was able to
demonstrate that mental illnesses were
not the result of demonic possession
which led to _________ the belief that
illnesses have physical causes.
A) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
___ 2. A model that suggests the amount and
type of stress play a crucial role in
triggering genetic predispositions to
certain psychological disorders.
B) Agoraphobia
___ 3. A manual used by psychologists, which
provides common language with the
identifying and diagnosing of mental
disorders.
C) Medical model
___ 4. An OCD related disorder that involves
collecting many different types of
things with difficulty of discarding.
D) GABA
___ 5. An irrational fear of open places that
could be a result of the fear of having a
panic attack.
E) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM-V)
___ 6. Mild anxiety that is not specifically
connected to any particular object or
situations and is long-lasting.
F) Generalized anxiety disorder
___ 7. Involves repetitive thoughts that often
lead to ritualistic and repetitive
behaviors.
G) Diathesis-stress model
___ 8. Anxiety that is in response to physical
or psychological trauma that is
affecting the way one presently acts or
thinks.
H) Hoarding
___ 9. A neurotransmitter that is lined to
arousal and tends to be overactive in
people experiencing anxiety disorders.
I) Obsessive-compulsive behavior (OCD)
___ 10. A neurotransmitter that inhibits or
slows down brain activity and tends to
in undersupply with people who
experience anxiety disorders.
J) Norepinephrine
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Somatic Symptom and
Related disorders
People who experience psychological problems or disturbances
associated with physical ailments that have no physical origin or
cause/ Soma means body
Conversion disorder
(Functional Neurological
Symptom Disorder)
Type of somatic disorder where a person converts psychological
problems into physical problems such as sensory and motor
failure , sudden blindness or deafness, paralyzed limbs; that have
no identifiable physical cause
Illness anxiety disorder Type of somatic disorder that involves perceptual fear that one
has acquired a disorder. People with this disorder analyze the
slightest changes in their bodies and will frequent doctors to
confirm their beliefs
Somatic symptom disorder Type of somatic disorder where people report multiple physical
ailments rather than an isolated problem or condition
Dissociative amnesia Sudden memory loss associated with a specific event or period of
their life
Dissociative identity
disorder (multiple
personality disorder)
Person exhibits more than one personality that includes an
unique style of thinking, speaking, and acting
Major depressive
disorder- unipolar
Extreme feelings of depression that may last for weeks or months
Persistent depressive
disorder
Lesser intense depression that lasts for a longer duration when
compared to major depression
Bipolar disorder
(formerly manic-
depressive disorder)
Alternating between periods of deep depression and mania,
which is characterized by an energetic, optimistic, impulsivity,
and often the belief anything can be done
Bipolar II disorder Alternating major depressive period with periods of hypomania-
a lesser intense or severe manic episode
Cyclothymic disorder Alternating periods of depression and mania, but of lesser severe
or intensity when compared to bipolar disorder
Seasonal affective
disorder (SAD)
Depression associated with winter
months, especially the absence of
sunlight, may cause problems in the
suprachiasmatic nucleus
Release of melatonin
mellows a person
Disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder
Considered a depressive disorder in children who display
continuous irritability and frequent temper tantrums
Learned helplessness According to Marin Seligman, when someone is not successful
after repeated attempts then often a giving up or quitting occurs,
which may lead to symptoms associated with depression
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___ 1. Type of somatic disorder, where a
person experiences sensory ad motor
failure that may include blindness,
deafness, or paralyzed limbs with no
identifiable cause.
A) Bipolar disorder
___ 2. A person experiences sudden memory
loss of present life; dissociates from
their memory.
B) Dissociative amnesia
___ 3. Which defense mechanism maybe used
to explain memory impairments
associated with dissociative disorders.
C) Major depression
___ 4. A person experiences severe and
debilitating depression that may require
hospitalization and treatment.
D) Cyclothymic disorder
___ 5. A less intense type of depression in
comparison to major depression, but
often of a longer duration.
E) Repression
___ 6. Alternating between periods of deep
depression and manic episodes, which
are characterized by periods of extreme
energy and optimism.
F) Conversion disorder
___ 7. A less severe alternation between
depression and mania; very similar to
dysthymic disorder.
G) Learned helplessness
___ 8. A neurotransmitter involved in the
regulation of moods, which when low
could lead to major depression.
H) Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
___ 9. Type of disorder that is associated with
an absence of light often experienced
during the winter months and also the
suprachiasmatic nucleus.
I) Serotonin
___ 10. Martin Seligman’s belief that continued
attempts that result in failures cold
eventually leading to giving up and
possible depression issues.
J) Persistent depressive disorder
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Schizophrenia
Spectrum Disorder
A severe and often debilitating disorder that affect thoughts process
resulting in a “split brain,” speech production, perception and
behavior
Neologisms Symptom of schizophrenia that includes using words that do not
make sense to other people listening
World salad A schizophrenic’s repetition and use of no meaningful statements
Delusions False and distorted beliefs that include delusion of persecution- the
belief that others are out to cause harm to you/ delusions of
influence- the belief that one is being controlled by an outside
factor/ delusions of grandeur- the belief that you are more important
or powerful than you really are
Hallucinations False reports of perceptions Auditory is most common
hallucination
Flat affect Not displaying or demonstrating any emotional response to various
stimuli
Catatonia (movement
disorder)
The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for long
periods of time causing others distress; referred to as waxy
flexibility
Positive symptoms of
schizophrenia
The addition of disorganized
thoughts, hallucinations, and
delusions
Positive means to add
Negative symptoms of
schizophrenia
The lack of pleasurable feelings,
motivation, speech, and emotions
(flat affect)
Negative means missing
Dopamine hypothesis
theory of
schizophrenia
Excessive receptor sites for
dopamine may lead to the positive
symptoms associated with
schizophrenia
Induced psychosis is the
result of excessive use of a
stimulant- cocaine
Vulnerability of theory
of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition, which then
could be determined by the amount of stress the person encounters
in the environment
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___ 1. Sometimes referred to as "split mind"
characterized by disturbed emotions,
perceptions, and thought processes.
A) Catatonic schizophrenia
___ 2. The use of words that only have
meaning to the schizophrenic.
B) Delusions of persecution
___ 3. The schizophrenic's repetition of no
meaningful statements.
C) Word salad
___ 4. The false belief where a person
believes they are of some importance or
position.
D) Flat affect
___ 5. The false belief that everyone and thing
is out to harm you; often a
characterizations of paranoid
schizophrenia.
E) Neologisms
___ 6. The most common type of
hallucination experienced by
schizophrenics.
F) Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized
thoughts.
___ 7. Refers to positive symptoms of
schizophrenia.
G) Delusions of grandeur
___ 8. A negative symptom of schizophrenia
that is characterized by a lack of
emotion.
H) Auditory
___ 9. A symptom of schizophrenia,
characterized by a waxy flexibility or
immobility of body parts and positions.
I) Dopamine
___ 10. An increase of this neurotransmitter
may lead to the positive symptoms
associated with schizophrenia.
J) Schizophrenia
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Key Term Definition
Personality disorders Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking,
feelings, and acting grouped into 3 clusters: cluster A: odd-
eccentric/ cluster B: dramatic-erratic, cluster C: anxious-
fearful
Paranoid personality disorder Distrust of other, the belief people are out to get him or her,
and may act in violent protective methods
Schizoid personality disorder No social relationships and often difficulty displaying
feeling for other people
Schizoids AVOID other people
Schizotypal personality disorder Problems either starting or maintaining relationships, odd
perceptions and emotions, and behavior that resembles
schizophrenia
Histrionic personality
disorder
Obsessed with being the center of attention, very dramatic,
often emotionally shallow
Narcissistic personality
disorder
An exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and
has achieved great success
Borderline personality
disorder
Instability of emotions and impulse control, obsessive fear
of being alone, and difficulty maintaining relationships
Antisocial personality
disorder
Lack of feelings or regard for others and their welfare;
often includes sociopath and psychopaths
Dependent personality disorder An enormous need to be taken care of, difficulty making
decision, and very needy
Obsessive personality disorder Obsession with order and control of situations
Avoidant personality disorder Oversensitive to criticism and humiliation, and often does
not take part in social situations
Conduct disorders Mainly exhibited by boys who demonstrate a lack of
obedience and are very aggressive
Separation anxiety disorder Fear of being lost or left behind
Intellectual developmental
disorder
Determined by a person’s cognitive capacity as well as
their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental
retardation that was used in DSM-IV.
Autistic spectrum disorder Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have
problems forming attachments and communicating, and
suffer severe cognitive impairments that affect
concentration, learning, and social interactions with other
Asperger’s disorder A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience
problems in social relationships; they also engage in
repetitive behaviors
Communication disorder Includes language disorder, speech and sound disorder, and
childhood onset fluency- formally known as stuttering
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___ 1. Type of personality disorder
characterized by obsession with being
center of attention, very dramatic, and
emotional shallowness.
A) Schizoid personality disorder
___ 2. Type of personality disorder
characterized by instability of
emotions, impulse control, fear of
being alone; maintaining relationships.
B) Asperger's disorder
___ 3. Type of personality disorder
characterized by no feelings or welfare
for other people and a lack of remorse.
C) Schizotypal personality disorder
___ 4. Type of personality disorder
characterized by no social
relationships, difficulty displaying
feelings for others; similar to a hermit.
D) Borderline personality disorder
___ 5. Type of personality disorder
characterized by problems associated
with starting or maintaining
relationships; very odd types of
thoughts feelings, emotions, thoughts.
E) Conduct disorder
___ 6. Type of personality disorder
characterized by an enormous need to
be taken care of and often cannot make
decision unless someone else does.
F) Histrionic
___ 7. Maybe connected to antisocial
personality disorder; exhibited by boys
who at an early age demonstrate a lack
of obedience and are overly aggressive.
G) Dependent personality disorder
___ 8. A fear of being left alone or left behind.
H) Autism
___ 9. Tend to show symptoms a few months
after birth, have problems forming
attachments and communicating.
I) Separation anxiety disorder
___ 10. A less severe form of autism and may
experience problems in social
relationships and the tendency to
engage in repetitive behaviors.
J) Antisocial personality disorder
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Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)
Psychopathology Study Deviant behavior Harmful
Diathesis-stress
model
Nature and nurture Diagnostic Statistical
Manual V
Common way to
classify and treat
Anxiety disorder Uncontrollable
apprehension Phobias Irrational fear
Generalized anxiety
disorder
General anxiety Panic disorder Uncontrollable
panic attacks
Agoraphobia Don’t leave home OCD Uncontrollable
thoughts/ actions
Hoarding OCD-Can’t throw out Post-traumatic stress
disorder
Realistic flashbacks
Acute stress
disorder
PTSD- few days Conversion disorder Unexplainable
physical problems
Dissociative identity
disorder
Multiple personalities Major depressive
disorder
Severe depression
Persistent
depressive disorder
Long-term livable
depression Bipolar disorder Depression- mania-
excitement
Cyclothymic
disorder
Less severe bipolar Seasonal affective
disorder
Depression tied to
light in winter
Learned
helplessness
Learn to give up Schizophrenia Psychotic disorder/
break from reality
Neologisms Made up words Word salad Made up thoughts
Delusions False beliefs Delusions of grandeur Think your god
Delusions of
persecution
Out to get you Delusions of influence Being controlled
Hallucinations False sensory input/
auditory Catatonia Waxy flexibility/
can’t move
Flat affect No emotions Positive symptoms Delusions,
hallucinations,
thought
Negative symptoms Emotions, pleasure Dopamine-
schizophrenia
Too much
Personality disorder Lifelong condition Paranoid pd Out to get me
Schizoid pd Hermit no contact Schizotypal pd No relationships;
odd behavior
Histrionic pd Dramatic, shallow Narcissistic pd I only matter
Borderline pd Unstable Antisocial pd No empathy
Dependent pd Needy Obsessive pd Ritualistic
Avoidant pd Stay away Conduct disorder Boys aggressive
Separation anxiety
disorder
Can’s be alone Autistic spectrum
disorder
Impaired social
relationships
Asperger’s disorder Highly IQ/ social
problems Communication
disorder
Speech language
impairment
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Methods of Therapy
Chapter 12
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Methods of Therapy
1. What is psychotherapy based on?
A. Which approach uses a variety of approaches best suited for the patient?
B. What is the goal of insight therapy?
C. What do behavioral therapist believe?
D. What techniques are used with the biomedical approach?
i. Which type of profession has a medical degree and is able to prescribe
medication?
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
2. What inspired Sigmund Freud to develop psychoanalysis?
A. What did Freud believe unresolved conflicts from childhood could lead to?
B. What is the goal of psychoanalysis?
C. What is the usual timeline for traditional psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalytical Techniques
3. Which technique involves the client speaking openly and freely about whatever comes to
their mind?
A. What refers to the therapist involving insight to the comments made during free
association/?
B. What is resistance?
C. During dream interpretation which part is the analyst interested in which could lead to
the unconscious?
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D. What are statements that are made that are often considered accidental but could lead
to the content of the unconscious?
E. What is considered the most important technique which involves the patient
unconsciously responding to the therapist as if they were a significant person in their life?
Contemporary Psychoanalysis
4. Why is traditional psychoanalysis not practiced as much today?
A. What is a shorter version of traditional psychoanalysis?
B. Which psychodynamic approach focuses on current problems instead of early
childhood experiences?
Humanistic Psychotherapy
5. Which therapy focuses on humans striving and reaching their full potential with the belief
that people are inherently good and are motivated to grow psychologically?
A. What is the humanists’ belief?
B. What is the goal of humanistic therapy?
i. How do humanistic therapist establish this goal?
Client (Person) Centered Therapy
6. What was Carl Rogers originally in terms of therapy?
A. What is the name of Rogers’s approach that encourages growth and self-discovery by
the client through unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence?
1. What is treating the client as a valued person who can solve their own conflicts?
2. What is a technique used by the therapist which involves listening to the patient while
often using reflection and repeating back what is said?
3. What involves the therapist being consistent with what is being said to the patient?
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Gestalt Therapy
7. Who developed gestalt therapy- another version of humanistic therapy?
A. What is the goal of gestalt therapy?
Positive Psychology
8. Which type of therapy is modern type of insight therapy that forces on promoting human
strengths, personal growth, and developing a more favorable outlook on life?
A. What are two types of positive psychology and who supported these?
B. Which types of disorders are positive psychology approaches useful?
Behavior Therapy
9. Which type of therapy proposes that psychological problems originate from learned
behaviors and can be unlearned?
A. Which type uses classical conditioning principles?
B. Which types focuses on operant conditioning principles?
C. Which type addresses thoughts and behaviors associated with the problem?
Behavior Techniques emphasizing Classical Conditioning
10. Who influenced Behavioral therapy?
A. Which principle did Mary Cover Jones uses to teach a new conditioned response that
is more effective that than the maladaptive learned response?
B. Who was her subject and what was his fear?
C. What was the new response and association in response to using counterconditioning?
Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques
11. Who developed systematic desensitization to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders?
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Process of Desensitization
1. What is the patient first taught how to do?
2. In step 2, what is the patient asked to create?
i. What is the list called?
ii. What is a control scene?
3. What is the actual process of desensitization?
i. What is the new conditioned response instead of old maladaptive response?
12. What is newer version of systematic desensitization that uses computer technology?
A. What is direct exposure to the most feared image or event in the anxiety hierarchy
list?
i. What are two examples of exposure techniques?
ii. Why do some people not choose this approach?
Aversive Conditioning
13. What is the name of the drug if taken with alcohol will cause immediate sickness?
A. What is the purpose of aversive conditioning?
B. What is a negative with using aversive conditioning?
Behavior Therapies that emphasize Operant Conditioning
14. Which type of therapy uses operant conditioning that are based on the idea that the
consequences that follow a particular behavior could either strengthen or eliminate a behavior?
A. What is an example of using positive reinforcement through giving tokens or rewards
after desired behavior is performed?
B. How is extinction used? Give an example:
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
15. Which type of therapy uses learning principles to change people’s negative thoughts or
patterns?
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A. Who developed Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy that suggests that people’s
irrational and negative beliefs are responsible for a persons’ feelings or consequences?
B. Give an example of the ABC approach used in Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy?
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Cognitive Therapy
16. Who was originally a psychoanalyst that developed Cognitive Therapy which is based on
the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, perceptions, and interpretations of
events that have led to psychological disorders?
A. What type of approach is Cognitive therapy?
B. What is the goal of having the clients go out directly test their beliefs?
Group Therapy
17. Which type of therapy incorporates humanistic ideals that allows therapists to work with
several people at one time?
A. What are the advantages of using group therapy?
B. What is the goal of family therapy?
C. What is the emphasis of marital therapy?
Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches
18. What is the purpose of meta-analysis?
A. Which approaches are effective for treating depression?
B. Which approaches are good for treating phobias, panic disorders, and OCD?
C. Which therapy is good for treating eating disorders?
D. What is psychoanalysis good for treating?
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Biological Therapy
19. When are disorders treated with drugs?
A. What is involved with using psychosurgery?
B. Describe Egoss Moniz’s prefrontal lobotomy?
C. When is ECT or electroconvulsive therapy used?
i. What are some of the problems associated with using ECT?
Antipsychotic Drugs
20. Which type of drugs are used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive
symptoms associated with schizophrenia?
A. What are two example of neuroleptics?
B. What is a considerable side effect of using neuroleptics that is characterized by
symptoms similar to Parkinson ’s disease involves twitching and facial tics?
C. Which drug has been effective at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Antidepressants
21. How are antidepressant drugs designed to work?
A. What were the original antidepressants called?
B. How do Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors work?
C. What are some types of common SSRI’s?
Antianxiety Medications
22. What are the most common types of antianxiety medications used?
A. How do these drugs work?
B. What is a concern with using antianxiety medications?
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Lithium
23. What is used to treat bipolar disorder?
A. Which neurotransmitter does lithium have an effect on?
i. What is an alternative to lithium?
Evaluating Drug Treatments
24. What is an overall concern with using drug therapies?
Community Psychology
25. What refers to process of releasing patients from hospitals to fend for themselves?
A. What is a movement to decrease or prevent psychological disorders in impoverished
areas?
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1. Psychotherapy- sessions between a therapist and client with the hopes of providing insight
into problems/ Eclectric approach- approach that uses techniques from various therapies to
treat disorder
2. Psychoanalysis- Freud - problems in the unconscious and noticing patients had problems
without any physical causes / Resistance- unconscious blocking of anxiety material- not
talking about/ Transference- unconsciously transferring emotion unto therapist which was
intended for others who are actually to blame/ Interpretation- meaning derived from
resistance and transference/ Free association- patient says whatever comes to mind /
Psychodynamic therapy or interpersonal therapy- shorter sessions- focus on current issues
and less expensive than traditional psychoanalysis which is long and expensive
3. Humanistic therapy- increasing self-acceptance and self-awareness of patients/ Client-
centered therapy- Carl Rogers believed that if a therapist displayed the following
characteristics the patient or client can direct and discover solutions and problems to their
life- Empathy uses active listening or reflection- repeating back what patient states- showing
you are paying attention, unconditional positive regard- showing patient that you understand
and don’t judge what they have done, genuineness- therapist is honest with patient and is
open about own life- these therapist qualities make it possible for patient to direct session
and discover solutions to own problems which leads to increased self-confidence as he or she
discovered their own problems and solutions
4. Behavioral therapy- uses classical conditioning- Systematic desensitization (Joe Wolpe)-
based on classical conditioning- type of counterconditioning that Mary Cover Jones first used
through pairing frightening stimuli with relaxed thought instead of fearful thought as anxiety
causing stimulus is presented- involves patients develop an anxiety hierarchy which has most
fearful to least fearful aspects/ patients learn progressive relaxation techniques and are asked
to develop a control scene which will be the NEW and BETTER conditioned or learned
response replacing original NEGATIVE or FEARFUL condition or learned response/
Aversive conditioning- counterconditioning that produces unwanted response (nausea) with
unwanted behavior (drinking)/ opposite of systematic desensitization/ Exposure therapy-
flooding- continuously exposing someone to a feared object or situation
5. Behavior modification –uses Operant conditioning- token economies- positive
reinforcement- giving tokens after desired behavior increases behavior being repeated and
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also Extinction- non-reinforcement- not giving expected response after a given behavior- like
throwing a temper tantrum and expecting attention
6. Cognitive-Behavioral therapy- Albert Ellis- Rational-emotive behavioral therapy- uses
ABC model- a= activating event (not getting a job), b= belief (I am never going to get job
because I am not smart (could it B because of my B-eliefs) which actually causes c=
consequence= depression- goal of therapy is to address and correct bad beliefs
7. Cognitive therapy- new thinking- Cognitive therapy-Aaron Beck- address unrealistic and
distorted thinking (cognitive biases) by actively testing false beliefs in real life situations
8. Psychiatrist have medical degrees and can prescribe medications; Biomedical therapy Drug
therapy- Thorazine- a type of neuroleptic used to treat schizophrenia- blocks activity of
Dopamine reducing the positive symptoms- can produce side effects like Tardive
dyskinesia- similar to Parkinson’s resulting from too little dopamine/ Valium used for
anxiety boosts effects of GABA/ Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil which are called SSRIs- selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors used for depression with slowing down the process of the
reuptake of Serotonin allowing it to cross the synapse and get to the next neuron
9. Positive psychology- developed by Martin Seligman- which emphasizes positive human
characteristics and teaches people to focus on positive aspects and life experiences in order to
reduce learned helplessness- which is the tendency for people to give up when continuously
not successful
10. Group therapy- cost effective, group support and understanding
11. Community psychology- prevention of disorders through providing information to people in
poverty or disadvantaged areas due to deinstitutionalization- the shutting down of mental
hospitals
12. Meta-Analysis- gathering lots of information and resources to arrive at a conclusion
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Psychotherapy The interaction between a trained therapist who uses psychological
techniques to treat a patient experiencing emotional, behavioral, or
interpersonal problems
Eclectic approach The use of a variety of therapeutic techniques that are based on the
symptoms of the patient
Insight therapies A dialogue between the therapist and the patient with the goal of
gaining insight into the patient’s conflicts resulting in the development
of a possible solution
Behavioral therapy Therapy that utilizes learning techniques
to have patient’s unlearn maladaptive
patterns of behavior
What is LEARNED
(including negativity) can
Be UNLEARNED
Biomedical therapy The use of medical procedures such as
electroconvulsive therapy, medication,
that are used to treat patients.
BIOLOGICAL reasons for
disorder
Psychiatrist’s Therapists who have medical degrees which allow them to prescribe
medications
Psychodynamic
psychotherapy
Originated through Sigmund Freud’s work with patients who had
certain symptoms that did not have physical causes, which led to beliefs
that disorders were the result of unconscious conflicts and repressed
childhood traumatic thoughts and memories
Psychoanalysis Method of therapy aimed at revealing and resolving unconscious and
repressed conflicts; often involved the use of case studies and many
sessions over a long period of time
Free association A psychoanalytical technique that allows
the patient to say whatever comes to his
or her mind in a therapeutic session
The patient talks FREELY
about whatever he or she
wants to talk about
Interpretation A psychoanalytical technique that occurs during free association where
the therapists offers insight to and explanations of the patient’s remarks
Resistance A psychoanalytical technique that occurs
when the client unconsciously blocks the
process of revealing repressed memories,
which allows the therapist to gain insight
into possible conflicts
To resist means to block or
refuse to discuss
Dream
interpretation
Identifying and separating the manifest
content, the story line consciously
remembered portion of the dream, from
the latent content, the symbolic portion of
the dream that contains impulses, wishes
and fantasies associated with the
unconscious
Manifest- “man I had a
crazy dream” which means
you remember that portion
of the dream/ latent LEADS
to unconscious
Freudian slips Statements that are accidentally made by the client that may lead to the
content of the unconscious
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Transference A psychoanalytical technique that occurs
when the patient unconsciously responds
to the therapist as a significant person in
their life often leading to certain
emotional responses being displayed
TRANSFERRING
emotions ONTO another
person
Psychodynamic
therapy
A short-term type of therapy compared to psychoanalysis that offers
quicker diagnosis, but still focuses on the role of the unconscious
Interpersonal
therapy
A psychodynamic approach that focuses more on current problems and
conflicts instead of childhood repressions
Humanistic
psychotherapy
A type of therapy that emphasizes the
patient’s striving for and reaching their
human potential through the belief that
people are inherently good and motivated
to psychologically grow
Helping people become the
BEST HUMAN BEING
THEY CAN BE/ BE ALL
YOU CAN BE
Self-concept The humanist’s belief that the self-
concept, a person’s thoughts of
themselves are central to proper
psychological growth and should be
addressed during therapeutic sessions
How you describe yourself
Client-centered
therapy
According to Car Rogers, therapeutic
sessions should allow the patient to
discover for him or herself the reasons for
their disorder and then encouraged to
solve their conflicts and problems. The
therapists should stress unconditional
positive regard- treating the patients as a
valued person, empathy- placing oneself
in the patient’s point of view and
problems through the use of active
listening, and demonstrating congruence-
being consistent with thoughts and
feelings directed at the patient
The client in the CENTER
of attention- if client can
realize why he or she feels
or acts a certain then there
is a good chance he or she
can find a solution
Confidence comes from the
clients’ ability to figure out
their own problems and
solutions
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___ 1. Type of therapist that possesses a
medical degree and has the ability to
issue medication.
A) Free association
___ 2. A type of therapeutic treatment by
Sigmund Freud that emphasized the
role of unresolved conflicts within the
unconscious as a determinant for
psychological disorders
B) Psychiatrists
___ 3. Method of psychoanalysis that involves
the client speaking freely about
whatever comes to her or his mind.
C) Client-centered therapy
___ 4. Occurs in psychoanalysis when the
client unconsciously tries to block or
refuses to discuss a particular subject.
D) Psychoanalysis
___ 5. According to Freud, the part of a dream
that is comprised of unconscious
symbols and conflicts.
E) Psychodynamic therapy
___ 6. Occurs in psychoanalysis when a
patient unconsciously responds to the
therapist in an emotional response that
should be directed at another person.
F) Transference
___ 7. A type of therapy shorter in duration
compared to traditional psychoanalysis.
G) Latent content
___ 8. Type of therapy where Carl Rogers
focused on the patient directing the
therapeutic session with the goal of
revealing the problem and solution.
H) Active-listening/ empathy
___ 9. A component of client-centered therapy
where the therapist sees the problem
through the patient's point of view
through repeating and rewording
responses by the patient.
I) Unconditional positive regard
___ 10. A component of client-centered therapy
where the therapist treats the client as a
valued person through accepting and
not judging the patient.
J) Resistance
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Gestalt therapy Developed by Fritz Perls and his wife
and influenced by the principles of
Gestalt psychology, the belief and goal
of the therapy is to make patient’s
thoughts and behavior coincide with
reality
Gestalt means WHOLE- to
make sure the individual
parts- or parts of a
person’s life fit the whole
Positive psychology A modern type of insight therapy that focuses on promoting human
strengths while enhancing personal growth and self-acceptance,
which includes Well-being therapy developed by Giovanni Fava and
Positive psychotherapy developed by Martin Seligman
Behavioral therapy Proposes psychological problems
originate from learned behaviors and
that these unlearned behaviors can be
unlearned;
Behavior therapy that
focuses on the principles
of classical conditioning
Behavior modification that
focuses on operant
conditioning
Cognitive-behavior
therapy that addresses how
thoughts and behavior are
interrelated
Counterconditioning Developed by Mary Cover Jones, the
process of producing a new conditioned
response through a better association
between a prior stimuli and response
Counter clockwise means
to go in an opposite
direction
Systematic
desensitization
Developed by Joseph Wolpe and used
to treat phobias and other anxiety
disorders, a type of counterconditioning
that involves learning new conditioned
responses that replace established
maladaptive responses. This procedure
involves patients learning relaxation
techniques that later are associated with
items listed in their anxiety or
desensitization hierarchy that cause fear
and distress.
Desensitize means to make
LESS sensitive- so less
fearful of things or places
Virtual reality graded
exposure
A recent application of systematic desensitization that allows patients
to experienced their fears a controlled computerized setting without
actual exposure
Exposure techniques Direct exposure to a feared image or situation in a controlled setting
Flooding Type of exposure technique that
involves complete exposure to a fearful
stimuli
Similar to starting in the
deep end of the swimming
pool
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Aversive
conditioning
Involves pairing a harmful stimulus,
like smoking, with an unpleasant
feeling like nausea
A person will then
associate smoking with
nausea leading to “I get
sick every time I try and
smoke so I don’t.”
Positive reinforcement Type of behavioral modification
procedure that presents a favorable
stimulus after a desired behavior is
performed increased that behavior
occurring in the future
The addition of a
favorable stimulus after a
desired behavior will
increases the changes of
the behavior being
repeated
Token economies The process of implementing positive
reinforcement in a therapeutic setting;
often used in rehabilitation programs
The tokens are like
secondary reinforcers
Extinction Not reinforcing an undesired behavior Some kids cry until they
get attention from a parent
because that is what they
want- if parents don’t give
attention child won’t cry
Rational-emotive
therapy
Developed by Albert Ellis and a type of
Cognitive-behavioral therapy, is based
on the ABC model and the belief that
beliefs (B) cause (C) consequences like
depression that are not actually caused
by the activating event (A) itself. The
goal is to then correct the beliefs that a
person holds.
Most people are not upset
with the outcome but their
reasons or beliefs for the
outcomes
Remember
RATIONALIZE means to
provide reasons for
outcome s
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___ 1. A type of therapy that emphasizes the
belief that people actively process
information from the environment that
results unrealistic versions of reality.
A) Systematic desensitization
___ 2. Insight therapy developed by Martin
Seligman that focuses on promoting
human strengths and self-acceptance.
B) Aversive conditioning
___ 3. Developed the concept of
counterconditioning which believes
that previous associations can be
unlearned and result is new and more
productive conditional response.
C) Beliefs
___ 4. Joseph Wolpe's version of
counterconditioning used to treat
phobias that involve the gradual
learning of a new conditioned response.
D) Exposure therapy
___ 5. A chart made in the process of
systematic desensitization where the
patient list from most fearful to least
fearful anxiety provoking stimuli.
E) Anxiety or desensitization hierarchy
___ 6. Type of therapy that involves direct
exposure to the feared image.
F) Mary Cover Jones
___ 7. A type of behavioral therapy that
involves pairing a harmful substance
with a negative stimulus producing an
unwanted conditional response.
G) Positive psychology/psychotherapy
___ 8. An example of behavior modification
that uses the positive reinforcement to
distribute reinforcers for desirable
behaviors that are performed.
H) Token economics
___ 9. A concept of behavioral modification
used to stop undesirable behaviors
through the use of nonreinforcement.
I) Extinction
___ 10. Albert Ellis's idea a person's _____are
responsible for people's consequences
(c); not the actual (a) event itself.
J) Gestalt therapy
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Cognitive therapy Developed by Aaron Beck who believed that
people have cognitive distortions,
perceptions, and interpretations of events that
contribute to the disorder they are
experiencing. The patient is then taught to
directly test these distortions with the goal
that he or she will develop more realistic
ideals
Cognitive the C
stands for lets “C”
what happens when
you go out and try.
Group therapy A type of humanistic therapy to allow one or
more therapists to work with several people
who share similar symptoms while saving
money; includes family and marital therapy
Strength in
numbers- group
support
Meta-analysis A type of analysis that gathers large amounts
of data and sources to evaluate therapeutic
approaches and methods
MANY means
META
Psychosurgery The process of destroying tissues in regions of the brain
responsible for psychological disorders
Prefrontal lobotomy Inserting a probe into the frontal area of the
brain and severing neural connections
between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of
the brain
Frontal area of the
brain in charge of
thinking,
reasoning, and
decision making
Electroconvulsive
therapy (ECT)
Primarily used for depression who did not respond to other
treatments, involves the use of brief electrical shocks that attempt
to stimulate neural activity in the brain
Neuroleptics Antipsychotic medication that are used to treat the positive
symptoms associated with schizophrenia; includes Thorazine and
haloperidol that affect the levels of dopamine
Tardive dyskinesia Irreversible movement disorder similar to Parkinson’s disease that
could be caused by taking neuroleptics
Selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs)
A type of antidepressant medication that
slows down the reuptake process through
allowing serotonin to remain in the synapse
longer ensuring proper delivery to other
neurons; includes Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil
Reuptake is like a
vacuum
SSRIS turn off the
vacuum
Antianxiety medications Used to treat anxiety symptoms through elevating GABA levels;
includes Valium and BuSpar
Lithium/ Depakote Used to treat Bipolar disorder
Deinstitutionalization The massive releasing of patients from mental health hospitals
resulting in many patients not receiving treatment
Community
psychology
A movement that increases treatment for people who do not have
access to mental health programs
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___ 1. Which type of therapy was developed
by Aaron Beck and focused on
correcting irrational and distorted
thinking processes through having
patients actively addressing these
thoughts.
A) Group therapy
___ 2. Type of therapy that is cost effective,
offers social support and empathy
through the people participating.
B) Selective Serotonin Reuptake
Inhibitions (SSRIs)
___ 3. A process of gathering large amounts
of information in order to produce
accurate reports.
C) Meta-analysis
___ 4. A procedure rarely used anymore that
involved inserting a metal instrument
into the frontal area of the brain.
D) Cognitive therapy
___ 5. A procedure primarily used to treat
depression that involves a brief
electrical charge in the hopes of
increases neural activity.
E) Lithium
___ 6. Medication used to treat schizophrenia
specifically the positive symptoms;
thorazine and haloperidol being
examples.
F) Prefrontal lobotomy
___ 7. A side effect associated with taking
thorazine for schizophrenia that
resembles Parkinson's disease.
G) Deinstitutionalization
___ 8. A type of medication that is used to
treat depression through slowing down
the reuptake process of the sending
neuron.
H) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
___ 9. A drug commonly used to treat bipolar
disorder.
I) Tardive dyskinesia
___ 10. The process of shutting down mental
hospitals resulting in the release and
nontreatment of many mentally ill
people; resulting in the rise of
community psychology.
J) Neuroleptics
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Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)
Psychotherapy Interaction Eclectic approach Variety of techniques
Insight therapy Dialogue, problems Psychoanalysis Treatment, Freud
Free association Talk freely Interpretation Insight
Resistance Unconscious refusal Transference Taking out on
Latent content Symbolic,
unconscious Psychodynamic
therapy
Short-term to
psychoanalysis
Interpersonal
therapy
Current problems Humanistic therapy Born good, self-
concept
Client-centered
therapy
Rogers, client directs Unconditional
positive regard
Value the person
Active listening Repeat what is said Congruence Consistent
Gestalt therapy Reality matches
situation Positive psychology Promoting human
strengths, Seligman
Behavior therapy Classical
conditioning Behavior
modification
Operant conditioning
Cognitive-behavior
therapy
Thoughts direct
behavior Mary Cover Jones Peter,
counterconditioning
Systematic
desensitization
Wolpe- relax instead
of anxiety, chart Exposure techniques Flooding- go right to
the most fearful
Aversive
conditioning
Sickness instead of
pleasure Token economics Positive
reinforcement
Extinction Don’t give what
want Rational Emotive
therapy
Ellis, beliefs not
event = depression
Cognitive therapy Beck- go test
negative thoughts Group therapy Save money, get
support
Meta-analysis Gather lots of data Prefrontal lobotomy Sever frontal lobe
ECT Depression,
schizophrenia, excite Neuroleptics Thorazine, positive
symptoms
schizophrenia
SSRI’s Slow down reuptake
of serotonin, Prozac Benzodiazepines,
valium
Increase GABA treat
anxiety
Lithium, Depakote Bipolar,
anticonvulsant Deinstitutionalization Shut down
Community
psychology
Prevent give help to
people in need Biomedical approach Overprescribe drugs
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Research & Methods
Chapter 1
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Critical Thinking
1. What is considered the first stop of research- making an educated guess?
2. What is the role of an operational definition?
A. Why are operational definitions required in order for it to be considered an
experiment?
3. How are theories different from hypotheses?
Research Methods in Psychology
4. What are the four goals for research?
5. What are the goals of descriptive studies?
Types of Research Methods
6. When is naturalistic observations used?
A. What are disadvantages associated with using naturalistic observations?
7. When would a researcher use a case study?
A. What are the disadvantages of using a case study?
8. What is an advantage of using a survey?
A. Why may people lie when taking a survey?
B. How do researchers influence the answering of participants’ responses?
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9. What is the design of correlational studies?
A. What is the main disadvantage of correlational studies?
10. How are experiments designed?
A. Why do researchers use experimental design?
B. Identify two possible disadvantages for conducting experimental design?
Experiments: An in-depth look
11. What is the only way to prove cause/effect?
12. Identify the variable that is considered the variable of change or manipulation?
13. What is the variable that show the measurement or the effects of the independent
variable?
14. When does a null hypothesis occur?
A. Identify the variables that can’t be controlled by the researcher and could affect the
measurement of the dependent variable?
15. What do participants in the experimental group receive?
A. Explain the purpose of the control group and what constitutes a control group
condition?
16. How can research participants contribute to confounding variables? What is this called?
17. How can experimenter or researcher cause experimenter bias?
A. What is hindsight bias?
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B. How can overconfidence lead to experimenter bias?
18. How can a double-blind research design help to eliminate confounding variables?
19. What is the purpose of a placebo group or placebo effect?
Selecting Human Participants
20. What is referred to when the selection of participants only includes the targeted
population?
21. Define a population.
22. What is a stratified sample?
23. When is a cross-sectional sample applied?
A. Give an example of a cross-sectional study?
24. When is a longitudinal study used?
A. What are the disadvantages of using a longitudinal study?
25. Describe the random sampling process?
A. When does a sampling bias occur?
26. When is random assignment used?
A. How is random assignment different from random sampling?
STOP COMPLETE Table 1 PAGE 183
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Statistical Analysis of Research
27. What are two methods that allow a researcher to formulate a statistical conclusion?
28. What are descriptive statistics?
Statistical Analysis of Research: Descriptive Statistics
29. What is the process of developing a frequency distribution?
30. Define the three types of central tendency?
A. Mean:
B. Median:
C. Mode:
31. Describe a normal distribution.
A. When is a percentile score used?
B. How is a standard score used?
32. What defines a range?
A. What does standard deviation indicate?
B. When does a skewed distribution occur?
33. How is the strength or value of a relationship determined in a correlational study?
A. Numerically what determines a strong relationship?
34. Define positive correlation:
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A. Give an example of a positive correlation?
35. Define negative correlation:
A. Give an example of a negative correlation:
36. When does an illusory correlation occur?
A. Give an example of an illusory correlation?
Statistical Analysis of Research: Inferential Statistics
37. When are inferential statistics used by researchers?
38. When is data or the results considered statistically significant?
Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists
39. According to APA’ Ethical Principles explain the following guidelines:
A. Informed Consent:
B. Debriefing:
C. Confidentiality
D. Parental Permission
E. Prevention of harm
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1. Theory- explanation about behavior or situation summarizing and describing findings
resulting from a hypothesis- testable prediction- first step in scientific method
2. Descriptive studies- describe behavior but don’t explain / case study- in-depth interview or
review of rare phenomenon or person- but can’t be applied to general population (Freud used
this method)/ Surveys- given to large groups for quick results- False consensus effect-
believing people taking the survey will automatically agree with the person’s thoughts and
opinions who wrote the survey- Social desirability effect- tendency for people to answer in a
favorable way to make one look good/ Wording effect- how you word questions could
influence how people answer surveys
3. Longitudinal study- long-term study over a group of people- very expensive and time
consuming/ cross-sectional study- study that examines and makes comparisons among
different groups like age, gender
4. Random sample- everybody equal chance of being picked from population- the group being
studied resulting in a representative sample- sample taken from targeted population
5. Random selection or assignment- equal chance for all participants (of the representative
sample) to be chosen for either control group- the group that is held for comparison not given
the independent variable or experimental group- the group that receives the independent
variable)
6. Correlational studies- shows relationships and makes predictions between variables or
factors- but does not provide cause-and-effect explanations / a number called the
correlational coefficient if closer to 1.00 (+1.00 or -1.00) means a strong relationship shown
on a scatter plot/ illusory correlation- relationship that appears to be there, but is not like
people act crazy during a full moon. Negative correlation variables move in opposite
directions (less you drink more you remember) Positive correlation- variables move in same
direction (more you study better grades you get)
7. Experiment- shows cause and effect relationships among variables by manipulating or
causing change with a variable called the independent variable- the variable of
experimenter interest and then showing the amount of change through measurement (the
results) of the dependent variable (If students take a vitamin (independent variable) then
their retention of material (dependent variable) will go up.
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8. Confounding variable- variables that influence the dependent variable (outcome or
measurement of experiment) by not being considered or controlled by experimenter (students
moods before they take a test)
9. Double-blind procedure- guards against researcher bias and participant bias through the
subjects or experimenters not knowing who is in the control or experimental group or what is
the purpose of the study/ Placebo group- a fake/sugar pill independent variable
10. Hindsight bias- “I knew the results all along” but only state after the results given
11. Operational definitions- precise instructions how each variable will be manipulated or
measured in an experiment- helps others to later do same or replicate the experiment
12. Overconfidence- people or researchers who believe they already know the outcome before
the experiment and don’t consider any other factors or possibilities.
13. Research guidelines- informed consent- participants know that they are part of an
experiment/ debriefing- participants are told the purpose and the results of study.
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Key term Definition Analogy
Applied research Research that can be applied
to the general population
You APPLY the paint (theory) to the
house changing the color of the house
Basic research Research used to build or gain
knowledge
Basic research adds more pages to a book
Variable Factor or feature that is being
measured or manipulated
Variables are going to VARY by either
being manipulated or changed/ measured
Theory Explanation makes
predictions/ observations
A theory is the title page of a book tells
reader what the book is going to be about
Hypothesis A testable prediction or
educated guess
A hypothesis are the pages that follow the
title page that tell the story
Operational
definition
Precise instructions define
how variables measured or
manipulated, allows
replication by other
researchers
Operational definitions DEFINE how the
experiment is going to OPERATE or run
Meta-analysis An analysis that includes
many types of research
Meta means MANY- many types of
research
Descriptive
research
Research that describes
behavior and phenomenon
Descriptive means to DESCRIBE
something
Naturalistic
observation
Observing people/ species in a
natural habitat
In order to be NATURALLY observed
the researcher CANNOT be seen
Surveys Self-reported inventories often
given to large groups
“I am going to survey or ask my friends to
see what they want to do tonight”
Wording effect How words or questions can
influence opinions on a survey
Harmful versus detrimental means the
same but reads different to people taking
False-consensus
effect
A researcher’s belief
participants share the same
attitudes or beliefs
You Falsely believe everyone thinks like
you that is why you are surprised when
people disagree with you
Social
desirability bias
Participants desire to answer
or perform in a favoring way
Most people have a DESIRABLE opinion
don’t want to admit to negative behavior
Case study/
case history
Detailed explanation of a
single individual or rare
phenomenon-cannot be
applied to general population
CASE means ONE- nobody would buy a
yearbook if it were a case study because
there are no pictures of them- can’t relate
to it
Correlational
research
Research designed to look for
possible relationships among
variables, but does not offer
cause-effect explanations
You cannot assume sports drinks will
make you run faster because other factors
make you also run faster- sports drinks
MAY POSSIBLY make you run faster
Experiment Research manipulates or
changes one variable to see
effects on another variable by
holding constant
Experiment means to change like you are
going to change the way you study to see
if it improves your grades- Cause-and-
effect
Confederate Instructed by researcher to act
a role to during experiment
A confederate is like an actor or actress-
PLAYING a part assigned to them
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Independent
variable
A variable that is manipulated
or changed and is the main
interest of the researcher
IN-dependent variable is what the
researcher is IN-trested in/ “I am
Interested in the Independent variable”
Dependent
variable
Variable shows measurement
influenced by Independent
The dependent variable DEPENDS on
how you measure it
Control group The group that is held
constant and not exposed to
the independent variable
Comparison to see how much change
occurs in experimental group “The
experimental group’s scores went up 9%”
Experimental
group
Group manipulated; exposure
to independent variable
The experimental group is being
EXPERIMENTED WITH by change
Confounding or
extraneous
variable
Variables, not considered by
researcher, that could affect
measurement of dependent
variable/ motivation, weather
People’s time in a mile (dependent
variable) may be affected by weather-
windy and rainy the day of the timing
(confounding variable)
Experimenter
bias
Researchers who work
towards a predetermined goal
or outcome
AP teachers are not allowed to be in AP
testing room because their presence could
make the students try harder on the test
Hindsight bias Belief the researcher foreseen
the conclusion or knew the
outcome the entire time
People often say AFTER the game they
knew who was going to win, which shows
that they were hoping for that team to win
Research
participant bias
Participants act or perform in
a to achieve desired outcomes
If you told a sports drink will make you
run faster you might try harder in the race
Null hypothesis Belief independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable
Placebo Non-active or fake substance
helps to eliminate research
participant bias
To see if people are acting versus the
actual effects of alcohol is to serve
nonalcoholic drinks and observe
Double-blind
procedure
A procedure where the researcher does not know which participants are in
control or experimenter group and the research participants do not know
the purpose/ measurement of the experiment/Double blind nobody knows
Longitudinal
design
A long-term study that
examines the same people or
phenomenon over an extended
period of time- very expensive
If you theorize not being held as a baby
will affect hugging another person as
adult would have to follow that person
from baby to adulthood- LONG TIME
Cross-sectional Examines and compares two diverse groups at same time- male/female
Random
sampling
Providing an equal chance or
opportunity for every subject
to be chosen for study
Your class schedule using random
sampling every class offered at your
school would have an equal chance
Random
assignment
Randomly assigning or giving
participants an equal chance
of being assigned to the
experimental or control group
You randomly ASSIGN people to the
experimental or control group- if you
handpicked may be tempted to pick
certain people to be experimental group-
Population Desired group to be study If studying high school seniors then your
population would be high school seniors
Representative
sample
A sample that was chosen
from the desired population
Your sample REPRESENTS your
population
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___ 1. Indicates how research and variables will
be defined, tested, and measured allowing
other researchers to replicate the study.
A) Case study
___ 2. An in-depth study of a rare phenomenon or
person that often cannot be generalized or
related to a population.
B) Operational definitions
___ 3. A research method that infers cause-and-
effect relationships through the
manipulation of a variable and the effects
or measurement of another variable.
C) Experimental method
___ 4. The variable being manipulated or variable
of an interest to the experimenter.
D) Random assignment.
___ 5. The variable that shows the measurable
outcome or resulting effect of the
independent variable.
E) Double-blind design
___ 6. Variables that were not considered by the
experimenter that often will affect the
measurement of the dependent variable.
F) Confounding variable
___ 7. The group in an experiment that is held
constant or not administered the
independent variable.
G) Independent variable
___ 8. The experimental design that does not
allow the researcher or the participants to
know the measurement or which group the
participants are assigned guarding against
participant or experimenter bias.
H) Representative sample
___ 9. The result of using random sampling that
chooses participants that closely match the
population or group being studied.
I) Control group
___ 10. Allowing participants within the study an
equal chance of being chosen for either the
experimental or control group.
J) Dependent variable
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Key Term Definition Analogy
Descriptive
statistics
Numbers that summarize research
data
Descriptive means to describe
Frequency
distribution
Arranging information in a bar or
graph to show scores
Distributing or describing the frequency
or numbers
Mean Mathematical average of the data Mean means average
Median A numerical value that appears in the middle of the data
Mode A value that appears most in data Mode is same m-OLD number
Normal
distribution
Data that resembles a normal
curve
Normal distribution means half on one
side and half on other side of MEDIAN
Range Difference between the highest
and lowest score
A driving range goes from where you hit
the golf ball to the end of the range
Standard
deviation
The variability between scores
and the mean
People DEVIATE from the way people
act- making them unique and not average
Correlational
research
Research designed to look for
possible relationships among
variables, but does not offer
cause-effect explanations
You cannot assume that sports drinks
will make you run faster because other
factors or variables may make you run
faster- rather sports drinks may make
possibly make you run faster
Third variable
problem
Correlational research can hint at
possible cause-effect
relationships but is not conclusive
There is a possible relationship between
motivation and grade point but other
factors play a role like intelligence
Correlational
coefficient
A numerical value that shows the
strength of a relationship
Closer a relationship is to 1.00 or -1.00
the stronger the relationship
Scatterplot Represents values of variables
and show direction of possible
relationships
A scatter plot look like kids that scatter
all over the playground when recess is
over
Positive
correlation
A relationship where variables
moves in the same direction- up
or down
Positive does not just mean up because
as long as it moves in the same direction
it is a positive correlation
Negative or
inverse
correlation
A relationship that involves
variable moving in an opposite
directions
A relationship break up is NEGATIVE
because the couple moves in OPPOSITE
directions
Illusory
correlation
A relationship that is believed to
exist but in actuality does not
A magic trick is an illusion because you
believe you saw something not there
Inferential
statistics
Allows a researcher to apply or
infer his or her results to the
general population
Infer means to cause- the stats show that
eating candy causes tooth decay/ 58% of
kids that ate candy had increased cavities
Statistically
significant
Results that are not influenced by
chance
NUMBERS never lie- or the scale never
lies
Informed
consent
Participants actively agree to
participate in an experiment
If your parent’s give consent for then
you have permission
Debriefed Participants are allowed to view
the results and provided
information after the experiment
If your parents debrief you about prom
then it occurs when prom is over and you
are at home
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___ 1. The numerical average of all the presented
data.
A) Range
___ 2. The numerical value or number that
appears the most in presented data.
B) Correlational study
___ 3. The difference of the numerical value of all
given scores arranged from highest to
lowest.
C) Correlation coefficient
___ 4. The numerical relationship between 2 or
more variables that often will show the
strength of a relationship, but does not
indicate causation because of the
possibility of a third variable.
D) Illusory correlation
___ 5. The numerical value demonstrating the
strength or weakness of a correlational
relationship through closeness to 1.00 or -
1.00.
E) Mode
___ 6. Occurs when either variables or factors
move in the same direction of a
correlational study.
F) Debriefing
___ 7. An incorrect belief that one variable
affected the outcome of another variable
when it reality there is no relationship.
G) Positive correlation
___ 8. Statistics that allow a researcher to apply
his or her results to the general population
and infers that data can be generalized.
H) Statistically significant
___ 9. Statistical results that are not influenced by
chance and are valid and reliable.
I) Mean
___ 10. After a study is completed the researcher
shares with the participants what the
experiment was about.
J) Inferential statistics
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Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”
Hypothesis Guess Theory Explanation
Operational
definition
Directions,
replication,
requirement
Descriptive studies Describe
Naturalistic
observation
Natural, animals Case study In-depth, atypical
Surveys Quickly, large groups Social desirability
effect
Perfect, guilt feelings
False consensus
effect
Assuming, agreeing Correlational study Relationships,
prediction, no
causation
Experiments Causation,
manipulation Independent
variable
Interest, change,
manipulation
Dependent variable Measurement,
outcome Confounding
variables
No control
Experimental group Interest, given the
change Control group Comparison, no
change
Null hypothesis No effect Participant bias Opinions, knowledge
Experimenter bias Expectations Double-blind
procedure
Nobody knows
Placebo group Fake Hindsight bias “I knew it”
Overconfidence Arrogant Representative
sample
Represents
population
Population Targeted group Stratified sample Specific part
Cross-sectional
study
Comparison Longitudinal study Long-term
Random sampling Equal chance Random assignment Assigned groups
Descriptive statistics Numerical
descriptions Frequency
distribution
Graphs
Mean Average Mode Most
Median Middle Normal distribution Normal curve
Range High-low Standard deviation Varies from average
Skew distribution Lopsided Correlation
coefficient
Closest to 1.00
Positive correlation Same direction Negative correlation Opposite direction
Illusory correlation Fake relationship Scatterplot Correlation data
Inferential
correlation
Understandable data Statistically
significance
No chance, numbers
Informed consent Permission Debriefing After, no deception
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Quarter Midterm 2
Review
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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
1. What drives people to do the things they do, the internal and external factors that direct
behavior is called motivation
Theories of Motivation
2. What explains motivation through a type of instinctual behavior?
_____________________________
a. An unlearned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus is referred to as
an ___________________
b. Who believed that organisms are motivated to perform certain behaviors to enhance
their survival of their species (natural selection), which influenced the development of
the instinct theory?
Charles Darwin
c. However, what is a criticism of the instinct theory?
Just provide labels and not explanations for motivation
3. The premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems at a
constant, stable level is referred to as _______________________
a. What is an example of homeostasis?
Body temperature
b. A biological requirement essential to proper bodily functioning is called a _________
c. Thirst, hunger, pain is a psychological state of tension, or arousal that directs an
organism to take action and reduce this tension are examples of a ____________
d. According to Clark Hull, _____________________ suggests that motivation is based
on the desire to reduce internal tension within the body (drives) that is caused by
biological needs not being met as indicated through ___________________.
Optimum Arousal Theory
4. What causes an increase in arousal, which is the result of several heightened
physiological states?
Arousal
5. What theory suggests that people try to maintain an ideal level of arousal through various
behavioral activities?
______________________________________
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a. A person who has a boring day (low arousal) may be more prone to go out at night
(high arousal) to balance out one’s day maintaining a steady arousal rate.
6. Difficult or challenging tasks cause arousal to be lower (not concentrate), and easy tasks
cause arousal to be higher (make stupid mistakes). People perform best when arousal is
maintained or moderate described in the _______________________
Incentive Motivation
7. Which theory suggest that external stimuli “push” people (working longer hours for
overtime) to positive incentives and “pull” people away from negative incentives
(coming in on time so don’t get fired)?
_____________________________
Humanistic Theories of Motivation
8. Which theory suggests that people are motivated to build a positive self-concept (image
and beliefs of oneself) and achieve his or her potential?
________________________
a. Abraham Maslow believed that motivation to achieve one’s potential is primarily innate
(born with), but also suggested that one’s environment plays an important role in
achieving this potential. He believed that people are motivated to progress through a
series of levels, satisfying each level, before moving on to the next, which he referred to
as the ________________________________
b. Maslow suggested people try to achieve self-actualization which is defined as?
_________________________________________________________________
c. Identify the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
5 Self-actualization
4 Esteem needs
3 Belongingness and love needs
2 Safety needs
1 Physiological needs
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___ 1. What is a fixed-pattern, often unlearned and automatic response to a behavior;
described in Charles Darwin's natural selection theory? *RC: you can't train animals
to go against their instincts*
A) Instinct; instinct theory D) Need theory
B) Drive reduction theory E) Arousal theory
C) Homeostasis
___ 2. Jeff stops his workout to get drink of water even though he only had three minutes
left before he was done. Which theory of motivation best explains why he stopped
his workout? *RC: What drives us to get a drink of water- we have needs*
A) Arousal theory D) Self-actualization
B) Instinct theory E) Need motivation
C) Drive-reduction theory
___ 3. Which of the following examples best describes the optimum arousal theory? *RC:
Long day=stay home; boring day= go out*
A) Jenny had a stressful day at school and later tells her friends that she is just going
to rent a movie and stay home.
B) Richard gets a drink of water in the middle of the night.
C) Lucy gets her homework back out because she thinks she is not ready for the test.
D) A dog barks nonstop at the mailman.
E) Mitch has a busy day at school and has a strong desire to go and be with his
friends.
___ 4. A football coach is concerned his players are not practicing enough so he decides to
offer stickers to put on their helmets if they achieve certain goals in practice. Which
theory of motivation is the coach utilizing? *RC: extra credit is extra motivation that
pushes certain behaviors*
A) Drive-reduction theory D) Incentive theory
B) Insulin deficiency E) Homeostasis
C) Instinctual theory
___ 5. According to Abraham Maslow, what is the first level in the hierarchy of needs that
must be satisfied in order to reach self-actualization or self-mastery? *RC: remember
you can't concentrate if you have not had something to eat; always need to eat a good
breakfast*
A) Love and belonginess needs D) Safety and security needs
B) Aesthetic needs E) Physiological needs
C) Cognitive needs
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Hunger
1. Is there more to a person getting hungry than him or her experiencing “hunger pangs?”
Yes or No/
2. Where do the most important signals for hunger come from?
Blood
a. As food moves from the stomach to the bloodstream, a hormone called ___________
(cholecystokinin) is released; this hormone is detected by the brain, where it acts as a
neurotransmitter signifying short-term satiation or fullness.
b. What is another hormone that also signals satiation, which is released into the
bloodstream as a result of fat increasing?
___________________
a. When leptin levels remains high a person feels full or satiated.
b. Sugar that the body uses for energy is called?
________________________
c. Which hormone converts sugar to energy?
_______________________
d. When insulin levels are high/ glucose levels decrease causing a person to become
hunger
The Brain’s Role in Hunger
3. What was the first area of the brain to be identified as a control center for hunger?
________________________________
a. Researchers believe that the ______________ hypothalamus stops hunger and the _____
hypothalamus initiated or starts hunger.
b. Damage to the lateral hypothalamus would cause an animal to stop eating. The lateral
hypothalamus produces a hormone called orexin that triggers hunger.
c. However, damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus did not cause a rat to eat until it
exploded, but rather became more particular with what it ate. Damage to the
hypothalamus showed that other drives were affected if destroyed. More sophisticated
areas of the brain are also involved in hunger.
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Body Weight
4. One-third of the body’s energy is used for energy such as exercising, studying, everyday
functions. The other two-thirds are used for vital life functions such as breathing, heart
rate, brain-activity.
a. The regulation and expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vial functions is
monitored by the basal metabolic rate.
a. As people get older their BMR slows down
b. Women have a slower BMR than men
c. If you don’t eat your BMR will slow down.
Set-Point Theory
5. Homeostasis monitors and maintains internal body weight. The ______________ theory
maintains a person’s ideal weight through increasing or decreasing the BMR.
a. Also once fat cells start to increase in number weight gain will be seen and dieting will
just cause fat cells to decrease in size not number.
Obesity
6. The measure of a person’s weight in proportion to their height and weight is referred to as
the body mass index.
a. Normal BMI is between 18.5- 25
b. Obese people have a BMI of over 30.
a. However the BMI does not take into account muscle mass or bone density.
Eating Disorder
7. An eating disorder characterized by a dramatic drop in calories consumed and an
obsession with exercise is referred to as anorexia nervosa
a. Type of eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amount of food
and purging- disposing of these calories is referred to as bulimia nervosa
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Achievement and Motivation
8. People who are driven to master a task or achieve a personal goal demonstrate
__________________________________________
a. People who try to outdo, or beat, other people demonstrate _________________
b. Who was one of the first psychologists to measure achievement motivation?
Henry Murray
c. Which test did Murray use to measure people’s level of achievement motivation?
_____________________________________
d. Albert Bandura believed that a person’s level of confidence one has when facing
challenges and demands of a situation referred to as __________________ also play a
role in a person’s level of success.
Motivation and Work
9. Which type of psychologists applies psychological concepts to optimize the workplace as
an effective and productive environment?
_______________________________________
a. Which branch of industrial-organizational psychology tries to match the right job with the
right employee through administering personality tests and questionnaires?
Personnel psychology
a. A desire to achieve internal satisfaction and personal achievement is referred to as
_________________________________
b. A desire to achieve an external factor like a pay raise or a bonus is referred to as
____________________________________
b. Another field of industrial-organizational psychology that addresses worker satisfaction
and productivity in the workplace is called organizational psychology
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___ 1. When insulin levels rise in the body what is the result? *RC: think of a teeter-totter;
what does up the other decreases*
A) Sugar is stored and a person is satiated.
B) Sugar is broken down for energy and a person feels hungry.
C) Leptin levels rise and a person is satiated.
D) CCK levels are conserved leading to satiation.
E) Sugar is broken down leading to feelings of satiation.
___ 2. Which part of the brain is involved in initiating hunger? *RC: remember L stands for
"let's eat!"
A) Lateral hippocampus D) Ventromedial hypothalamus
B) Lateral hypothalamus E) Cerebellum
C) Ventromedial hippocampus
___ 3. Which of the following statements in INCORRECT concerning obesity? *RC: it
takes more effort to move more weight*
A) Obesity is indicated by a BMI number greater than 30.
B) An obese person has a higher quantity of fat cells in their body.
C) An obese person has a slower BMR than non-obese person.
D) An obese person may have leptin resistance.
E) An obese person stores more fat cells.
___ 4. Which type of personality test is used to measure a person's desire for achievement
motivation? *RC: think about tell-a-tale; more competition in the tale the more will
to win*
A) MMPI B) NEO-PI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) ACT
___ 5. Which statement accurately describes the role of an Industrial-organizational
psychologist? *RC: the better organize an industry the better the industry will
function*
A) Concerned with the well-being and development of a child.
B) Ensuring that proper tests are given to preschool children.
C) Conditioning and reconditioning of phobic reactions.
D) Matching the proper personality with the right job.
E) Analyzing and comparing test results on standardized tests.
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Introduction to Emotions
1. Emotions are related to motivation as people are motivated to experience happy
emotions. Emotions are based on 3 factors:
A. Cognitive appraisal
B. Physiological reactions (which are innate)
C. Expressive behaviors
2. The central nervous systems and the autonomic nervous system play a role in the
activation of emotions. Which part of the autonomic nervous system arouses the body?
________________________________
a. As the body is confronted with a threatening stimulus through activation of the
sympathetic nervous system by increasing breathing, heart-rate, muscles
tightening, which is referred to as the _________________________
b. Also anger tends to raise skin temperature and fear tends to lower skin
temperature.
c. Emotions also cause different areas of the brain to become active. Which part of
the limbic system is critical in learning emotions, especially recognizing
emotional expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?
___________________________
d. Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary forming facial expressions?
Pyramedial motor system
e. Which part of the brain is responsible for natural face expressions?
Extrapyramidal motor system
f. The ________ hemisphere is associated with the experience and expression of
emotion.
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Theories of Emotion
3. Identify the theories of emotion.
Theory Researchers Definition
________________
_________________
William
James
Carl Lange
Emotion is the result of the interpretation of
bodily functions
Criticism- if emotions are the result of changes in
the body, then somebody with a spinal cord
injury would not experience emotion. not true
_________________
_________________
Walter
Cannon
Phillip Bard
Emotions are the result of the thalamus receiving
sensory information about emotional stimuli and
relaying the information simultaneously to the
autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex.
_________________
_________________
Stanley
Schechter
Jerome Singer
Emotion is the result of the interaction of two
separate factors:
Physiological arousal and a cognitive label that
explains why there is physiological arousal.
_________________
_________________
Richard
Lazarus
Emotions are the result of the cognitive appraisal
of a situation and how a person decides it will
affect his or her well-being
Emotional Expression
4. Carroll Izard believed that certain facial expressions are present at birth- like pain.
a. Smiling being around 3-4 weeks
b. Anger around 2 months
c. Fear around 6-7 months
c. Who believed that facial expressions are similar across many cultures?
Paul Ekman
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___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for facial recognition and proper emotional
response? *RC: remember never make Amy mad because she may become emotional*
A) Hypothalamus D) Prefrontal cortex
B) Hippocampus E) Amygdala
C) Cerebellum
___ 2. Which theory of emotion suggests that the brain and body simultaneously experience
emotion trough relay of the thalamus due to a stimuli response? *RC: Cannon
becomes scared as Bard's heart starts to race*
A) James-Lange D) Cognitive mediational
B) Cannon-Bard E) Facial feedback
C) Two-factory
___ 3. Which theory of motivation is challenged as the idea of polygraphs do not necessary
mean guilt of an act? *RC: remember your heart accelerates the same whether its
excitement or anger; James and Lange were friends until James got a girlfriend and
Lange lost his best friend- both of them had the same changes in their body*
A) Cannon-Bard D) Cognitive mediational
B) Facial feedback E) Two-factor
C) James-Lange
___ 4. Larry's heart starts to race because he knows that the letter he is holding will read if
he is going to be accepted to college? Larry's identification of why his heart is racing
is described in which emotional theory? *RC: Oh no! my hear is racing I better find
the label to explain to my brain why*
A) James-Lange D) Facial feedback
B) Cannon-Bard E) Two-factor
C) Cognitive mediational
___ 5. Which of the following statements best explains the difference between the Two-
factor and Cognitive mediational theory of emotion? *RC: remember to mediate
means to precede over a situation or event*
A) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas
the cognitive theory the brain decides the differences in emotional response.
B) Two factor looks at the situation; cognitive mediational theory looks at changes
in the body.
C) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas
the cognitive mediational theory is explaining the situation one is experiencing.
D) Both theories agree on the situation playing a little role and spinal cord separates
what people experience.
E) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body
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Introduction to Stress
1. A negative emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that exceed a
person’s ability to control them is referred to as stress
a. What type of psychologists study the effects of stress on the body?
______________________________
b. Health psychologists believe that biological (genetics, family history),
psychological (interpreting of stressful circumstances), and social (where one
lives) play a part in a person’s health. This viewpoint is referred to as the
biopsychosocial model
Types of Stress
2. Circumstances, events, and situations that contribute to stress are called stressors
a. Minor inconveniences that occur somewhat daily are called daily hassles
b. Events that cause a person’s lifestyle to change are called life changes.
c. According to the Social Readjustment Rating Scale death of a spouse/ death of a
parent is considered for an adult the most stressful life change.
Causes of Stress
3. People experience a conflict when they are indecisive about the alternatives.
a. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two
appealing or favorable alternatives is called an _________________________
b. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two
unappealing or negative alternatives is called an ________________________
c. The most stressful conflict, which involves an alternative that has both positive and
negative attributes or parts is called a ___________________________________
d. Type of conflict that involves two choices each with both positive and negative
attributes is called a ______________________________________
4. When a goal is blocked this is referred to as frustration.
a. What does a person experience when extra demands are placed on a person to
perform or conform?
Pressure
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Stress and the Body
5. Stress can affect the body both indirectly, causing a person to smoke, and also directly
through weakening the immune system. Stress directly affects the endocrine system.
Walter Cannon found that the body experiences changes at an immediate threat- referred
to as the fight-or-flight syndrome:
1. They hypothalamus and lower-brain structures active the ___________________
_________
2. They sympathetic nervous system then activates the adrenal medulla
3. The adrenal medulla release hormones called ________________ (which include the
hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline that circulated in the body/ and the
neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine that circulate in the brain)
4. Catecholamine circulate in the bloodstream that cause increases in heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, increased blood flow the muscles, pupils to dilate, and
digestion to slow.
6. Hans Seyle studied the effects of prolonged stress. He referred to the toll stress has on
the body as the ______________________________
a. Fill in Seyle’s GAS chart:
Stage Description
______________ Intense body arousal as threat of a stressor is interpreted- causes the
release of catecholamine’s- fight-or-flight syndrome
______________ The body trying to adjust to the intense arousal triggered in the alarm
stage- release of corticosteroids
_____________
_____________
If stressor continues to arouse body- becomes exhausted which can
lead to burn-out
b. Selye also discovered a second endocrine pathway that occurs during exposure to
prolonged stress:
1. They hypothalamus triggers the _________________________
2. The pituitary gland then releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. ACTH triggers the adrenal cortex to release the stress hormones known as
_______________________
4. Corticosteroids increase the release of stored energy and reduce the response of the
immune system.
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The Effects of Stress on the Immune System
7. Who demonstrated that the immune system could be affected by psychological thought
processes?
Robert Adler and Nicholas Cohen
a. This led to the development of psychoneuroimmunology, a field of psychology that
looked for connections of the psychological, nervous, and the immune system.
Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness
8. Identify different types of handling stress:
Method Definition
Perceived
control
The more sense of control a person has over a situation or
circumstances, the less stress that person will encounter
____________
___________
___________
____________
Optimistic: explain negative events through specific explanations and
consideration of external factors
Pessimistic: explain negative events with personal vindication and self-
defeating attitudes
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman researched the effects of Type A
behavior in contrast to Type B. Type A people are impatient and
competitive and display anger and irritation frequently. As a result,
they have a greater chance of developing heart disease and chronic
illnesses.
Type B behavior is characterized by a calm, relaxed response style.
Social support Advice and resources provided by knowledgeable and productive
friends and family
Coping Strategies
9. Coping refers to the adjustments and changes made to handle stressful situations or
circumstances.
Strategy Definition
______________________
Addressing problem by changing the factors associated with
the problem
______________________
Changing certain emotions that are triggered by a stressor
(anger management)
The Role of culture on Stress
10. What type of culture, like the United States, tends to keep problems to themselves, and
rely more on problem-focused coping strategies?
_____________________________
a. Which type of culture relies more on emotion-focused coping through relying on people
and social support?
_____________________________
b. What type of stress occurs through the pressure of trying to adapt or assimilate to a new
culture?
Acculturative stress
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___ 2. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are
catecholamine released in turn causing flight-or-flight syndrome in response to a
stressful stimuli? *RC: think of catecholamine as fire engines racing out of the fire
house at the sound of an alarm*
A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Reaction
___ 3. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are
corticosteroids released helping the body fight the struggles of prolonged stress?
*RC: people are amazed how much energy they have during stressful times; it is
because they have little helpers fighting the stress battle*
A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Baseline
___ 4. Which of the following would support an optimistic explanatory style? *RC:
remember "O there is a good reason why the outcome occurred that way*
A) A football player thinks that he should quit because he will never be any good.
B) A student who did not picked for a leading role in a play thinks the teacher does
not like him.
C) Sarah understands that other students are more qualified as why she did not get
chosen for the leadership.
D) Frank says that his parents will call the coach and make sure that he plays the
next game.
E) June takes pride in knowing she cheated on the recent exam.
___ 5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Type A behavior? *RC: remember
A for angry, agitated....*
A) Competitive D) Patient
B) Easily annoyed E) Consumed with time
C) Prone to heart disease
___ 1. Jimmy wants to buy a car but he is torn because on one hand the car looks sharp, but
on the other it gets bad gas millage. Which type of conflict is Jimmy experiencing?
*RC: Remember most things have good and bad points; some make you approach
and others avoid*
A) approach-approach D) double avoidance
B) avoidance-avoidance E) multiple approach
C) approach-avoidance
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1. Internal and external factors that
direct an organism’s behavior
towards a desired outcome is referred
to as
(A) emotion
(B) homeostasis
(C) motivation
(D) arousal
(E) behavior
2. Jimmy got up in the middle of night
for a drink of water because he was
thirsty. Which theory best explains
why Jimmy got out of bed?
(A) Instinct theory
(B) Optimum arousal theory
(C) James-Lange theory
(D) Drive-reduction theory
(E) Self-actualization
3. Jenny wants to leave a party because
it is boring and go somewhere that is
more exciting. Which theory of
motivation would explain Jenny’s
reason for leaving the party?
(A) Instinct theory
(B) Optimum arousal theory
(C) Drive-reduction theory
(D) Cannon-Bard theory
(E) James-Lange theory
4. Joe was motivated to work flex-time
at his job because if he worked an
extra hour Monday through Thursday
he could leave at noon on Friday.
Which motivational theory would
best explain the rationale for Joe’s
wanting to work a flex-time
schedule?
(A) Drive-reduction theory
(B) James-Lange theory
(C) Instinct theory
(D) Incentive theory
(E) Yerkes-Dodson law
5. CCK is a signal for satiety of ___
hunger, and leptin is a signal for
satiety of ___ hunger.
(A) long-term; short-term
(B) short-term; long-term
(C) long-term; long-term
(D) short-term; short-term
(E) none of the above
6. As Tommy was mowing his lawn on
a hot summer day, he started to sweat
profusely. Tommy began to sweat to
cool his body in response to his body
temperature becoming too hot. What
refers to maintaining a constant
internal state within the body?
(A) Drive
(B) Parallel processing
(C) Homeostasis
(D) Hemoglobin
(E) Activity-synthesis
7. ___ hypothalamus initiates hunger,
and ___ hypothalamus stops hunger.
(A) Lateral; lateral
(B) Ventromedial; lateral
(C) Ventromedial; ventromedial
(D) Lateral; ventromedial
(E) Amygdala; ventromedial
8. Suzy has started to consume less and
less food. She also spends three to
four hours at the gym working out
each day. The mention of food upsets
her, and she won’t listen to anybody
who suggests that she is not eating
enough. Suzy may be suffering from
(A) anorexia nervosa
(B) bulimia nervosa
(C) the misinformation effect
(D) serial processing
(E) the egocentrism effect
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9. When Jimmy started to learn to play
golf, he struggled with the
fundamentals. Instead of quitting,
Jimmy continued to practice and
tried to get better. This pursuit of
self-mastery or realization of his
potential is referred to as
(A) love and belongingness needs
(B) safety needs
(C) physiological needs
(D) personal needs
(E) self-actualization
10. The ___, a part of the limbic system,
is important in perceiving emotion.
(A) hippocampus
(B) amygdala
(C) hypothalamus
(D) pons
(E) cerebellum
11. When Julie heard a noise outside her
window, her heart started to beat
faster, and as a result she became
scared. Which theory of emotion
could best explain Julie’s response of
fear?
(A) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
(B) James-Lange theory of emotion
(C) Two-factor theory of emotion
(D) Cognitive-mediational theory of
emotion
(E) Facial-feedback hypothesis
12. Which theory suggests that emotion
is the result of applying a cognitive
label to explain a physiological
reaction?
(A) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
(B) James-Lange theory of emotion
(C) Schachter-Singer’s two-factor
theory of emotion
(D) Cognitive-mediational theory of
emotion
(E) Facial-feedback hypothesis
13. ___ psychology is a field of
psychology that studies the effects of
stress on the human body and shows
how to handle stress by promoting a
positive lifestyle.
(A) Cognitive
(B) Behavioral
(C) Industrial-organizational
(D) Health
(E) Social
14. In the fight-or-flight response, the
adrenal medulla releases ___, a
hormone that alerts the body by
elevating heart rate and respiration
while tightening muscles.
(A) catecholamine
(B) corticosteroids
(C) melatonin
(D) insulin
(E) leptin
15. Tracy doesn’t like to talk in front of
large groups, so she convinces a co-
worker to join her scheduled
presentation. Tracy used?
(A) Catharsis expression coping
(B) Constructive coping
(C) Denial coping
(D) Perceptual inconsistency coping
(E) Self-indulgence coping
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1. Answer: C. Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that affect an organism’s behavior
2. Answer: D. The drive-reduction theory of motivation says that organisms are driven to satisfy
biological needs that are not being met
3. Answer: B. The optimum arousal theory states that people are motivated to maintain a certain
amount of arousal
4. Answer: D. Incentive theory suggests that people are pushed or motivated by appealing stimuli, such
as being able to leave work early on a Friday
5. Answer: B. CCK sends signals that signify short-term satiation, as during a meal, and leptin sends
signals that signify the amount of fat in the bloodstream, which contributes to long-term satiation
6. Answer: C. Homeostasis monitors the internal states of the body, producing tension when levels
become too high or too low
7. Answer: D. The lateral hypothalamus initiates hunger and the ventromedial hypothalamus stops it
8. Answer: A. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by lack of caloric intake, vigorous
exercise, and a fear of gaining weight
9. Answer: E. Self-actualization, according to Abraham Maslow, is on top of the hierarchy of needs and
signifies mastery and working at potential
10. Answer: B. The amygdala is located in the limbic system and is responsible for expressing and
perceiving emotion
11. Answer: B. The James-Lange theory of emotion states that emotions are the result of physiological
changes in the body
12. Answer: C. The two-factory theory of emotion states that emotion is the result of providing a
cognitive label as an explanation for changes in physiological responses
13. Answer: D. Health psychology studies the effects of stress by providing information that helps
people learn what stress is and how it affects the body
14. Answer: A. Catecholamine are released into the bloodstream by the adrenal medulla, where they
work to elevate the heart and breathing rates and increase muscle tension, thus preparing the body for
fight-or-flight
15. Answer: B. Constructive coping strategies address the problem, or the cause of the problem, and seek
a more favorable solution
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Abnormal Psychology 1. The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of psychological or mental
disorders is called psychopathology
a. Deviant, maladaptive or harmful behaviors, and disruptive patterns of thinking,
feeling, and acting that cause distress and dysfunction and affect the performance
of daily functions are referred to as mental disorders. These disorders can also
cause distress for the people who come in contact with these people.
Defining Abnormal Behavior
2. Deviant behavior is defined as being different from the behavior of most people in a
particular culture. But. what is normal in one culture maybe abnormal in another culture.
a. Statistical infrequency has been used to define abnormal behavior as a person
who displays unusual behaviors are considered abnormal. But, if someone does
not partake in mainstream activities, then he or she is not abnormal; just different.
b. Personal suffering alone cannot define abnormal behavior as this person
maybe suffering from cognitive difficulties.
c. An approach that focuses on how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior
affect, or interfere with, his or her home life, work, and social functioning has
been seen as an effective way to define abnormal behavior. This approach is
called the practical approach
Explaining Psychological Disorders
3. Who was the first to suggest that mental illness were not the result of demonic
possession, but a sickness of the mind? Philippe Pinel
a. What illness helped to confirm Pinel’s suggestion of a sickness of the mind?
Syphilis
b. What model suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses
associated with specific symptoms to be treated medically? Medical model
c. What is a modern name for the medical model? Neurobiological model
d. What model states that psychological disorders are the result of psychological
processes that include the interpretation of stressful events, traumatic events, self-
defeating attitudes, thinking patterns, and distorted perceptions? Psychological
model
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e. What model suggests that psychological disorders result from societal roles
and expectations, environmental location, gender, age, ethnicity, and cultural
norms? Sociocultural model
f. What overall model suggests that psychological disorders are the result of the
combination and interaction or biological, psychological, and sociocultural
factors? Biopsychosocial model
g. Along with the efforts of Dorthea Dix, who was an activist that tiredly lobbied
the United States Congress for improved mental health care was able to
produce the first generation of mental facilities that redefined the perception
for treating people with mental disorders.
Diathesis-Stress Model
4. The biopsychosocial model is very good at identifying which factors could lead to a
psychological disorder, but lacks at explaining how these factors lead to a disorder. What
model suggests that the amount and type of stress play a crucial role in triggering genetic
predispositions that could result in psychological disorders?
__________________________________________
Classifying Psychological Disorders
5. What manual, first published in 1952, provides a common language for all
psychologists to identify and classify psychological disorders?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
a. What is the most recent version of this manual? DSM-V
Breaking Down the DSM-V
6. The DSM-V was not written by a single psychologist, but by a group of psychologists
including many different ideas, viewpoints, and outlooks. Was released in 2013
replacing the DSM-IV-TR used since 1994. A consideration for the DSM V, was to
transcend from a categorical to dimensional approach. Theorists pointed out that there is
often an overlap between diagnoses and that some people actually fit several types of
disorders. A dimensional maybe more inclusive to people experiencing several disorders.
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
7. Some critics believe that labeling someone with a psychological disorder will cause
more harm than good. People may treat this person differently, or the person labeled
may now try to live up to the label, which is often explained through the self-fulfilling
prophecy of inadvertently living up to the idea or belief. Who suggested that a label
is not the same as a description of a person such as unique characteristics and
explanations? Thomas Szasz
Anxiety Disorders
8. A noticeable difference from the DSM IV-TR to the DSM V was the reclassification
of certain types of anxiety disorders which had been a very broad category. Obsessive-
compulsive disorder was removed from anxiety disorders and placed into a category with
other similar compulsive tendencies. Post-traumatic stress disorder in now placed into a
new category called trauma-related disorders. Worrying, apprehension, and increased
physical arousal describe anxiety
a. Extreme feelings of apprehension, which disrupt functioning, and are present
for a long time refers to anxiety disorders
b. Identify the following anxiety disorders:
Type Characteristics
_________________
Irrational fear of an object or situation that doesn’t warrant such fear,
resulting in avoidance of the object or situation
Specific phobia- a phobia that involves a specific fear- acrophobia-
fear of heights
Social phobia- irrational fears related to social situations; criticism
Agoraphobia- irrational fear of open, public places- can lead to
someone staying home all the time
__________________
__________________
Mild anxiety not connected to any particular or situation; tends to last
for a long time, fatigue, irritability, beliefs terrible things will happen
_________________ Involves sudden occurrence of panic attacks; rapid heart-beat, heavy
breathing, dizziness, sweating, and fainting
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
9. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that often
lead to ritualistic and repetitive behaviors (compulsions.)
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10. Fill out the following chart of Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders:
Type Characteristics
_________________________
Involves compulsive collecting of many different
types of things with the difficulty of discarding or
letting go of those objects
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
An obsessive compulsive preoccupation with
flaws in one’s body. This involves continuously
observing one’s body and obsession with one’s
appearance with comparisons to other people’s
body. This is often associated with anorexia but
can include other body issues such as feeling one
is not muscular or premature blading even though
others do not notice.
_________________________ Referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point
of causing damage to one’s body
_________________________
_________________________
Occurs when a person compulsively pulls their
hair from their body to the point of causing bald
spots often focusing on eyelashes or eyebrows
11. Post-traumatic stress disorder involves symptoms of anxiety in response to extreme
physical or psychological trauma, causing the person to avoid any situations that
resemble the trauma. For example, some Vietnam veterans experienced flashbacks or
frequent memory reoccurrences, which then caused them to avoid any situations that
resembled aspects of the war.
12. Fill out the following chart of other traumatic-related disorders:
Type Characteristic
_________________________
_________________________
Involves people who experience a traumatic
event or neglect and as result become
emotionally withdrawn from inability to
form a secure attachment
_________________________
_________________________
Occurs when people have a difficult time
adjusting to a change of life, which could
disrupt routines and making progressive
changes
_________________________
_________________________
Occurs when a person experiences distress
and anxiety following a traumatic event that
could have caused death or injury. The onset
of the symptoms for acute stress disorder
occurs two days to four weeks after the
trauma whereas a difference between acute
stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not
diagnosed until four weeks after the
traumatic event has occurred.
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Causes of Anxiety Disorders
13. Biologically, most anxiety disorders run in families. If one identical twin develops
an anxiety disorder, the other twin has an increased chance. Some people inherit a
predisposition that causes the automatic nervous system to overreact to stressful stimuli.
Research has also shown that people with anxiety disorders have predispositions that
affect certain neurotransmitters:
a. A neurotransmitter linked with arousal, tends to be overactive in people
experiencing anxiety disorders, which is _______________________
b. A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and mood, shoes a lack
of functioning in people exhibiting anxiety disorders- especially OCD and social
phobias, which is _________________________
c. Which neurotransmitter, which has inhibitory effects or slowing brain activity,
has been shown to be in deficiency or lack of resulting in anxiety symptoms such
as racing thoughts? _________________________
d. Psychological factors such as parents modeling anxiety behavior that children
observe and model, lack of perceived control- external locus of control.
e. Anxiety disorders could also be the result of conditioning such as “Little
Albert.” What Pavlovian term described Albert associating his fear a white rat
with other similar stimuli? _____________________
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___ 2. An irrational fear is classified as which type of anxiety disorder? *RC: remember a
person should not be fearful of this object or situation?
A) Obsessive-compulsive disorder D) Borderline personality disorder
B) Post-traumatic stress disorder E) Specific fears
C) Phobia
___ 3. A type of phobia that is characterized by a fear of open places often leading to
becoming a shut-in for fear of having a panic attack in public? *RC: remember fear
of a panic attack could lead to even more occurrences of panic attacks*
A) Agoraphobia D) Misophobia
B) Hydrophobia E) Paicaphobia
C) Acrophobia
___ 4. Sam check and rechecks the lock on his apartment door; in times of despair he has
been known to count his heart-beats for hours. Which type of anxiety disorder could
Sam be exhibiting? *RC: a reoccurring thought could lead to a behavior that
distracts the person from having these thoughts*
A) PTSD B) Major depression C) Bipolar D) OCD E) Agoraphobia
___ 5. A possible explanation for anxiety disorder is that a person may have a deficient
amount of which of the following neurotransmitters responsible for stabilizing
moods? *RC: remember when Sarah is at a party everyone is remains calm and
stable*
A) Motrin B) Dopamine C) Norepinephrine D) Epinephrine E) Serotonin
___ 1. What is the name of the manual that psychologists use to diagnose psychological
disorders? *RC: remember opinions vary- this provides common language for all
psychologists to be on the same page*
A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) DSM-V D) RSAP E) PPI
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Somatic Symptom Related Disorders
1. Occur when people experience psychological problems associated with physical
symptoms that are not linked to a physical cause called somatoform disorders
a. Fill out the following table outlining different somatoform disorders:
Type Characteristics
________________
________________
________________
________________
Sensory and motor failure, blindness, deafness, or paralyzed limbs with
identifiable physical cause
Usually first appears in childhood or adolescence, and under extreme
stress
Person usually does not show much concern for inoperative sensory and
motor functions
________________
________________
Intense feelings of having a physical illness with no justifiable cause
Person believes he or she already has disease, whereas people with
anxiety disorders have a fear of getting sick
Very quickly seek medical treatment
________________
________________
Occurs when a person is overly concerned and believes that there is
something wrong with them resulting in a manifestation that these
symptoms will get worse
Causes of Somatic Disorders
2. Some children learn to be sick which equals attention, which then carries over to
adolescence and adulthood. Which model suggests that people being overly sensitive to
physical sensations during long periods of stress?
Diathesis-Stress model
Dissociative Disorders
3. Rare occurrences that involve sudden and mostly temporary disruptions to a person’s
memory, consciousness, and identity are called dissociative disorders
a. Identify the different types of disorders:
Type Characteristics
________________________
A sudden loss of memory
Person has no recall of previous life, but does not move to a
new location as with dissociative fugue
_________________________
_________________________
Person exhibits more than one personality that is unique by
style of thinking, feeling, acting, memories
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Causes of Dissociative Disorders
4. Some people who experience memory and identity loss as the result of an episodic
traumatic event do not want to deal with the pain. Psychodynamic therapists suggest that
dissociative disorders develop as result of a defense mechanism, repression which blocks
unwanted impulses and memories from entering consciousness.
a. Who suggested that in any given situation, people act differently depending on both the
circumstances and the setting of the situation- acting like another person?
Social-cognitive therapists
b. What famous person was diagnosed with DID? Sybil
Mood disorders
5. In previous edition of the DSM, depression and Bipolar shared the same category, but in
the DSM V they each have their own category.
a. Can range from occasional, manageable sadness to extreme episodes of depression that
require hospitalization is called depression
b. Identify the different types of depressive disorders:
Type Characteristics
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Person experiences extreme depression, which can last for
weeks or months, during which time one or many depressive
episodes are experience; minimum of 2 weeks deep depression
Changes in activity level, eating habits, and hygiene that could
result in rapid weight loss or gain
Cognitive problems affecting focusing, remembering, thinking
Person feels worthless, hopeless, or inadequate, resulting in an
inability to function socially or at work
Suicidal ideations (thoughts)
______________________
Less intense depression; longer duration than major depression
Person lacks interest in activities, generally feels sad
Must have depressive symptoms for a longer period than two
years to be classified as dysthymic disorder
______________________
______________________
Considered a depressive disorder in children who continuously
display irritability and frequent temper tantrums; occurs
because children can’t take the same medication as adults for
Bipolar disorder
______________________
______________________
Depression that is frequently associated with the darker winter
months called suggest that depression might be linked to
body’s internal clock via the suprachiasmatic nucleus triggering
to much of the hormone melatonin being released
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Bipolar Disorders and Related Disorders
6. The polar opposite of depression, characterized by extreme enthusiasm, an optimistic
outlook, and an energetic state of mind is called mania
a. Identify the different types of Bipolar disorders:
Type Characteristics
_____________
____________
____________
___________
Alternating between periods of deep depression, characterized by major
depressive symptoms, and mania, has belief he or she can do anything
Brief “normal moods” between periods of depression and mania
Rare, affecting only 1% of adults
_____________
Major depressive episodes alternate with periods of hypomania, less severe
symptoms of mania compared to bipolar 1
Rare: affects only 1% of adults
______________
______________
Involves alternating periods of depression and mania, but less severe than
characteristics associated with bipolar 1
Dysthymic disorder couple with hypomania
Causes of Mood Disorders
7. Mood disorders tends to run in families, also researchers have identified a malfunction of
chromosome 13, which is connected to the production serotonin as a possible cause
a. Brain abnormalities have been linked to mood disorders; lack of development in the
frontal lobes, hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas of the limbic system. Low
amounts of the following neurotransmitters have been linked to depression:
_________________, ______________, and ____________/ whereas excess of these
neurotransmitters have been linked to mania.
b. Researchers have also noted that people who are experiencing depression have
excessive release of the hormone cortisol in response to stress
c. Women, who internalize problems more, are at a higher risk for depression. Social-
cognitive therapists suggest that learned helplessness giving up after repeating failing
at a task may contribute to depression
d. The diathesis stress model indicates that the higher amounts of stress, poverty, crime,
etc., the more a biological predisposition of depression could be triggered.
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___ 1. Which of the following descriptions is comparable to a person experiencing
conversion disorder? *RC: remember sometimes when we are nervous we might get a
bad headache*
A) James rechecks the locks several times for he goes to bed.
B) Suzy experiences episodes of manic moments followed by severe depression.
C) Rick has no welfare regard for other people.
D) Mitch mentally pushes people away that try to show him affection.
E) Ray has the lost ability to see even though there is no medical reasoning for this
outcome.
___ 2. Persistent depressive disorder is characterized by: *RC: remember a common cold
can you make you feel sick, but you are still able to address your daily routines*
A) A type of mood disorder that often requires hospitalization.
B) A type of mood disorder characterized by extreme moment of mania.
C) A type of mood disorder that includes repetitive behaviors and countless
thoughts.
D) A type of mood disorder that is characterized by low grade depression.
E) A type of mood disorder that is lasts only a few weeks then dissipates.
___ 3. Rick has episodes that often include extreme excitability; however these moments are
often followed by severe cases of major depression. Rick maybe exhibiting: *RC:
remember Bi- means two like a bicycle has 2 wheels*
A) OCD D) Bipolar disorder
B) Hyper disorder E) Borderline personality disorder
C) Major depression
___ 4. A person recently cannot remember a certain period from their life. These symptoms
may be classified as: *RC: remember to dissociate means to separate*
A) Dissociative identity disorder D) Dissociative amnesia
B) Dissociative fugue E) Bipolar
C) Major depression
___ 5. A possible explanation for seasonal affective disorder is: *RC: remember light
therapy may alleviate symptoms*
A) Higher than normal levels of dopamine.
B) A deficiency of proteins in the liver.
C) A lack of natural light during the winter months.
D) A lack of empathy or regard for other people.
E) An overwhelming sense of importance placed on one's self.
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Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder
1. A severe and often debilitating disorder that involves patterns of disturbed thinking,
perceptions, emotions, and behavior is called schizophrenia. Tends to affect people
equally of different genders, races, SES levels, but women tend to develop it later in life
than men leading to less severe symptoms
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
2. Schizophrenia means “split mind,” but should not be confused with split personality.
Majority of schizophrenics experience gradual increases in symptoms with the first
symptoms appearing early in childhood. About 40% tend to function with mediation.
Treatment is more effective in those who had high functioning skills, referred to as
premorbid functioning, before the first symptoms appeared.
a. Identify the following symptoms of schizophrenia:
Symptom Characteristic
Neologisms Using words that only have meaning to the person saying them
Clang associations Words based on double meaning or on the way the word sounds
Loose associations One thought doesn’t seem to be connected with another
Word salad Repetition of nonmeaningful statements
_____________________
False and distorted
beliefs
Delusions of influence: the belief that one is
being controlled by outside forces such as
CIA
Delusions of grandeur: exaggerated beliefs
about oneself; the belief that one is godlike
Delusions of persecution; belief that others
are out to get him or her, someone is
always following him or her
____________________
False reports of
perceptions
Auditory hallucinations are most common:
hearing voices
Hallucinations may include seeing,
smelling, or feeling things that aren’t really
there
Inappropriate emotions Displayed emotions that don’t coincide with the situation
____________________ The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for
long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility
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Categorizing Schizophrenia
3. Schizophrenics are categorized according to the symptoms they display. Symptoms that
include disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions are called ______________
________________________
a. Symptoms that include a schizophrenics lack of pleasure and motivation, speech skills,
and expression of emotion, or flat affect are called __________________________
Causes of Schizophrenia
4. Schizophrenia tends to run in families, identical twin studies have shown that roughly
40% of twins will develop schizophrenia if the other twin shows symptoms
a. Schizophrenics have shown undersized areas of the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and
other cortical areas. Malfunctioning prefrontal cortex and enlarged ventricles within
the brain have been associated with negative symptoms
b. Positive symptoms have been linked to the excessive amounts and receptor sites of
the neurotransmitter ______________, referred to the dopamine hypothesis. Drugs
that block dopamine receptor sites have helped decrease hallucinations and delusions
c. Researchers have also noted that women who experience prenatal viruses during fetal
development may have an increased chance of producing a schizophrenic child. In
addition, fathers who conceive a child after 45, and a dysfunctional family style could
also contribute to schizophrenia
d. A theory that suggests that schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition
and the amount of stress one encounters refers to the vulnerability theory of
schizophrenia similar diathesis-stress model
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___ 1. A type of symptom associated with schizophrenia that involves improper sensory
stimulation and perception; auditory being the most common experience. *RC:
remember psychotic implies a break in reality*
A) Delusions of grandeur D) Word salad
B) Delusions of persecution E) Neologisms
C) Hallucinations
___ 2. A type of delusion where a person believes that he or she is more important or has
great importance not consistent with reality. *RC: remember grand is greater than
life*
A) Delusions of illusions D) Delusions of lie
B) Delusions of persecution E) Delusions of narcissism
C) Delusions of grandeur
___ 3. Delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking are classified as which type of
schizophrenic symptoms? *RC: remember the addition of such symptoms makes a
person schizophrenic*
A) Negative B) Affective C) Pessimistic D) Ritualistic E) Positive
___ 4. A symptom of schizophrenia that is characterized by waxy flexibility and stupor.
*RC: remember when cats are frightened they freeze or don't move*
A) Paranoid B) Catatonia C) Disorganized D) Residual E) Reflexive
___ 5. Which of the following neurotransmitters when in excess could lead to the positive
symptoms associated with schizophrenia? *RC: remember too much dope causes
crazy*
A) Serotonin D) Dopamine
B) Endorphins E) Epinephrine
C) Acetylcholine
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Personality Disorders
a. Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting refers to
personality disorders. These disorders tend to start in childhood and continue through
adolescence and adulthood. Identify the following personality disorders:
Personality Disorder Characteristics
Cluster A: Odd-Eccentric
__________________ Distrust of others, believe people out to harm them
Could react with violence to defend themselves
____________________ No social relationships/ The “hermit”
______________________ Problems with either starting or maintaining relationships
Odd perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and behavior
Cluster B: Dramatic-Erratic
_______________________
Obsessed with being center of attention
Very dramatic
Emotionally shallow person
_______________________ Exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and has
achieved much success/ Arrogant
______________________ Instability of emotions, impulse control, obsessive fear of
being alone, difficulty maintaining relationships and routines
______________________
No feelings of regard for others and their welfare
Lack of conscience or remorse
Most heavily studied personality disorder
Sociopath and psychopath have describe this disorder
Cluster C: Anxious-fearful
______________________ An enormous need to be taken care of/ Cannot make
decisions/ Very needy
______________________ Obsession with order and control/ Perfectionist
_______________________ Oversensitive to criticism/ does not partake in social
situations
Antisocial Personality Disorder
1. No single gene has been identified for the antisocial personality disorder. Some
behavior in childhood could be correlated to antisocial personality disorder such as
impulsivity as a child or diagnosed conduct disorder. Also people with antisocial
personality disorder show a lack of functioning in the frontal lobes as well as
dysfunctional family settings and attachment problems.
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Neurodevelopmental Disorders
2. An intellectual developmental disability is determined by a person’s cognitive capacity
as well as their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental retardation that
was used in DSM-IV.
3. Two categories associated with childhood are externalizing and internalizing disorders.
Externalizing disorders affect people in the child’s environment and are linked to
conduct issues. A category of externalizing disorders, are mostly exhibited by boys who
demonstrate a lack of obedience to authority figures and act aggressively refers conduct
disorders
a. Internalizing disorders can cause children to experience depression and anxiety, and
to isolate themselves socially. An example of this category that is characterized by a
fear of being lost, left behind, or abandoned refers to separation anxiety disorder
b. Also known as autistic spectrum disorders, are not categorized as externalizing or
internalizing; they are characterized by children who are impaired socially and show
problems communicating called pervasive developmental disorder
a. Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have problems forming
attachments and communicating, and suffer severe cognitive impairments that
affect concentration, learning, and social interactions with other called
autistic spectrum disorder
b. Research with autistic children has led to the study of mirror neurons, which
are linked to the observation and perception of other people’s thoughts and
behavior; autistic children show a deficit of mirror neurons
c. A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience problems in
social relationships; they also engage in repetitive behaviors refers to
Asperger’s disorder
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___ 1. Type of personality disorder that is characterized by avoiding people and often
leading a life of seclusion. * RC: remember schizoid like to avoid*
A) Borderline B) Histrionic C) Dependent D) Schizoid E) Schizoid typical
___ 2. Bill has no regard for other people in terms of their well-being. He often engages in
behavior that threatens the safety of others. Bill maybe exhibiting symptoms of
which of the following personality disorders? *RC: remember anti means against*
A) Borderline B) Antisocial C) Avoidant D) Dependent E) Typical
___ 3. Which of the following descriptions could describe a person with borderline
personality disorder? *RC: remember border means to cross back and forth*
A) Rick has no regard for the well-being and safety of others.
B) James lives out in the woods where he avoids most people.
C) Jesse has a tendency to one day be nice but within the day become very worried,
dependent on others, and angry.
D) Simon believes that no one else exists and that he is the most important person in
the room
E) Rita is very suspicious of others; in fact she does not let anyone enter her house.
___ 4. A person who believes they are more important than the reality of the situation and
thinks that nobody else matters in terms of their opinion or ideals may be classified
as: *RC: it is hard to argue with someone who does not know you exist*
A) Dependent B) Avoidant C) Schizoid D) Histrionic E) Narcissistic
___ 5. A possible consequence of an attachment disorder may lead to one of these
outcomes? *RC: remember attachment is based on touch and warmth and being
with that caregiver *
A) Separation anxiety disorder D) Major depression
B) Seasonal affective disorder E) Conduct disorder
C) Obsessive compulsive disorder
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1. Jimmy and Rich are identical twins who
share a genetic predisposition for major
depression. Jimmy lives a fast-paced
lifestyle that involves a challenging career,
travel, and not much time for rest and
relaxation. Rich, on the other hand, lives a
more relaxed life and enjoys a simpler
lifestyle. When they turned 35, Jimmy alone
showed symptoms of major depression.
Which approach may explain why Jimmy,
but not Rich, became depressed?
(A) Medical model
(B) Diathesis-stress model
(C) Biological model
(D) Humanistic model
(E) Psychodynamic model
2. According to the biopsychosocial model,
genetic predispositions would be an example
of which factor(s)?
(A) Biological and social
(B) Psychological and social
(C) Biological
(D) Psychological
(E) Social
3. What refers to the process of investigating
possible causes and developmental factors
that may contribute to the onset of
psychological disorders?
(A) Etiology
(B) Prevalence
(C) Epidemiology
(D) Speculation
(E) Criteria spectrum
4. Hoarding, which involves collecting and
holding onto many items with a difficulty of
discarding these items, is related to which of
the following disorders:
(A) Major depression
(B) Dissociative identity disorder
(C) Antisocial personality disorder
(D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder
(E) Persistent depressive disorder
5. A phobia is defined as
(A) a repetitive thought followed by a
compulsive act
(B) free-floating anxiety that is displayed in
many situations
(C) a delusional belief that impairs reality
(D) an inaccurate perception
(E) an unjustified, irrational fear
6. Sally has reported that she experiences
anxiety throughout much of her day. She has
no idea why she is experiencing this anxiety,
and lately it has become more persistent,
making it harder for her to fulfill her daily
activities and routines. Sally most likely
would be diagnosed with
(A) a phobia
(B) obsessive-compulsive disorder
(C) post-traumatic stress disorder
(D) generalized anxiety disorder
(E) schizophrenia
7. Luke recently experienced a sudden loss of
memory that resulted in his forming a new
identity, traveling to a new location and
beginning a new life with no memory of his
previous life. Luke would most likely be
diagnosed with
(A) dissociative identity disorder
(B) dissociative amnesia
(C) dissociative fugue
(D) schizophrenia
(E) generalized anxiety disorder
8. Persistent depressive disorder is
characterized by
(A) major depression, including loss of
appetite, feelings of worthlessness, and
difficulty functioning at home and at
work
(B) fluctuations between periods of major
depression and extreme feelings of
euphoria
(C) delusions and hallucinations
(D) mild depression that persists for more
than two years
(E) irrational fears with no justifiable cause
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9. A difference between bipolar I and bipolar II
disorders is that bipolar II disorder includes
(A) a longer period of mania
(B) more severe periods of mania
(C) less severe periods of mania
(D) shorter periods of mania
(E) no periods of mania
10. A problem on chromosome ___ seems to be
connected with the production of serotonin,
which may be linked to the development of
mood disorders.
(A) 13
(B) 12
(C) 14
(D) 8
(E) 7
11. “Split mind,” used to describe
schizophrenia, refers to
(A) anxiety-arousing thoughts
(B) multiple personalities
(C) disorganized thinking patterns
(D) an inability to function properly
(E) catatonic behavior
12. James believes that he is God and that he
therefore has tremendous powers. This
would be an example of which characteristic
of schizophrenia?
(A) Delusions of grandeur
(B) Delusions of persecution
(C) Clang associations
(D) Hallucinations
(E) Flat affect
13. An example of a positive symptom that
involves immobility or holding of part of the
body for an extreme amount of time..
(A) paranoid
(B) disorganized
(C) undifferentiated
(D) residual
(E) catatonia
14. Excessive receptors of the neurotransmitter
___have been linked to the development of
schizophrenia.
(A) serotonin
(B) GABA
(C) dopamine
(D) glutamate
(E) norepinephrine
15. ___ personality disorder is characterized by
an excessive need to be taken care of,
difficulty making decisions, and clinging
behavior.
(A) Histrionic
(B) Antisocial
(C) Narcissistic
(D) Dependent
(E) Obsessive-compulsive
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1. Answer: B. The diathesis-stress model suggests that the type and amount of stress play a role in
the development of a psychological disorder
2. Answer: C. Genetic predispositions, which can affect neural communication, brain anatomy, and
the nervous system, are associated with the biological component of the biopsychosocial model
3. Answer: A. Etiology refers to identifying the causes and development of the disorder
4. Answer: D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves persistent obsessive thoughts accompanied
by compulsive ritualistic behaviors which includes hoarding
5. Answer: E. Phobias are irrational fears that do not warrant a reaction to such intense fear
6. Answer: D. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by generalized anxiety that
accompanies many seemingly unrelated situations and circumstances
7. Answer: C. Dissociative fugue is characterized by loss of memory, formation of a new identity,
and relocation to a new environment
8. Answer: D. Persistent depressive disorder is a mood disorder that does not include the extreme
characteristics of major depression and tends to last more than two years
9. Answer: C. Bipolar II disorder includes less severe periods of mania, referred to as hypomania.
Both disorders are characterized by periods of deep depression (MDD)
10. Answer: A. Genes associated with chromosome 13 may be linked to the development of mood
disorders
11. Answer: C. “Split mind” refers to the splitting of thought processes that resemble the
disorganized thinking characteristic of schizophrenia
12. Answer: A. Delusions of grandeur are a characteristic of schizophrenia that include the belief
that one is more important than he or she really is
13. Answer: E. Catatonia is a condition of immobility that could last for an extended period of time.
14. Answer: C. Excessive dopamine receptors have been linked to the development of schizophrenia.
This is referred to as the “dopamine hypothesis”
15. Answer: D. Dependent personality disorder is characterized by clinging behavior, a hard time
making decisions, and an excessive need to be taken care of
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Methods of Therapy
1. Psychotherapy and biomedical therapy are two major types of therapy. The interaction
between a trained therapist, using psychological techniques, and a client, who is
experiencing emotional, behavioral, or interpersonal problems is referred to as
psychotherapy
a. The use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical procedures that
directly affect the brain and nervous system of a patient experiencing symptoms
associated with a psychological disorder is referred to as biomedical
b. What psychological profession has a medical degree and extensive training in a
specialty area making is possible to prescribe medication?
____________________________________
c. Involves using a variety of therapeutic techniques based on the symptoms and needs
of the client refers to the eclectic approach
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
2. Sigmund Freud established the psychodynamic approach to understand the causes of
psychological disorder. He was curious why some of his patients who were experiencing
blindness, paralysis, or other symptoms, but did not have any physical causes for such
experiences. Freud found that many of his clients had traumatic childhood experience,
for which he concluded later affected them in life. These traumatic episodes often were
repressed into the person’s unconscious, but still affecting their personality and behavior.
This led to Freud to the development of _____________________ a method of
psychotherapy aimed at revealing and resolving conflicts that are in the unconscious.
a. A psychoanalyst relies on several techniques that help client’s gain insight and
understanding into their unconscious conflicts. A technique that involves the
client speaking freely about any topic or image that comes into his or her mind is
called ___________________________
b. When the client unconsciously tries to block the process of revealing repressed
memories this is called ___________________________
c. Dream interpretation helps the therapist and client gain insight into the
unconscious through the therapist separating the portion of the dream that is
consciously remembered called the manifest content from the unconscious
symbolic portion that contains impulses, wishes, and fantasies called the latent
content- what Freud was primarily interested in.
d. Slips of the tongue, or statements accidentally made by the client, that could
reveal unconscious content are called ____________________________
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e. The most important technique, ____________________, occurs when the patient
unconsciously responds to the therapist as though he or she were a significant
person in his or her life and responsible for some moment or conflict that has
occurred.
Contemporary Psychoanalysis
3. Traditional psychoanalysis is still practiced today, but not as often because people find
the sessions too long and expensive, and not relative to modern problems. In response,
short-term psychodynamic therapy evolved- less expensive, time-consuming, but still
investigating the unconscious.
a. A version of psychoanalysis therapy, that helps clients cope with present
problems and situations is called interpersonal therapy
Humanistic Psychotherapy
4. What perspective emphasizes striving for and reaching human potential, the belief that
people are inherently good, and are motivated through a desire to grow psychologically?
Humanistic
a. A person’s thoughts or a perception of him or herself is called the self-
concept. Humanists believe disorders develop when a person’s growth
process is stopped or interfered with by an unhealthy environment. Therapy is
aimed at helping the individual rediscover thoughts and behavior that will
further continue his or her growth. This is accomplished through the client
feeling comfortable and secure in the presence of the therapist and the
surroundings.
Client-Centered Therapy
5. Carl Rogers, once a psychodynamic therapist, now a humanist therapist believed that the
client should take a more active role in the therapeutic process through actively sharing
and directing the session. Therefore, the therapist should be passive and allow the client
to discover their conflicts and resolutions that befuddle them. He referred to this
approach as ___________________________________, that required 3 guidelines
provided by the therapists: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence.
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a. Identify the characteristics associated with client-centered therapy:
Client-Centered therapeutic
techniques
Characteristics
__________________________
Treating the client as a valued person
Listening to the client without being judgmental or
interrupting or expressing opinion
Trying to accept client through consideration of their
background and setting
The client should overcome feelings of inferiority
through this characteristics
__________________________
The therapist tries to see problems form the client’s
perspective
Understands what the client is going through and how
its affecting the client’s decision-making
Use of reflection, an example of active listening,
which repeats the client’s thoughts and concern, while
adding supportive comments
__________________________
The therapist tries to be consistent with how his or her
thoughts and feelings are directed toward the client
If the therapist does not understand a comment by the
client, he or she will inquire, instead of just continuing
with the session
The therapist is open and honest with the client
leading to trust and respect from the client
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___ 1. Which of the following professions has to have medical degree in order to prescribe
medications? *RC: requires two degrees; medical and psychiatry*
A) Community psychologists D) Psychiatrists
B) Gestalt psychologist E) Cognitive psychologists
C) Social worker
___ 2. A psychoanalytical technique that involves the patient talking readily about anything
and everything that comes to their mind. *RC: remember when you have a long
conversation on the phone you often cannot remember the next day what you talked
about*
A) Resistance D) Hesitation
B) Transference E) Dream analysis
C) Free association
___ 3. A psychoanalytical technique that occurs when the patient unconsciously refuses to
discuss a topic or a part of their life. *RC: most people don't want to talk about
things that are bothering them*
A) Resistance D) Interpretation
B) Transference E) Sessional pressure
C) Free association
___ 4. A patient suddenly begins to yell at the therapist comparable to the way he would yell
at his father. In this dialogue he accuses the therapist of not being there for him. In
psychoanalysis this is termed: *RC: to transfer means to place onto others*
A) Resistance D) Latent content
B) Transference E) Manifest content
C) Interpretation
___ 5. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the purpose of Carl Roger's
Client-centered therapy? *RC: if you dominate or are the center of the conversation
you will often answer your own questions*
A) A patient ascribes their feelings onto the therapist; meant for his mother.
B) James refuses to talk about a problem from his childhood.
C) Rachel's therapist remains passive insisting that she find a solution for her
problem.
D) James is told to describe the components of a dream he had.
E) William is told to imagine a happy situation when he gets scared of buildings.
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Gestalt Therapy
1. Fritz Perls and his wife Laura developed a version of humanistic therapy, influenced by
Gestalt psychology, with the belief that people actively process information from the
environment, resulting in the person’s own version of reality- that either promotes or
prevents psychological growth. This therapy was called Gestalt therapy
a. The goal of Gestalt therapy is to make clients aware of their environment in
actual and realistic way
Behavior Therapy
2. Proposes that psychological problems originate from learned behavior and that learned
behaviors that contribute to psychological problems can be unlearned refers to behavior
therapy
a. This type of therapy combines the principles of the behavioral and social-cognitive
approach and incorporated the ideas of John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner,
and Albert Ellis. There are different types of behavioral therapy;
1. Behavior therapy utilizes the principles of classical conditioning
2. Behavior modification focuses on the principles of operant conditioning
3. Cognitive-behavior theapy addresses both thoughts and behaviors associated with the
problem
Behavior Techniques Emphasizing Classical Conditioning
3. Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, behavioral therapists believe that association leaning
does not only occur between natural and unnatural stimuli, but between stimuli and
emotional reactions, for example, Watson and Rayner’s work with “Little Albert.” On
the other hand, who contemplated whether or not established learned fears could be
reversed and replaced with productive response? _____________________________
a. Mary Cover Jones worked with her client, “Peter,” who was afraid of furry animals,
especially rabbits. She developed a process that entailed the learning of a new
conditioned response that is the opposite of the original learned response called
___________________________________.
b. Her work with Peter involved Peter making a new association between the rabbit and
himself.
1. She brought the rabbit into the room- visible but far enough away where Peter not
to have fear (his original conditioned response)
2. Next she had Peter eat his favorite snack, milk and crackers while he viewed the
rabbit
3. The goal was to have Peter establish the good feelings associated with eating his
favorite food with the rabbit- (replacing fear with good feeling-
counterconditioning)
4. Jones also used observational learning by having Peter watch other boys enjoy
playing with rabbits and not expressing fear
5. After 2 months, Peter eventually held a rabbit as he ate his favorite snack
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Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques
4. Joseph Wolpe developed another type of counterconditioning therapy that involved the
gradual learning of a new conditioned response that will replace, or inhibit, an established
maladaptive response such as fear or anxiety called ______________________________
a. There are 3 steps involved in the process of systematic desensitization:
1. The patient experiences progressive relaxation techniques- learning how to relax each
muscle
2. The patient is then asked to generate a list of anxiety provoking stimuli associated with
the phobia or problem (anxiety hierarchy) ranging from most to least stressful. The
patient is asked to imagine a relaxing moment called the control scene each time anxiety
is presented or evoked.
3. The actual process of desensitization begins when patients, while relaxed, first imagine
the first stressful event identified in their hierarchy; the patient progresses through the list
until anxiety arises when then the patient is told to recall their control scene of relaxation
b. Once the patient reaches the top of the hierarchy he or she is presented the fearful
object or situation, while the hope is that the patient has replaced the original
established response of fear with a new productive response
c. A recent application of systematic desensitization allows clients to experience their
fears in a controlled computerized setting with a real-world context called virtual
realizty graded exposure
a. Direct exposure to the feared image or event is referred to as _________________
b. This process is referred to as _________________, which produces constant
exposure to the object. The hope is that the client learns nothing bad is going to
happen- this is similar to the last step of systematic desensitization
Aversion Conditioning
5. _______________________ is also based on the principles of classical conditioning and
involves pairing a harmful stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus, a distasteful substance
a. A person, who drinks alcohol too much, is given disulfiram (a drug when mixed with
alcohol causes nausea) that when the person drinks alcohol while on this drug will
become sick- the new conditioned response
Behavioral Therapies that Emphasize Operant Conditioning
6. Operant conditioning is the belief that behavior is shaped through followed
consequences. The belief that maladaptive behavior can also be modified through
consequential actions is held by ________________________________________
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a. Positive reinforcement and extinction are two operant terms that have been applied to
the behavioral modification processes.
b. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a desired
behavior is performed- increasing the chances that the behavior will be repeated.
___________________ operate on the principles of operant conditioning, specifically
using the concept of positive reinforcement. In this setting, a person is given a token
for each desired behavior and then the person is allowed to use these tokens to
purchases things. Token economies are used in mental hospitals and rehabilitations.
c. _____________ is another operant technique sued to extinguish or stop an
undesirable behavior. People often perform actions because they are rewarded for
their responses. If a person does not receive expected reinforcement (referred to as
nonreinforcement) then the person will not perform the action again- extinguishing
the response.
d. Punishment is also used- the presentation of an undesirable response or the removal
of a pleasant stimulus in response to an undesirable action or behavior
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
7. Behavioral therapists recognize that causes of many disorders are linked to different
styles of thinking, the utilization of learning principles to change people’s negative
thought patterns refers to ___________________________________
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy
8. Albert Ellis developed ________________________________ (REBT) based on his
belief that distorted expectations and irrational beliefs contribute to psychological
disorders. He believed that it is not the event itself, as people think, but the interpretation
or beliefs about the event that actually leads to consequences or psychological disorders
a. Fill out the chart that describes Albert Ellis’ REBT model
ABC Model Example
____________________ The individual can’t find a date for the prom
___________________ “I guess nobody likes me enough to go with me to the prom”
__________________ Feelings of depression
b. Ellis, with the above example, would suggest to the client that there could be other
reasons why they don’t have date for prom. Once the client was made aware of their
self-defeating thinking patterns, he or she would replace these once thoughts with
more productive interpretation of the event. This therapy has been very helpful with
depression, phobias, and anxiety disorders.
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___ 1. Which of the following procedures is used primarily to treat phobia involving
associating a fearful stimuli with a progressive relaxation technique in hopes to
eliminate a maladaptive conditioned response? *RC: remember to desensitize means
to make less sensitive or to eliminate*
A) Phobia training D) Systematic desensitization
B) Free association E) Toke economy
C) Transference
___ 2. During systematic desensitization, the highest step in the anxiety hierarchy is often
the most fearful. If a therapist chooses to bypass the previous steps in the hierarchy
and expose the person to the most fearful then this is called: *RC: think of Fear
Factor- being exposed or flooded with your worst fears*
A) Passive training D) Transference
B) Exposure training E) Resistance
C) Flooding
___ 3. During an evening’s festivities Marcy drank too much alcohol; and as a result she got
very sick throughout the night. The next Marcy stated that she was not going to drink
alcohol anymore. This situation is comparable to which of the following therapeutic
techniques? *RC: remember aversion means negative result or outcome*
A) Flooding D) Systematic modeling
B) Transference E) Aversion therapy
C) Resistance
___ 4. Which of the following situations is an example of a token economy? *RC: think of
extra credit delivered in a classroom; it encourages good behavior*
A) Lucy gets a gold star each time she raises her hand in class.
B) Larry is placed in the hallway when he acts accordingly.
C) Jerry is laughed at when he makes a mistake in class.
D) Homer is shocked when imagines a fearful stimuli.
E) Linda is told to take a pill that when mixed with alcohol will make her sick.
___ 5. According to Albert Ellis's Rational-Emotive therapeutic approach, which of the
following statements would Ellis contribute to a person's problematic approach as
described in the ABC model? *RC: hard to eliminate the outcome; but easier to
address the thoughts about the outcome*
A) Rick did not make the team at school and knows he just have tried harder.
B) Mary believes her dreams are the reasons for her outcomes.
C) Jenny thinks that nobody likes her and will never ask her out.
D) Richard has low levels of dopamine in relation to his feelings of self-worth.
E) Mitch's parents will not let him attend the school dance.
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Cognitive Therapy
1. Aaron Beck, originally trained as a psychoanalyst, developed _____________ therapy
based on the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, distorted perceptions,
and interpretations of events that contribute to psychological disorders. Beck believed
people would “blow things out of proportion.”
a. Cognitive therapy is a directive approach where clients actually go out and test
distorted beliefs and assumptions. Clients will report back their actual experiences
and the therapist will build on positive encounters. If there was a negative encounter
the CT will provide a rational explanation often to the client’s irrational thought
Group Therapy
2. Individualized therapy allows a personal relationship between client and therapist, but the
client is unable to interact with other people. A approach that allows one or more
therapists to work with several people at the same time, observing social and interaction
skills is called _____________________________
a. Group therapy offers several advantages:
1. Therapists are able to work with several people experiencing similar problems
and are able to observe interaction skills
2. It is cost effect for the people participating
3. Participants are able to gain an understanding from listening to others with
similar problems
4. Group therapy is conducted by a trained mental health professional, while
non-health professionals tend to direct support and social groups.
b. Focusing on how each member of a family contributes to the family structure
is called family therapy with the aim to make each member aware of the other
members and teach togetherness or to operate as a system
c. Marital and couple therapy is similar to the structure of family therapy,
especially emphasizing communication
Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches
3. Clients and psychotherapies both agree that therapy can be positive and productive, but
often evidence is needed. The gathering of large amounts of data from a variety of
sources and then presenting the data in a single report is called a meta-analysis
a. The hardest part to measure is clients’ motivation to attend, especially if it was
required. Data has provided evidence that cognitive, behavior, and interpersonal
therapies have been effective for treating depression.
b. Cognitive, behavior, and exposure therapies have been effective for treating anxiety
disorders such as phobias, panic disorder, and OCD
c. Cognitive-behavior therapy has proven beneficial for treating eating disorders and
behavior modification for bed-wetting
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Biomedical Therapy
4. Psychological disorders, which have physical causes, have been treated with drugs and
other medical procedures. Destroying tissue in regions of the brain for treating
psychological disorders is called __________________________
a. Egos Moniz developed a procedure that involved inserting a sharp instrument into
the front part of the brain and moving it from side to side, severing neural
connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain called
___________________________
b. Used for severe depressive patients who didn’t respond to drug treatments; a brief
electrical shock was thought to simulate and increase neural activity in the brain
reducing depression, and sometimes schizophrenia is called _________________
_______________________
a. ECT sometimes produces memory loss, seizures, speech disorders, confusion,
and patients usually relapse with symptoms
Psychoactive Drugs
5. The emergence and increased use of psychoactive drugs has become the most popular
biomedical type of therapy.
Neuroleptics
6. Used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia such
as hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and confusing speech are ___________
a. Chlorpromazine (thorazine in the USA) and haloperidol are two of the most widely
used antipsychotic medications
b. A side effect associated with antipsychotic drugs that is an irreversible movement
disorder characterized by uncontrollable repetitive actions that involve facial
twitching and rapid movements of the arms and legs is called ___________________
c. The newer generation of antipsychotic drugs, called atypical neuroleptics, includes
Clozapine, which causes fewer muscle movement problems. Clozpine has been
helpful at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Antidepressants
7. Prescribed to treat depression, increase the amount of the neurotransmitters
norepinephrine and serotonin are called antidepressants
a. People who use antidepressants often don’t notice improvements for several
weeks. Tricyclics and MAO inhibitors were first generations antidepressants, but
produced negative side affects
b. Second generation antidepressants, including trazodone and bupropion produced
fewer side effects, but were not as effective.
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c. The third group of antidepressants has been most successful. ________________
__________________ (SSRIs), these drugs do not act on multiple neurological
pathways, focusing only on serotonin. SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin,
allowing this NT to remain in the synapses, increasing the chances that serotonin
will be more available the next time the neuron fires.
a. Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil are examples of SSRIs. Dual action depressants
have recently been released that work on both serotonin and
norepinephrine, but have produced more side effects than the original
SSRIs.
Antianxiety Medications
8. Also referred to as anxiolytics, are prescribed to help people deal with anxiety called
antianxiety medications
a. Most popular types of antianxiety medications are the benzodiazepines, Valium and
Xanax, which reduce the symptoms of anxiety by increasing the level of the
neurotransmitter GABA, which inhibits brain activity.
b. A newer antianxiety drug, BuSpar, has had fewer side effects- especially alertness as
the original benzodiazepines did
Lithium
9. Used to treat bipolar disorder called ___________________, which treats both the manic
and depressive episodes. Lithium has been helpful and controlling the levels of the NT
glutamate, which has excitatory effects in the brain
a. Depakote is new drug used for Bipolar, especially those who did not respond to
lithium
Evaluating Drug Treatments
10. Drug treatments have been successful, but many researchers point out some problems
associated with taking drugs:
a. Drugs simply masks the problem
b. Some clinicians are over prescribing medications to people who may not be at that
point when they need it
c. Some drugs produce side effects worse than the psychological symptoms, and some
people become addicted to the medications
Community Psychology
11. There was a growing concern that individuals were not benefiting from mental hospitals,
which led to ________________________ the process of releasing patients from
hospitals, which then led to shutting down many of these hospitals.
a. This result led to ___________________________, a movement to decrease or
prevent psychological disorders through offerings in community health programs.
This is especially useful for the homeless, or people that can’t get help.
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___ 1. All of the following are benefits of group therapy EXCEPT: *RC: remember their is
strength in numbers*
A) You can identify with others who share common problems.
B) You may learn different approaches through listening to others describe their
situations.
C) Typically group therapy is very expensive in relation to other types of therapy.
D) You have a chance to relate to the background similar to your background.
E) You have established a support team for future assistance.
___ 2. A type of psychosurgery that is primarily used to treat major depression through the
administration of electrical currents; but used sparingly as side effects include
memory loss and short-term positive results? *RC: action potentials are based on
electrical activity*
A) Lobotomy B) SSRIs C) Cognitive stimulation D) ECT E) Etiology
___ 3. What is the design of an SSRI that is used to treat depression? *RC: think of a
vacuum cleaner turned off the dirt is allowed to stay in the carpet*
A) It increases the reuptake process causing neurotransmitters to remain in an
excited state.
B) It slows down the reuptake process allowing serotonin to bind to its appropriate
dendrite destination.
C) It slows down the reuptake process allowing acetylcholine to bind to its
appropriate dendrite destination.
D) It causes the synapse to increase in dimension.
E) It causes the synapse to decrease in dimension.
___ 4. Which of the following medications is commonly used to treat bipolar disorder?
*RC: remember salt is a stabilizer*
A) Thorazine B) Prozac C) Lithium D) Zoloft E) Calcium
___ 5. A side effect associated with administering neuroleptics to treat the positive
symptoms of schizophrenia; symptoms similar to Parkinson disease is called: *RC:
results from lowering the levels of dopamine- responsible for hallucinations*
A) Tardive relaxation D) Conversional disorder
B) Tardive dyskinesia E) Delusional tracks
C) Serotonin deficiency
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1. What type of therapist has a medical degree
and therefore is able to prescribe
medications?
(A) Clinical psychologist
(B) Social worker
(C) Counselor
(D) Psychiatrist
(E) Psychiatric nurse
2. Psychoanalysis is a method of
(A) treatment that helps patients gain an
understanding and possible resolution of
conflicts hidden in the unconscious that
may be responsible for psychological
disorders
(B) reversing learned behaviors that are
now associated with psychological
disorders
(C) developing and promoting a healthy
self-concept
(D) examining thoughts and actions
connected with psychological disorders
(E) group interaction and social skill
development
3. The process in psychoanalysis in which a
patient reports on whatever thoughts,
memories, or concerns come to mind is
called
(A) resistance
(B) empathy
(C) transference
(D) latent content
(E) free association
4. In a psychoanalytical session, the following
dialogue demonstrates which term?
Psychoanalyst: “Why don’t you tell me
more about your mother?” Patient: “You
were never there for me—why did you do
the things that you did?”
(A) Resistance
(B) Transference
(C) Empathy
(D) Unconditional positive regard
(E) Manifest content
5. Who believed that during the therapeutic
session a therapist should demonstrate
unconditional positive regard, empathy or
active listening, and genuineness in the
hopes that the client or patient could then
identify personal problems and later develop
possible solutions?
(A) Sigmund Freud
(B) Fritz Perls
(C) Carl Rogers
(D) B. F. Skinner
(E) Albert Ellis
6. Suzy doesn’t like to make speeches. Every
time she gets up in front of people she starts
to shake and becomes increasingly nervous.
Which therapeutic perspective would
explain Suzy’s response as a result of
negative associations?
(A) Humanistic
(B) Psychodynamic
(C) Cognitive
(D) Gestalt
(E) Behavior
7. Who conducted the first research to use the
technique of counterconditioning?
(A) Joseph Wolpe
(B) Mary Cover Jones
(C) Carl Rogers
(D) Fritz Perls
(E) Margaret Floy Washburn
8. In certain rehabilitation centers, patients are
given coupons for good behavior that later
can be used to buy desirable merchandise or
acquire certain privileges. This process is
referred to as
(A) systematic desensitization
(B) client-centered therapy
(C) Gestalt therapy
(D) token economies
(E) transference
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9. Larry was just hired by a company to
develop a new marketing campaign for their
product. Larry, however, has a childhood
phobia of heights and this new job requires
him to work on the top floor. Which
therapeutic technique would teach Larry to
associate relaxation instead of fear with
heights and tall buildings?
(A) Group therapy
(B) Systematic desensitization
(C) Psychodynamic therapy
(D) Client-centered therapy
(E) Gestalt
10. What factor would Albert Ellis agree could
potentially contribute to a psychological
disorder?
(A) Learned behaviors
(B) Conflicts that occur within the
unconscious
(C) A defeated self-concept
(D) Beliefs that surround an event.
(E) Latent issues
11. Who would suggest that cognitive
distortions or errors in logic that are blown
out of proportion could lead to
psychological disorders?
(A) Sigmund Freud
(B) Ivan Pavlov
(C) Carl Rogers
(D) Aaron Beck
(E) Mary Cover Jones
12. After listening to several people’s
testimonies, Jimmy was able to form a
network of support through identifying with
certain people who share the same concerns
and problems. Which form of therapy offers
this opportunity?
(A) Systematic desensitization
(B) Psychodynamic therapy
(C) Client-centered therapy
(D) Gestalt therapy
(E) Group therapy
13. Which type of therapy is commonly used for
depression and administers an electrical
shock to help stimulate brain activity?
(A) Psychosurgery
(B) Electroconvulsive therapy
(C) Psychodynamic therapy
(D) Client-centered therapy
(E) Behavior therapy
14. Which drug has been used as alternative to
lithium for treating bipolar disorder?
(A) Thorazine
(B) Prozac
(C) Paxil
(D) Depakote
(E) Valium
15. Tardive dyskinesia was associated with
which type of psychoactive drug?
(A) Antidepressants medications
(B) Neuroleptics (antipsychotic
medications)
(C) Antianxiety medications
(D) Lithium
(E) Tranquilizers
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1. Answer: D. A psychiatrist has a medical degree allow him or her to prescribe medications to patients
2. Answer A. Psychoanalysis identifies and explains possible conflicts that are present in the
unconscious and might be at the root of a psychological disorder
3. Answer: E. Free association is a psychoanalytical technique in which patients report any thoughts,
memories, or concerns that come to mind
4. Answer: B. Transference is when a patient transfers his or her feelings from earlier life experiences
onto the therapist
5. Answer C. Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy, which encouraged the client to become
more involved in the sessions. This approach helps the client gain insight into his or her problems and
their causes and believes in the importance of the client’s role in healing
6. Answer: E. Behavioral therapy believes that psychological disorders are the result of learned
associations between certain stimuli and emotional responses
7. Answer B. Through her work with Peter and the rabbit, Mary Cover Jones was able to demonstrate
that learned fears could be counterconditioned
8. Answer: D. Token economies involves giving tokens or rewards after a desired behavior has been
displayed. The tokens can later be used to buy specific merchandise or trade for special privileges
9. Answer: B. Systematic desensitization is a type of behavior therapy that is based on the principles of
classical conditioning. The client is taught relaxation techniques that will replace previously learned
maladaptive responses, like fear, that have been associated with an anxiety provoking stimuli. This is
referred to as counterconditioning
10. Answer: D. Albert Ellis believed that the negative beliefs that accompany the outcome of an event
are responsible for the consequences associated with psychological disorders
11. Answer: D. Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy based on his belief that symptoms associated
with psychological disorders, especially depression, could be traced to cognitive distortions that
misinterpret events
12. Answer: E. Group therapy involves interaction among many people assembled in a setting that
encourages sharing and revealing solutions to solve individual problems
13. Answer: B. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used to treat depression. An electrical current is
delivered to the brain to increase brain activity
14. Answer: D. Depakote has been used as alternative to lithium when lithium has been not been
effective in treating bipolar disorder
15. Answer: B. Tardive dyskinesia, a condition that resembles Parkinson’s disease and produces muscle
problems, was one possible side effect of neuroleptics, the first antipsychotic medications to be
released
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Research Methods
Critical thinking
1. Researching with factual information in order to arrive at a valid conclusion refers to
critical thinking
a. An educated guess of a specific or testable prediction, is considered the first
step in research and refers to a hypothesis
b. The definition of how the research will be tested, including the precise
definitions of how each variable will be used refers to
__________________________
c. Operational definitions clarify how the researcher plans to test his or hypothesis
through identifying variables. Any factor that may influence the outcome is
called a variable
2. A theory is an explanation of the recorded data used to explain what is being studied or a
phenomenon. What is the main difference between a theory and a hypothesis?
Theories not created as a hypothesis is; rather an explanation of the results of hypothesis
Research Methods in Psychology
3. Psychologists aim to meet four goals when conducting research: describe a phenomenon,
predict future or past behavior, control current or past behavior, and explain how and why a
phenomenon occurred. As a result, researchers rely on different methods to accomplish these
goals. Discuss the following methods in terms of their advantages and disadvantages.
Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages
_______________
_______________
Involves watching
participants in their
natural environment
Can observe
the subject in
natural
environment
May have to infer
information based on
observations
Can’t control environment
______________
An in-depth
examination of a rare
phenomenon that
occurred with an
individual, small
group, or a situation
Can examine,
in depth, rare
occurrences
Can’t generalize findings to
entire population
Situation may never occur
again- hard to theorize
_______________
Administration of
questionnaires or
interviews used to
identify attitudes,
beliefs, opinions
Can obtain
information
from large
number of
subjects
Subjects may lie
Subjects may not represent
entire population
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Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages
_______________
_______________
Examines the
relationships between
two or more variables
Researcher
can see
whether
variables are
related
Just because related does not
mean causation or one
variable caused another
variable/ there could always
be a third variable
_____________
Attempt to prove
causation by allowing
the researcher to
manipulate one or
more variables and
measure their
outcome
Can prove
whether one
variable
causes the
outcome
Can’t always account for
confounding variables
Laboratory setting is
different than real world
experiences
4. Which of the above methods are considered descriptive methods that describe
phenomenon, behavior, or attitudes?
Naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys
Experiments: An In-depth Look
5. What is the only accurate method to prove cause-and-effect phenomenon?
______________________
a. In an experiment, what is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter?
_______________________
b. Which is the measurable outcome or resulting effect of the manipulated variable?
____________________________
a. Variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher but may influence the
results are called __________________________
C. Which group in an experiment receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent
variable?
_________________________
a. Which group in an experiment does not receive any treatment or
exposure to the independent variable and is used for comparison to
conditions and effects of the experimental group?
__________________________
6. Confounding variables are variables that could affect the outcome or dependent variable
of an experiment. Subjects who act as they believe the experimenter wants them to act
refers to participant bias. The experimenter’s actions that could influence the outcome of
the experiment is called experimenter bias/ expectancy.
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7. An experiment design in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know who is in
the experimental group or control group refers to a ____________________and could
reduce participant/ experimenter bias.
Selecting Human Participants
8. Selecting participants from the population that closely match the population being studied
is called the _________________________
9. Categorizing the desired target population and selecting participants that best represent a
particular category of interest is referred to as a stratified sample,
b. Selecting participants from a population that the experimenter wishes to
study refers to ____________. Selecting participants in a manner that
ensures each member of the population has the same possibility of being
selected is called ____________________
b. Selecting participants in a manner that does not allow for all potential
subjects to have an equal chance of being selected refers to sampling bias.
10. After participants are chosen through random sampling, researches use the method of
_____ _________________allowing all participants the same opportunity of being
placed in a participation- control or experiment group.
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___ 1. A procedure that describes how research will be conducted that also allows other
researchers to be able to replicated the same research. *RC: How research operates
depends on how you define the procedure*
A) Case study D) Random assignment
B) Correlational data E) Random sampling
C) Operational definitions
___ 2. Dr. Hue is considering studying the effects of Vitamin on students' ability to answer
questions correctly on a test. In this particular hypothesis, what type of variable is
Vitamin B considered? *RC: Think of what the researcher is IN-terested in testing.*
A) Dependent variable D) Randomization
B) Independent variable E) Correlational coefficient
C) Confounding variable
___ 3. Forty-five students took part in a four-month study that looked at how imagery could
help people retain numbers displayed on a screen for a brief amount of time. The
study revealed that imagery did help people remember more numbers from the list
thus validating the hypothesis. In this particular study what was identified as the
dependent variable? *RC: Remember The outcome DEPENDS on how you measure
it*
A) Time allowed to answer a question D) People in the study
B) The imagery E) The person's intellectual ability
C) Numbers remembered
___ 4. What is potentially one flaw when utilizing a correlational study? *RC: Remember
there can always be other factors responsible for a relationship*
A) Correlational studies require a lot of time to see an actual relationship.
B) Correlational studies require manipulating more than one variable.
C) Correlational studies do not make predictions.
D) Correlational studies require multiple researchers simultaneously working
together.
E) Correlational studies may hint but do not provide causational evidence.
___ 5. Which of the following procedures would ensure that each member in a research
design is given the same opportunity to be part of the experiment or control
condition? RC: Remember you have to randomly ASSIGN people to different
experimental conditions*
A) Random sampling D) Hindsight bias
B) Random assignment E) Operational definition
C) Correlational design
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Statistical Analysis of Research
Descriptive studies
1. Data that are used to numerically summarize or describe the results for the targeted
population refers to descriptive studies
2. The gathering of data and arranging the information to indicate how often a score occurs
refers to frequency distribution
3. Define the 3 measures of central tendency.
a. Mean- average numerical value of all presented data
b. Median- numerical value of all presented data
c. Mode- numerical value that appears most often in presented data
4. Data that is arranged in a manner that resembles a normal curve refers to normal distribution
a. What is referred to a bell-shape curve or inverted U, which graphically
represents the occurrence of all the scores in a given set of data?
Normal curve
5. The difference of the numerical value of all given scores arranged from highest to lowest
values within a distribution is called the range
6. The variability between scores and how far each diverges from the average/ mean is referred
to as the standard deviation
7. The numerical relationship between two or more variables or factors, is often used to see
how two or more variable or factors relate to each other describes a ____________________
a. Correlational studies are represented by a histogram or scatterplot
b. A numerical value demonstrating the strength or weakness of the relationship
between 2 or more variables or factors is referred to as the
____________________________
c. The closer the numerical value is to ______ or ________ the stronger the
relationship.
d. Even though two variables are related this does not mean that:
________________________________________________
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e. What type of correlation occurs when either variables or factors move in the same
direction? _________________. For example, the more classes a student attends the
higher his or her final grade will be.
f. Negative correlation occurs when:
___________________________________________ __________
g. An incorrect belief that supposes one variable affected the outcome is referred to as
an ____________________________
Inferential Statistics
8. What do inferential statistics allow a researcher to do?
To apply results to the general population and infer whether data can be generalized to
population at large
9. The resulting correlation is not influenced by chance refers to the conclusion being
________________________
Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists
10. Who sets the guidelines for all research in terms of it being conducted?
American Psychological Association (APA)
11. Define the following guidelines that must be utilized when conducting research.
a. Informed consent- participants have agreed to be part of the experiment
b. Debriefing: participants are allowed to view the results after the experiment is
completed
c. Confidentiality: results are not released to the general public indicating names or
personal information
d. Harmful treatment: no harm should be done to the participant during study
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___ 1. Which of the following correlational coefficients would indicate the strongest
relationship between two variables? *RC: Remember 1 is a powerful number*
A) -.096 B) +.096 C) -0.98 D) +0.098 E) -0.77
___ 2. Jimmy thinks that there is a relationship between a full moon and people acting out of
the ordinary. This belief is described as a: *RC: Remember an illusion is something
that does not exist"
A) Positive correlation D) Half correlation
B) Negative correlation E) Inverse correlation
C) Illusory correlation
___ 3. Which of the following defines describes standard deviation? *RC: To deviate means
to vary from the norm or average*
A) How scores vary from the average or the mean.
B) The middle score in a frequency distribution.
C) The number that occurs the most in a frequency distribution
D) The top number in a range.
E) The bottom number in a range.
___ 4. Which of the following terms states that the results are not due to chance- but rather
empirical evidence:? *RC: Remember the scale does not lie- numbers or stats never
lie*
A) Inferential statistics D) Standard deviation
B) Mean E) Statistical significance
C) Frequency distribution
___ 5. A requirement of the APA Ethical Guidelines for research that instructs researchers to
discuss the purpose and results of the study to participants after they have participated
in a research design to ensure that deception was not used during the process. *RC:
To brief someone is to give them DEtails about the situation*
A) Informed consent D) Fair practice
B) Debriefing E) Unequal assistance
C) Liability
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1. Professor Marianos is conducting an
experiment on the effects of chalk dust on
memory retention. Two groups are given the
same memory test. Participants in group A are
exposed to chalk dust for 30 minutes a day,
while those in group B are not exposed to
chalk dust at all. Identify the dependent
variable in Professor Marianos’ study.
(A) Exposure to chalk dust
(B) Memory retention
(C) Ability to form mnemonics
(D) The length of time subjects were
exposed to chalk dust
(E) The amount of time between exposures
2. If a study is considered statistically
significant, we can assume that
(A) the study has both independent and
dependent variables
(B) the study is conducted in a controlled
environment
(C) all participants were debriefed after the
experiment was completed
(D) neither the experimenter nor the
participants knew which groups
participants were assigned to
(E) there is a relatively small chance the
results were caused by chance
3. Researchers concluded that subjects given a
sugar pill experienced the same results as
those who took actual medication. This is
known as the
(A) confirmation bias
(B) placebo effect
(C) double-blind effect
(D) hindsight bias
(E) participation bias
4. Recent research found a correlation between
the time one spends listening to heavy metal
music and the number of books one reads.
The correlation coefficient between these two
variables was –0.83. What does this
correlation mean?
(A) The more a person listens to heavy metal,
the more books he or she reads.
(B) The number of hours spent listening to
heavy metal has no effect on the number
of books a person reads.
(C) The less a person listens to heavy metal,
the more books he or she reads.
(D) As the age of the subject increases, the
number of books he or she reads
decreases.
(E) As the age of the subject decreases, the
number of books he or she reads
decreases.
5. Professor Gladhand is interested in studying
the effects of caffeine on the aggression levels
of rats. Which of the following research
methods would be most useful in reaching a
cause-and-effect conclusion?
(A) Case study method
(B) Experimental method
(C) Naturalistic observation method
(D) Survey method
(E) Selective breeding method
6. Dr. Sanborn is interested in studying people
who have sustained brain damage after
ingesting banana peels. Over the past five
years, he has studied only one such patient.
Which of the following research methods is
Dr. Sanborn most likely using?
(A) Naturalistic observation
(B) Experimental
(C) Survey
(D) Case study
(E) Twin studies
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7. Which of the following is an example of a
positive correlation?
(A) As the number of hours a person sleeps
increases, her violent behavior
decreases.
(B) As the number of dogs a person owns
decreases, her violent behavior
increases.
(C) The less sleep a person gets, the lower
her grade-point average.
(D) The more a person watches television,
the less she reads.
(E) The number of reptiles a person owns
has no effect on the number of emails
she sends.
8. Dr. Cho is concerned that his body language
might influence the outcome of his
experiment. Which of the following methods
should Dr. Cho use to ensure that he will not
impact the results of the study?
(A) Sampling size
(B) Double-blind study
(C) Single-blind study
(D) Case study method
(E) Survey method
9. Dr. J. Belaen conducted research that required
50 participants. The first 25 people that
arrived on the day of the experiment were
assigned to the experimental group, and the
remaining 25 were assigned to the control
group. Such a method of assignment may
influence the results of his experiment.
Instead, Dr. J. Belaen should have used which
method of assignment?
(A) Random sampling
(B) Random placement
(C) Random assignment
(D) Random selection
(E) Random blindness
10. In an experiment studying the effects of
alcohol on memory, subjects’ tolerance levels
relating to alcohol consumption would be
considered
(A) the dependent variable
(B) the independent variable
(C) a confounding variable
(D) random assignment
(E) participant bias
11. Which of the following correlation
coefficients would be considered to have the
greatest relationship strength?
(A) +0.78
(B) +0.33
(C) –0.56
(D) –0.84
(E) –0.14
12. Descriptive statistics
(A) allow the researcher to make
generalizations to the wider population
(B) are a numerical set of data used to
describe the data in a study
(C) are used only in rare instances
(D) allow the researcher to control for
confounding variables
(E) ensure that neither the subject nor the
researcher influences the outcome
13. In an experiment, the operational definition
serves what function?
(A) To randomly assign subjects to their
appropriate group
(B) To identify the standard deviation
within a given experiment
(C) To identify how the dependent variable
will be measured
(D) To identify a possible illusory
correlation
(E) To identify any experimenter bias that
may occur during the experiment
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14. The three measures of central tendency are
(A) mean, medium, majority
(B) majority, median, mode
(C) mean, variability, reliability
(D) mean, median, mode
(E) validity, predictability, reliability
15. Professor T. Manley noticed that her class’s
scores on their first test were between 89 and
14. Professor T. Manley is describing her
class’s
(A) range
(B) reliability
(C) sample size
(D) standard deviation
(E) correlation coefficient
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1. Answer: B. The dependent variable is the measurable outcome of the study. The experiment is
testing whether chalk dust increases memory retention; therefore, memory retention is the
dependent variable, whereas exposure to chalk dust is the independent variable
2. Answer: E. When a study is considered statistically significant, it means that the influence of
outside variables on the study is minimal, and has not impacted the findings
3. Answer: B. The placebo effect occurs when participants administered a fake pill (placebo) show
the same results as those given the actual medication. This is the result of the person believing that
the medication is working, even though it has no medicinal value
4. Answer: C. A negative correlation means that one variable increases while the other variable
decreases. As the number of hours spent listening to heavy metal increases, the number of books
read decreases.
5. Answer: B. The experimental method allows the researcher to manipulate variables to determine
cause and effect
6. Answer: D. A case study is used when a rare event or situation has occurred. Because this
research is considering a rare event, its results cannot be applied to the population at large
7. Answer: C. A positive correlation indicates that both variables move in the same direction. Even
though both variables (sleep and GPA) decrease, they are still moving in the same direction
8. Answer: B. In a double-blind study neither the researcher nor the participants know who has been
assigned to the control and experimental group
9. Answer: C. Random assignment (randomizing) allows all subjects the same opportunity of being
placed in either research group and helps control for assignment that may skew the results
10. Answer: C. A confounding variable is any factor that cannot be controlled by the researcher. In
this study, a subject’s tolerance level for alcohol may influence the outcome of the study
11. Answer: D. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship
between the variable
12. Answer: B. Descriptive statistics numerically describe the data. This allows researchers to
quantify their research and does not involve generalizing to the population at large
13. Answer: C. The operational definition is the definition of how the research outcomes will be
measured.
14. Answer: D. The three measures of central tendency are mean, median, and mode
15. Answer: A. Range refers to the numerical difference between scores arranged from highest to
lowest
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Appendix
Outlines
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History of Psychology
A. Psychology’s Roots
1. Plato and Socrates
a. Ideas are inborn/ mind distinct from body- mind continues after body dies
2. Aristotle
a. Mind and body are the same/ knowledge comes from experience
3. Descartes
a. Believed in interactive dualism- soul (consciousness) different than brain/ but
can interact
a. Materialism- mind and body are the same
4. John Locke
a. Mind but a “white paper”
a. Tabula rasa- a blank slate to write life experiences
b. Mind acts on what comes through senses
c. Gave rise to empiricism- knowledge comes from experience/ relies on
observation/experimentation
5. Wilhelm Wundt
a. Father of Psychology
b. German philosopher/ physiologist
c. Opened first psychology laboratory 1879
d. Used the technique of introspection- to look inward to basic elements that make
up conscious experience (very unreliable)
i. Set up experimental design to study sensory reactions to stimuli-
helped to separate from philosophy from psychology
6. E.B. Titchener (Wundt’s Student)
a. Introduced Structuralism (first system for organizing psychological beliefs)
based on studying structures of consciousness
7. Gestalt Psychology
a. Max Werthheimer- study of organization of mental processes
b. Opposed analyzing elements of consciousness (Structuralism)
c. Believed that the, “Whole is greater than sum of parts”
8. William James
a. Wrote “Principles of Psychology"
b. Disagreed with Structuralism
c. First American Psychologist- started first American Psychology lab at Harvard
d. Developed Functionalism- function of consciousness- how we adapt and adjust
in the environment/ based off of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
9. Sigmund Freud
a. Austrian physician
b. Psychoanalytical approach
1. Focused on abnormal behavior- unconscious conflicts from childhood
2. Relied on personal observation (case studies)
10. Ivan Pavlov
a. Russian physiologist
b. Studies of animal learning gave rise to observable study
c. Classical Conditioning
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11. John B. Watson
a. Founded Behaviorism
b. Focus on learning through rewards/consequences and observable behavior
1. B.F. Skinner- Operant Conditioning
2. Albert Bandura- Observational Learning
12. Humanistic Psychology
a. “Third Force of Psychology”
b. Emphasized conscious experience through free will and human potential
c. Abraham Maslow/ Carl Rogers
d. Rejected principles of behaviorism-rewards/punishment
13. Jean Piaget
a. Worked with assessing a child’s thinking ability
14. G. Stanley Hall
a. First person to receive Ph.D. in psychology
15. Mary Whiton Calkins
a. Elected President of the APA
b. First woman to finish requirement of Ph.D. but did not receive
16. Margaret Flow Washburn
a. Titchener’s first graduate/ and first to receive Ph.D.
17. Francis Cecil Sumner
a. First African-American to receive Ph.D.
A. Psychological Perspectives- Schools of thought and psychological approaches- opinions and
viewpoints on behavior and mental processes
1. Cognitive Perspective- Viewing behavior based on how brain takes in information,
creates perceptions, forms retrieves memories, processes information and generates
actions
2. Biological Perspective- Biological structures, such as brain, nervous system, neural
communication that underlie behavior
3. Social-Cultural Perspective- How thinking and behavior change in situations
4. Evolutionary Perspective- How natural selection of traits affects behavior to promote
adaptation and survival
5. Behavior Genetics Perspective- Genes and our environment influence individual
differences
6. Psychodynamic Perspective- Freud’s view of wow behavior, thoughts, and feelings
from the unconscious
7. Behavioral Perspective- Human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has
learned- for example- rewards and punishments
8. Humanistic Perspective- Views behavior as controlled by the decisions that people
make about their lives based on perceptions of the world through free will and
conscious choice
B. Careers in Psychology
1. Basic research- goal to increase knowledge of psychology
a. Biological psychologists- explore physiological roots and results of behavior
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b. Social psychologists- study influence of others and situations on our behavior
c. Developmental psychologists- growth and development over a lifetime
d. Cognitive psychologists- study thought processes and how it affects behavior
e. Quantitative psychologists- develop and use statistical tools to analyze research
data
2. Applied research- aim to solve practical problems
a. Educational psychologists- apply psychology to classroom
b. Clinical psychologists- treat troubled people
c. Psychiatry- physicians use medial and psychotherapy- prescribe medications
d. Community psychologists- who work to obtain psychological services for
people in need of help and prevent psychological disorders
e. Engineering psychology- study human factors in the use of equipment and help
designers create better versions of equipment
f. Sports psychologists- explore the relationships between athletic performance
and such psychological variables as motivation and emotion
g. Forensic psychologists- who assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants’
mental competence to stand trial
h. Environmental psychologists- study the effects of physical environment on
behavior and mental processes
a. Industry/ Organizational psychologists- use psychology to help
businesses and hire people
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States of Consciousness
A. Body Rhythms
1. Conscious level- awareness of yourself and your environment
a. Nonconscious level- level of mental activity that is inaccessible to conscious
awareness- biological process
b. Preconscious level- level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but
of which we can easily become conscious
c. Unconscious level- level of mental activity that influences consciousness but
is not conscious
2. State of consciousness- the characteristics of consciousness at any particular
moment
a. Altered state of consciousness- a condition in which changes in mental
processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant
differences in psychological and behavioral functioning- hallucinations
b. William James- described consciousness as a “stream”- although always
changing, consciousness is perceived as unified and unbroken
3. Biological rhythms- periodic physiological rhythms
a. Circadian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur every 24 hours- like
temperature
i. Jet lag- syndrome of fatigue, irritability, inattention and
sleeping caused by air travel across several time zones
b. Ultradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur more than once each day
c. Infradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a
season
B. Stages of Sleep
1. Sleep cycle is a circadian rhythm but it also includes 90-minute ultradian rhythms
a. REM sleep- type of sleep during which rapid eye movement and dreaming
usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed- also called active
sleep or paradoxical sleep
b. NREM sleep- quiet, typically dreamless sleep- divided into four stages- also
called quiet sleep
2. Sleep is measured through an electroencephalograph that uses electrodes to measure
brain wave activity
a. Beta waves- brain waves associated with alert wakefulness
b. Alpha waves- brain wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness and
drowsiness
c. Theta waves- follow alpha waves- slower waves
d. Delta waves- deep sleep- slowest waves
3. Onset of Sleep
i. Hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid sensory phenomena that
occur during the onset of sleep
ii. Myoclonic jerk- an involuntary muscle spasm of the whole
body that person awakes
4. N-REM sleep- non-rapid eye movement- period of sleep in which sleep stages 1-3
occur/ not characterized by eye movement or vivid dreams
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a. Stage 1 of NREM Sleep- slowed breathing, alpha to theta brain waves/ first
five minutes of sleep/ easy to awake/ last only a few minutes
b. Stage 2 of NREM Sleep- brain waves slow down/ experience little brain wave
bursts called sleep spindles/ lasts about 20 minutes then longer as night goes
on/ spend half your sleep in stage 2
c. Stage 3 NREM sleep- slow wave sleep- after about 30 minutes of sleep you
enter 3/ have increasing delta waves- about 20% delta waves
i. After reaching NREM stage 3 then go to Stage 3, then Stage 2,
and then REM sleep
5. REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep/ a recurring sleep stage during which vivid
dreams commonly occur- also known as paradoxical sleep- because muscles are
relaxed but other body systems active
a. When you reach stage 4 of NREM your brain waves will start to pick up and
you will go back to stage 3, then 2, and then enter REM sleep- this cycle is
about 90 minutes long
b. Last 4 hours of sleep (if you get 8 hours) are spent mostly in Stage 2 NREM
and REM
c. When you wake someone up during REM sleep they report a dream- REM
consumes 25% of sleep/ 100 minutes is thus spent dreaming
C. Why we Sleep
1. Control center for the 24-hour rhythm of sleep appears to be the brain’s
hypothalamus- the sensor (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in the hypothalamus monitors
changes in light and dark through information sent from the retina- the
hypothalamus then sends messages to other parts of the brain and body preparing
for sleep
a. This is done through hormones such as melatonin- when you wake up
melatonin levels begin to drop and continue to drop throughout the day until
you go to bed and turn out the lights
2. Restorative theory of sleep- sleep allows us to recuperate from the wear and tear
that affects our body throughout the day
a. NREM sleep restores the body
b. REM sleep restores the mind- improving the function of the neurotransmitter-
norepinephrine
3. Adaptive theory of sleep- view that the unique sleep patterns of different animals
evolved over time to promote survival and environmental adaptation- also referred
to as the evolutionary theory of sleep
4. Behavioral theory of sleep- we sleep because there is no stimulation
5. REM rebound- a phenomenon in which a person who is deprived REM sleep
greatly increases the amount of time spent in REM sleep at the first opportunity to
sleep uninterrupted
D. Why we Dream
1. Sleep thinking- takes places during NREM sleep and consists of vague, uncreative,
bland, and thought like ruminations about real-life events
2. Dream- a sequence if images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping
person’s mind- story like episode of unfolding mental imagery during REM sleep
a. Lucid dreaming- awareness that a dream is a dream while it is happening
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3. Freud believed in his book, Interpretation of Dreams, that dreams were the key to
understanding inner conflicts
a. Manifest content- according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
b. Latent content- according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream-
disguised as wish fulfillment
4. Information processing theory- dreams sort through the information throughout the
day’s experiences and tries to makes sense of the experiences.
a. Research shows that REM sleep facilitates memory and the amount of REM
sleep increases with stressful days
b. REM rebound- tendency after sleep deprivation to dive right into REM sleep
5. Physiological Function theory- neural activity during REM sleep stimulates the
brain- especially true with the infant’s brain rapidly developing
a. During delta sleep the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone that supports
this theory
6. Activation-synthesis theory- this theory suggests that dreams are simply the mind’s
attempt to make sense of the random firing in the various regions of the brain- this
interpretation of the neural firing leads to dreams
E. Sleep Disorders
1. Insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep- stress plays a role
2. Narcolepsy- characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks- goes directly into REM
sleep
3. Sleep apnea- temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent
momentary reawakening
4. Night terrors- characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified-
unlike nightmares- night terrors occur during Stage 3 sleep within 2 or 3 hours of
falling asleep and are seldom remembered
5. Nightmares- frightening dream that takes place during REM sleep
6. Sleep Bruxism- grinding of the teeth
7. Enuresis- bed wetting
8. Myoclonus- sudden jerking of a body part occurring in Stage 1 or 2
9. Sleep walking- somnambulism- occurs in NREM sleep stage 3 and affects mostly
children- usually have no occurrence of events
10. REM behavior disorder- a person does not lose muscle tone during REM sleep-
allowing the person to act out dreams
a. Sudden infant death syndrome- sleeping baby stops breathing and
suffocate.
A. Hypnosis- a social interaction in which one person- hypnotist- makes suggestions about
perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, and another person- the subject- follows those
suggestions
1. Social influence theory- Role theory- the theory that powerful social influences can
produce a state of hypnosis- peer pressure to act in accordance with the expectations
and demands of hypnotic session
a. State theory- theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
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2. Divided consciousness theory- dissociation theory- theory that during hypnosis- our
consciousness- our awareness of ourselves and others splits- so that one aspect of
consciousness is not aware of the role other parts are playing
a. Ernest Hilgard- pioneering research on hypnosis and believer of the divided
consciousness theory based on social agreement of the participant and divided
consciousness
b. Hidden observer- Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness
of experiences, such as pain, because of an altered state of consciousness/
when participant awakes they report no feeling of pain as the “hidden observer
noted”
B. Hypnotic Techniques
1. Hypnotic induction- process in which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a
subject, generally by voicing a series of suggestions
2. Posthypnotic suggestion- a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session to be carried
out after the subject is no longer hypnotized- helps control addiction and behaviors
3. Hypomnesia- supposed enhancement of a person’s memory for past events through
a hypnotic session
4. Posthypnotic amnesia- supposed inability to recall what one experienced during
hypnosis- induced by hypnotist’s suggestion
C. Meditation- An one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention
and heighten awareness
D. Drugs
1. Psychopharmacology- study of psychoactive drugs and their effects
2. Psychoactive drug- a chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, or behavior
3. Blood-brain barrier- feature of blood vessels supplying the brain that allows only
certain substances to leave the blood and interact with brain tissue- once past barrier
psychoactive drugs can have effects on the brain
4. Learned expectations- what user expects or hopes to feel with taking drug affects
how drug performs
5. Dependence- a state of physiological and or psychological need to take more of a
substance after continued use- withdrawal follows if discontinued
a. Physical dependence- physiological need for drug resulting in withdrawal
symptoms
b. Psychological dependence- psychological need to use a drug- to relieve
negative emotions
6. Withdrawal- discomfort and distress that follow when a person who is dependent on
a drug discontinues the use of that drug
7. Tolerance- reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting the user to increase dosage
to achieve effects previously obtained by lower doses.
E. Drugs and Neurotransmission
a. Drugs affect binding with receptors- mimicking a neurotransmitters effects-
causes a neuron to fire in the absence of normal stimulation
b. Drugs block receptor sites preventing neurotransmitters from binding and
thereby not allowing neurotransmission to occur
c. Drugs block neurotransmitter reabsorption thereby intensifying the
neurotransmitter’s effects in the synapse
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d. Drugs tend to bind better than neurotransmitters so the intensity and effects on
the body tend to be more
F. Drug classifications
1. Depressants- drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function and inhibits
central nervous system/ and increases the availability of GABA- inhibitory
neurotransmitter
a. Alcohol
b. Barbiturates- drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system-
reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment- also included
tranquilizers and sedatives
c. Benzodiazepines which include Valium and Xanax depress the activity of the
central nervous system without the side effects included in barbiturates
d. GHB- naturally occurring substance similar to neurotransmitter GABA-
inhibitor of the brain
2. Opiates- opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin that depress neural
activity and temporary lessen pain and anxiety
a. Morphine- strong sedative and pain-relieving drug deprived from opium
b. Endorphins- “morphine within”- neural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked
to pain control and to pleasure
a. Opiates are agonist for endorphins
3. Stimulates- drugs such as caffeine and nicotine and the more powerful
amphetamines and cocaine that excite neural activity- especially dopamine-
neurotransmitter linked to pleasure- and also reduce the effects of the GABA
neurotransmitter- and speeds up body functions- in the central nervous system
a. Caffeine- stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and soft drinks
b. Nicotine- stimulant found in tobacco
c. Cocaine- stimulant derived from leaves of the coca plant
a. Cocaine psychosis- features very similar to schizophrenia
d. Amphetamines- drugs that stimulate neural activity speeding up body
functions and associated energy and mood changes
e. Ecstasy- MDMA- increases dopamine activity
4. Hallucinogens- psychedelic “mind manifesting” drugs- LSD- that distort
perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input by affecting
dopamine receptors
a. LSD- powerful hallucinogenic drug
b. Marijuana- leaves, stems, resin and flowers from hemp plants that when
smoked, lower inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and mild
euphoria- THC is the active ingredient
5. Prevention- education
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Personality
A. Personality- an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
B. Psychodynamic Perspective- importance of unconscious thought and unresolved childhood
conflicts as a source of personality development
1. Sigmund Freud
2. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality- also therapeutic technique attempts
to provide insight in one’s thoughts and action by exposing the unconscious and
conflicts associated with childhood
3. Free association- method of exploring the unconscious in which people says
whatever comes to mind
4. States of consciousness
a. Preconscious- information that is not conscious but is easy to retrieve into
conscious awareness- ate for dinner last night
b. Unconscious- a portion of the mind that holds unacceptable thoughts, wishes,
feelings, and memories
5. Personality structure
a. Id- part of personality that is unconscious and strives to satisfy basic sexual
and aggressive drives
1. Operates according to pleasure principle- demanding immediate
gratification
2. Libido- psychic energy contained in the id
3. Thanatos- death instincts-responsible for aggression and destructiveness
4. Eros- life instincts- responsible for constructive energy and a source of
energy
b. Superego- part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides
standards for judgments and future goals
c. Ego- largely conscious- part of personality mediates demands of the Id and
Superego and reality
1. Operates according to reality principle- satisfying the Id’s desires in ways
that will bring pleasure not pain
6. Defense Mechanisms- Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by
unconsciously distorting reality
a. Repression- banishes thoughts, anxiety, feelings and memories from the
consciousness
1. Found in all defense mechanisms
b. Regression- allows an anxious person to retreat to more comfortable, infantile
stage of life
c. Denial- refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happening
d. Reaction formation- switching unacceptable thought to the opposite- “I hate
her” to “I love her”
e. Projection- disguising threatening feelings of guilt to another person
f. Rationalization- displaces real, anxiety provoking feelings with more
comforting explanations or justifications
g. Displacement- shifts unacceptable impulse toward a less threatening object or
person
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h. Compensation- striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears- being
extremely competitive for inferiorities
i. Undoing- neutralizing an unacceptable action by a more favorable second
action- cheating on one test- helping someone else out on another test
7. Psychosexual Stages- each stage marked by the id’s pleasure-seeking focus on
different parts of the body called erogenous zones
a. Fixation- failure to resolve the problems and conflicts that appear in a given
stage
1. Oral stage- 1-18 months- pleasure centers on mouth, biting, chewing
2. Anal stage- 18 months – 3 years- pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder functions-
coping with demands of control
3. Phallic stage- 3-6 years- pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous
feelings
1. Oedipus complex- boy has rival for Dad- feelings for Mom- boy experiences
castration anxiety from father for punishing his feelings
2. Electra complex- girl develops feelings for father- resistance towards mother-
penis envy- feels a sense of loss and deprivation
3. Identification- ego defense mechanism- reducing anxiety by modeling the
behavior and characteristics of another person
4. Latency stage- 6 – puberty- dormant sexual feelings- gender identity forms towards
same sex people
5. Genital stage- puberty on- maturation of sexual interests
A. Neo-Freudians
1. Alfred Adler
a. Agreed with Freud of importance of childhood experiences but thought social not sexual
tensions were crucial for personality development
c. Adler had his own childhood inferiorities that led to development of his theory
d. Believed that the most human fundamental motive is striving for superiority
1. Inferiority complex- childhood inferiorities lead to superiority
2. People tend to overcompensate for weaknesses developing a superiority
complex- characterized by exaggerating one’s accomplishments
2. Carl Jung
a. Not agree with social tensions or Freud’s role of the unconscious
b. Stated we don’t have an individual unconscious but a collective unconscious that are
memories from our ancestors- not aware of these memories- but influence behavior
1. Archetypes- shared symbols in stories, art- mother a symbol for nurturing
c. People don’t go through personality stages but develop either introversion or extraversion
1. Introversion- tendency to reflect on one’s own abilities
2. Extraversion- tendency to focus on the social world
3. Karen Horney
a. Pointed out that Freud’s theory was male dominated and female development was inaccurate
1. Stated that male develop womb envy- inferiority from not being able to carry a child
2. Stated social factors, not biological, responsible for personality development
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a. Moving toward relationship- excessive need for approval
b. Moving against relationship- excessive need for power
c. Moving away relationship- excessive need for independence
i. Caused by dependent child’s sense of helplessness triggers desire for love
and security
B. Assessing Psychodynamic perspective
1. Projective personality tests- personality tests that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger
projection of inner thoughts
b. Advantage: can access unconscious/ subjects do not really know what tester is
asking- may lead to be more honest with answers
C. Trait approach- perspective in which personality is seen as a combination of characteristics
that people display over time and across situations
1. Trait- characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act- quantitative
measure- number of traits a person has
2. Type- qualitative measure- whether or not someone is or is not a certain type-
feeling type made up caring, sympathetic, dependable traits
D. Gordon Allport- one of the first trait theorist who researched the idea that individual
personalities are unique
1. Surface traits (secondary traits)- personality characteristics or attributes that can
easily be inferred from observable behavior
2. Source traits (central traits)- most fundamental dimensions of personality- basic
traits- few in number
3. Cardinal trait- an overwhelming dominant trait- very few possess
E. Raymond Cattell’s Factor Analysis
1. Used factor analysis- technique to identify traits that are closely related to one
another- one trait predicts another trait- if caring then dependable
2. Proposed 16 key personality dimensions or factors to describe personality
3. To identify the 16 traits used- Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
F. Hans Eysenck’s Biological Dimensions- Identified three dimensions of personality
1. Extraversion-introversion dimension
a. Extroverts- outgoing/ Introverts- shy
1. Neuroticism- emotional stability dimension
b. Neuroticism- disposition to become extremely upset
c. Emotionally stable- disposition to remain emotionally stable
1. Psychoticism dimension- high on this dimension is antisocial, cold
hostile/ low on this dimension- caring towards others
G. Five-factor model of personality
1. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa’s Trait theory of personality that identifies five
basic source traits as the fundamental building blocks of personality
a. Openness-imaginative or practical
b. Extraversion- affectionate or reserved
c. Emotional stability (neuroticism)- calm or anxious
d. Agreeableness- trusting or suspicious
e. Conscientiousness- organized or disorganized
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H. Gray’s Approach-Inhibition Theory
1. Differences among people in introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability
(neuroticism) come from two related systems in the brain:
a. Behavioral approach system- (BAS)- made up of brain regions that affect
people’s sensitivity to rewards and motivation to seek those awards- called a
“go” system- responsible for impulsive behavior
b. Behavioral inhibition system- (BIS)- involves brain regions that affect
sensitivity to potential punishment and the motivation to avoid being
punished- called a “stop” system- responsible for fearful behavior
A. Evaluating Trait Perspective
2. Does not consider situation in how affects person
3. Does not explain why somebody acts a certain way
B. Social- Cognitive- this perspective is an interactive theory that combine research on social
behavior, cognition, and learning, and self-efficacy beliefs
C. Albert Bandura- believed to understand personality have to consider situation, person’s
thoughts, and thoughts surrounding an event
1. Reciprocal determinism- Albert Bandura’s theory that explains human functioning
and personality as caused by the interaction of:
a. Cognition- or thoughts
b. Behavioral factors
c. Environment factors
2. Self-efficacy beliefs- beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the
demands of a specific situation, feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt
D. Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory
a. Learning creates cognitions called expectancies- that guide behavior
determined by what the person expects to happen following the behavior/ and
the value the person places on the outcome
b. Also determine by personal control
1. External locus of control (externals)- perception that chance or forces
beyond personal control controls your fate
2. Internal locus of control (internals)- you control your own fate
E. Walter Mischel’s Cognitive/Affective theory
1. Mischel believed that cognitive person variables- beliefs, feelings, expectancies are
responsible for why individuals differ and personality/
2. Also called “if/then” theory- if people encounter a particular situation then they will
engage in certain characteristic behaviors- called behavioral signatures
3. Most important cognitive variables:
a. Encodings- beliefs person has about the environment
b. Expectancies- what person expects to follow each behavior
c. Affects- feelings, emotion responses
d. Goals and Values- things person believes in and wants to do
e. Competences/ self-regulatory plans- thoughts and actions person is capable of
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F. Evaluating Social-Cognitive
1. Does not consider emotion or enduring traits- biological factors/ unconscious
G. Humanistic Perspective- Goal is to reach human potential- flourished in the 1960s-
emphasizes the inherent goodness of people, self-actualization, self-concept, and healthy
personality development
1. Emphasized conscious experience
2. Focused on free will and creative abilities
3. Studied all factors- not just observable behaviors
a. Abraham Maslow- Self-Actualization
a. Hierarchy of Needs- must satisfy one set of needs before meeting other needs-
motivation to reach self-actualization
b. Deficiency orientation- a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a
person does not have
c. Growth orientation- tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life-
rather than what is missing
1. Physiological needs- air, water
2. Safety needs- security
3. Belongingness and love- love and to be loved
4. Esteem needs- need for achievement, competence
5. Self-actualization- need to live up to and realization of one’s
potential. Abraham Lincoln, Elenor Roosevelt
b. Carl Rogers- Person-Centered Approach
a. Actualizing tendency- Rogers’s theory, the innate drive to maintain and
enhance the human organism
b. Self-concept- set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about
yourself- people are motivated to act in accordance with their self-
concept- don’t act in accordance- personality is altered
1. Conditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and
loved only if behave in a certain way- conditional love
2. Unconditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and
loved even if you don’t conform to the standards and
expectations of others- unconditional love
a. Congruence- what you do and self-concept match
b. Incongruence- what you do and self-concept does not
match
3. Agreed with Maslow, but thought could also flourish with having
empathy, acceptance and genuineness
a. Genuine- freely express themselves- don’t disclose
anything
b. Empathic- reflecting the other person’s feelings
c. Acceptance- accepting someone no matter what done
c. Evaluating Humanistic Perspective
a. Unconditional positive regard can be interrupted as not disciplining
children
b. Theory is vague and hard to test
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H. Personality Testing
1. Objective personality tests- a test containing direct, unambiguous items relating to
the individual being assessed
2. Personality inventories- questionnaires (true or false) which people respond used to
assess personality traits
a. Validity- extent to which test measures what it is supposed to
b. Reliability- extent to which test yields consistent results when or where given
3. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
a. MMPI most widely used of all personality tests- originally designed to test
personality traits for abnormal behavior
4. NEO-PI-R- Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory-designed to
measure “big five traits
5. Advantages of objective tests- easy to administer/ compared to others/ Inexpensive
6. Disadvantage/ Only one correct answer
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Testing and Individual Differences
A. Intelligence- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to
adapt to new situations
1. Fluid intelligence- basic power of reasoning and problem solving
2. Crystallized intelligence- specific knowledge gained as a result of applying
fluid intelligence
3. Emotional intelligence- ability to perceive, express, understand regulate
emotions
B. Intelligence test- method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing
them with those of others, using numerical scores
1. IQ test- designed to measure intelligence on objective, standardized scale
C. Factor analysis- a statistical procedure identifies clusters of related items called factors on
a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score
D. Theories of Intelligence
1. Psychometric approach- a way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of
the products of intelligence- especially scores on a IQ test
2. Information- processing approach- focuses on mental operations, such as attention
and memory, that underlie intelligent behavior
3. Charles Spearman- g factor- a general intelligence factor that underlies specific
mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
1. s factor- a group of special abilities that Spearman saw as accompanying
general intelligence g
1. L.L. Thurstone- used factor analysis- found “7 primary independent mental
abilities”
a. Numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualization,
perceptual ability, memory, verbal comprehension
b. Thought that Spearman’s g factor was average of these 7 abilities
2. Howard Gardner- believed intelligence consists of eight separate kinds of
intelligence
a.Verbal-linguistic- reading/ Logical-Mathematical- solving math
problems/ Bodily-Kinesthetic- balance, endurance/ Visual-spatial- map
reading/ Musical-Rhythmic- creating music/ Interpersonal- sensitivity to
others/ Intrapersonal- knowledge of self/ Naturalistic- ability to work with
plants and animals
b. Savant syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise limited
in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill,
3. Robert Sternberg- wrote Triarchic theory of intelligence- identifying three
distinct forms of intelligence:
a. Analytic intelligence- analyzing, comparing, evaluating, solving
problems (most stressed in schools)
b. Practical intelligence- applying, adapting to the environment- street
smarts
c. Creative intelligence- using existing information in new situations
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A. Intelligence Testing
1. Alfred Binet- developer of first test to classify children’s abilities using the concept of
mental age
a. He did not test what students were taught in school- but mental abilities- memory,
attention / brighter children performed like older children
a. Mental age- chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of
performance/ average 8 year old has mental age of 8
2. Lewis Terman- adapted Alfred Binet’s tests for use in the United States as the
Stanford-Binet intelligence test
a. William Stern revised the scoring of the Stanford-Binet test and developed the
intelligence quotient- IQ- mental age divided by chronological age (actual
age) multiplied by 100
b. The mean score is 100 with a standard deviation of 15
3. David Wechsler- developed the Wechsler adult intelligence scales- most widely used
individual intelligence tests in the United States
a. Wechsler intelligence scales- series of intelligence tests tailored to three
different age groups- children- WISC, adults- WAIS, preschoolers- separate
scores for verbal and nonverbal abilities/ verbal- vocab, math/ nonverbal-
nonverbal or performance- ability on task- assembling an object
i. Verbal scale- subtests that measure verbal skills as a part of a
measure of overall intelligence
ii. Performance scale- subtests that measure spatial ability and the
ability to manipulate materials as part of a measure of overall
intelligence
4. Aptitude tests- designed to predict a person’s future performance/ capacity to learn
(ACT or SAT)
5. Achievement tests- designed to assess what a person has learned, or mastered
6. Creativity- the capacity to produce new, high quality ideas or products
a. Divergent thinking- ability to think along many alternative paths to generate
many different solutions to a problem
b. Convergent thinking- ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down
the number of possible solutions to a problem or perform some other complex
cognitive task
B. Principles of Test Construction
1. Test- systematic procedure for observing behavior in a standard situation and describing it
with help of a numerical scale or category system
2. Norm- description of the frequency at which particular scores occur, allowing scores to
be compared statistically
3. Percentile scores- indicate percentage who score at or below specific scores
4. Standardization- defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a
pretested group- representative sample
5. Normal Curve- the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describe the distribution of
many physical and psychological attributes- most fall near the average- few far from
6. Reliability- extent to which a test yields consistent results of scores
i. Testing reliability
a. Alternate form- giving an alternate test and comparing results
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b. Split-half- calculating a person’s score based on halves of the test
c. Test-retest- giving the same test twice over different times
7. Validity- extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
a. Content validity- extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest- psychology=
psychology test of the content covered
b. Construct validity- refers to the extent to which there is evidence measures a
hypothetical construct- a theory that is being tested
c. Predictive validity- success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to
predict- relationship between some criterion and test score/ test score and college
success
1. Criterion- a behavior that a test is designed to predict- test score and college
grades
C. Mental Retardation- test scores that fall below 70
1. Down syndrome- an extra 21st chromosome/ IQ of 40-55
2. Fragile X syndrome- defect on chromosome 23
1. Williams syndrome- defect on chromosome 7/ or by inheriting a gene of
phenylketonuria (PKU) which causes the body to create toxins out of milk and other
foods
2. Familial Retardation- mild cases- no genetic or environmental causes
a. Mild retardation- 50-70 score- 85% have- may learn up to 6th grade level- adults need
some assistance
b. Moderate- 35-49- 10% have- 2nd grade level- adult may need support groups
c. Severe- 20-34- 3-4% have- simple tasks under supervision
d. Profound- below 20- 1-2% have- constant aid and supervision
D. Gifted children- IQ scores of higher than 130 a. Drudge theory- proposes that extraordinary achievement depends on intensive training and
monumental effort- innate talent is also important
E. Group Tests
1. Heredity and environment seem to interact of intelligence scores- differences accounting
for different environments
a. Heritability- percentage of variation within population that is due to heredity
b. Twin studies show more similar IQ scores than siblings or others raised apart
c. Reaction range model- heredity sets limits on one’s intelligence and that environmental
factors determine where people fall within these limits
2. There are differences in the average IQ scores for different racial groups- there is more
variation within a particular group than between groups
3. Cross-cultural studies have demonstrated that the average age IQ scores of groups subject
to social discrimination are frequently lower than the average IQ scores of the dominant
social group
4. Intelligence tests can be culturally biased- an intelligence tests reflects the culture in
which they are developed
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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
A. Motivation- a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
a. Motive- reason or purpose for behavior
B. Historic Explanations
1. Instinct theory- a view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic,
involuntary, and unlearned responses
a. Instinct- complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout species unlearned
b. Evolution- Charles Darwin- natural selection- nature selects organisms best
suited for survival
C. Biological Explanations
1. Optimum Arousal theories- each brain has activated different levels of alertness
expressed through curiosity and explains boredom- motivation is to maintain a stable
level of arousal
a. Arousal- general level of activation reflected in physiological systems
b. Yerkes-Dodson law- degree of psychological arousal helps performance but
only up to a certain point- too much or too little can affect performance
2. Drive-reduction theory- the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension
state (drive) that motivates the organism to satisfy the need
a. Need- biological requirement for well-being that is created by an imbalance
in homeostasis
b. Drive- psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in
homeostasis prompts organism to take action restore balance reduce drive
c. Homeostasis- a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state-
regulation of any aspect of body chemistry- such as blood glucose
a. Drive-reduction theory focuses on removing deficits and homeostasis
regulation focuses on avoiding both deficits and surpluses
D. Cognitive Explanation
1. Incentive theory- behavior is directed towards, or “pushing” us to attaining desirable
stimuli and, or “pulling” us- avoiding unwanted stimuli
a. Incentive- a positive or negative environmental stimulus motivates behavior
2. Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or
threats of punishment
3. Intrinsic motivation- desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
E. Clinical Explanations
1. Abraham Maslow- Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs
2. Motivation based on satisfying needs and progressing to self-actualization
a. Hierarchy of Needs- pyramid of human needs beginning with:
a. Physiological needs- food water,
b. Safety needs- feeling secure,
c. Belongingness and love needs- need to love/ beloved,
d. Esteem needs- need for self-esteem/ achievement,
e. Cognitive needs- pursuit of knowledge
f. Aesthetic needs- expression
g. Self-actualization- the need to live up to one’s fullest and unique
potential
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A. Physiology of Hunger
B. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat
1. Hypothalamus
a. Lateral hypothalamus- brings on hunger
b. Ventromedial hypothalamus- depresses hunger
a. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat
2. Glucose- form of sugar that circulates throughout your body- run low on glucose and feel
hungry- glucose a major source of energy in your body
a. Orexin- hunger-triggering hormone produced by lateral hypothalamus- when glucose
levels drop- orexin levels rise and you feel hungry
b. Insulin- hormone that allows cells to use glucose for energy or convert it into fat-
when insulin goes up- glucose goes down
3. CCK- short-term signals to stop eating/ monitors hormones in the gut- sends signals to
brain to stop eating
4. Leptin- produced by bloated fat cells, which send long-term messages to stop eating- when
leptin levels high- hunger decreases
5. Set point- the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is set- when body falls
below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the
lost weight
a. Basal metabolic rate- the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure
a. Women slow than men
b. Don’t eat- slower BMR
c. Exercise- speeds up BMR
C. Psychology of Hunger
1. External incentives- sight, sound, and smell of food seem to affect some people more than
others/ for example increased insulin levels
2. Culture- shape our attitudes toward eating
b. Culture also affects taste
D. Obesity
1. Body Mass Index- (BMI)- greater than 30- severely overweight
E. Eating Disorders
1. Anorexia nervosa- normal weight people (usually adolescent females) suffer delusions
about being overweight- put themselves on rigorous exercise and starvation diets that allow
them to 15% or more underweight
2. Bulimia nervosa- characterized by episodes of overeating- usually high calorie foods
followed by vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise
F. Achievement Motivation
1. Achievement- desire for significant accomplishment for mastery things, people, or
ideas for attaining a high standard
a. Henry Murray- Neo-Freudian who first established the concept of
achievement
2. David McClelland- pioneered the use of the TAT to measure individual differences in
need for achievement
a. People who score high in need for achievement tend to work harder and more
persistently than others- can delay gratification
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b. Need achievement (Competent motivation)- motive influenced by the degree
to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting goals, and
experiences feelings of satisfaction with completion of goals
c. Achievement motivation- motivation and satisfaction based on outperforming
others
d. Subjective wellbeing- combination of cognitive judgment of satisfaction with
life, frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions
G. Motivating and Work
a. Industrial-organizational psychology- the application of psychological concepts
and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces
b. Personnel psychology- subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee
recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal and development
c. Organizational psychology- a subfield of I/O psychology that examines
organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates
change
d. Flow- a completely involved, focused state of consciousness with diminished
awareness of self and time
a. Task leadership- goal-orientated leadership that sets standards, organizes
work, and focuses attention
b. Social leadership- group orientated leadership that builds teamwork, mediates
conflicts, and offers support
c. Theory X- assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone and
extrinsically motivated by money and thus should be directed
d. Theory Y- assumes that given challenge and freedom, workers are
intrinsically motivated to achieve self-esteem and demonstrate their
competence and creativity
1. Emotions- transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self-
generated in part by cognitive appraisal of situation, accompanied by both learned and
innate physical responses- involving:
1. Physiological arousal- increased heart rate
2. Expressive behaviors- smiling, laughing
3. Conscious experience- interpretation of situation or event
2. Theories of Emotions- Historical
1. William James and Carl Lange- James-Lange theory- theory that our
experience of emotion is awareness of our physiological responses to an
emotion arousing stimulus
a. Car accident- heart pounding (physiological arousal) then fear
(emotion)
2. Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- Cannon-Bard theory- theory that emotion-
arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and
subjective (brain)experience of emotion
a. Car accident- heart pounding (physical arousal) and fear (emotion) at
same time
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3. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer- Two-factor theory of emotion- theory
that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and a cognitive
label that explains the physiological arousal:
a. Attribution- process of explaining the causes of an event
b. Excitation transfer- process of carrying over arousal from one
experience to an independent situation
a. Car accident- pounding heart (physical arousal) and “I am
afraid” cognitive label equals fear (emotion)
4. Robert Zajonic- concluded that some emotional reactions involve no
deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion-
cognition and emotion are separate- before we know what we think about a
situation we know how we feel- hear some rustling of leaves and our heart
starts beating and we jump back and then our brain takes over and examines
the situation
a. Certain pathways skip the cortical thinking parts of the brain and take
a more direct path to the amygdala- emotion control center of the
brain- these short-cuts explain why our feelings are more likely to
control our thoughts than our thoughts control our feelings- jumping at
a noise before knowing what the noise is
5. Cognitive mediational theory of emotion- Richard Lazaras- concluded that
some emotional responses do not require conscious thought- he however
does think that some sort of cognitive appraisal (if it is harmful or pleasant
to us) is necessary or how would we know what we are reacting to- this
maybe unconscious and we may not be aware of the label- example- rustling
of leaves behind us cause us to be scared then we appraise the situation and
notice that it is just the wind, which is not a threat to us
6. Facial feedback hypothesis- expressing a specific emotion, especially
facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion
7. Evolutionary theories of emotion- assert that emotions are innate reaction
that do not depend on cognitive processes
a. Charles Darwin- face expressions tell people how one feels leads to
survival
3. Physiological Changes due to Emotion
1. Limbic system- activity in the amygdala- central to emotion
a. Pyramidal motor system- voluntary facial movement- fake
b. Extrapyramidal motor system- involuntary facial movement-
automatic
c. Right hemisphere- identification of emotions
2. Autonomic nervous system- part of the nervous system that controls the
glands and the muscles of the internal organs- such as the heart
a. Sympathetic nervous system- arousing the body- pupils dilate,
salivation decreases, skin perspires, respiration increases, heart
accelerates, digestion inhibits, stress hormones secrete
a. SNS- releases norepinephrine- helping to prepare body for
vigorous activity
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b. Parasympathetic nervous system- calms the body down- opposite
responses of sympathetic nervous system
a. PNS releases acetylcholine- neurotransmitter that helps
protection, nourishment, and growth of body
b. Lie detection- polygraph- detects emotional arousal- not lying
4. Expression of Emotion
1. Nonverbal communication- body language and facial expressions- women
tend to show more of face expressions
2. Culture and gender- North American women smile more, use more gestures,
and have more expressive face expressions/ North American men seem to
express one emotion more- anger
a. Display rules- cultural rules governing how and when a person may
express emotion
b. Cultures also disagree about the meaning behind gestures/ “ok” sign
not a good idea in Italy
c. Social referencing- process of letting another person’s emotional state
guide our own behavior
A. Stress- process of adjusting to circumstances disrupt a person’s equilibrium
a. Stressor- an event or situation to which people must adjust
b. Stress reaction- physical, psychological, and behavioral response
c. Appraisal- how people interpret stress
1. Health Psychology- a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affects
our well-being and our health
2. Behavioral medicine- an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and
medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease
B. Responding to Stress
1. Walter Cannon- American psychologist who concluded that physiological and
emotional experiences occur simultaneously
a. Fight-of-Flight- physical reaction initiated by the sympathetic nervous system
that prepare the body for- anger (fight) or flee from it- fear (flight)
b. Acute stress:
i. Hypothalamus causes
ii. Sympathetic nervous system causes
iii. Adrenal medulla (inner surface) causes
iv. Release of catecholamine’s- increased respiration, heart rate,
blood pressure, blood to muscles, digestion slows, pupils dilate
c. Prolonged Stress
i. Hypothalamus causes
ii. Pituitary gland causes
iii. ACTH (hormone) causes
iv. Adrenal cortex (outer surface) causes
v. Release of corticosteroids- increased stored energy, reduces
inflammation, reduces immune system
vi. Release of endorphins- dull pain
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2. Hans Selye- Psychologists who researched a recurring response to stress that he
called the general adaptation syndrome
a. General adaptation syndrome (GAS)- Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive
response to stress in three stages, alarm, resistance, exhaustion
1. Alarm reaction- Nervous system is activated following an emotional or
physical trauma- your body gets ready for the event (same as Walter Cannon’s
description of fight-or-flight)
2. Resistance- outpouring of stress-related hormones keep your respiration,
temperature, and blood pressure high
3. Exhaustion- with extended exposure your body’s reserves become depleted
and exhaustion happens in illness and eventually death- flood of stress
hormones appears to shrink the hippocampus which may explain why recall is
hard after a stressful event
a. Diseases of adaptation- illnesses that are caused or worsened by
stressors
b. Burnout- gradually intensifying pattern of physical, psychological, and
behavioral dysfunction in response to continuous flow of stressors
C. Sources of Stress
1. Daily hassles- reoccurring sources of aggravation
2. Acute stressors- short bouts of stress
3. Chronic stressors- long term bouts of stress
4. Life-changes- noticeable change that requires readjustment- death of a loved one,
marriage, having a child
a. Determined by life change units- death of a spouse/ death of a parent highest
on Social Readjustment Rating Scale
5. Catastrophes- earthquakes, floods, wars
6. Pressure- expectations to perform or conform
7. Frustration- goal is blocked- failures and losses
8. Conflicts- decision between two choices
a. Approach-approach- choice must be made between two appealing goals
b. Avoidance-avoidance- choice must be made between two unattractive goals
c. Approach-avoidance- most stressful- choice must be made about a goal that
has good and bad aspects or points
d. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict (double)- two alternatives- each with
positive and negative characteristics.
D. Stress and the Immune system
1. Psychoneuroimmunology- research the interaction of psychological, social,
behavioral, neural, hormonal, and immune system processes that affect the body’s
defenses against disease
2. Psychophysiological illness- “mind-body” illnesses- any stress related physical
illness such as hypertension and some headaches
3. Lymphocytes- two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune
system
a. B lymphocytes- in bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial
infections
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b. T lymphocytes- in the thymus- attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign
substances
i. Stress hormones reduce lymphocytes
E. Coronary heart disease- number 1 killer among Americans
F. Martin Seligman- American psychologist and proponent of positive psychology
1. Wellness- common result of a healthy lifestyle and healthy attitude
a. Family and Friends- support home and friends leads to wellness
b. Faith factor- faith leads to wellness
2. Positive Psychology- subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of optimal
human functioning and the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive
a. Flow- state of optimal experience- for flow to occur- the experience must be a
challenge requiring skill have clear goals and provide feedback
b. Happiness- leads to high self-esteem, optimistic outlooks, outgoing, close
friendships, good work skills/ not connected to age, gender, parenthood,
physical attractiveness
3. Explanatory style- habits we have for thinking about the good or bad causes or
events
a. Optimism- positive- things will work- other causes besides oneself
b. Pessimism- negative- find fault within oneself for outcomes- things will never
get better
4. Quit smoking leads to wellness
a. Smoking affects dopamine receptors
5. Weight control and losing weight
6. More aerobic exercise
7. Social support network- friends and social contacts
G. Effects of Perceived Control
1. Type A personality vs. Type B personality- Friedman and Rosenman’s
a. Type A personality- term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally
aggressive and anger-prone people/ risk for heart disease
b. Type B personality- easygoing and relaxed people
2. Predictability- tend to have less impact
3. Perception of control- people with more control have less impact from stressors
H. Coping strategies
1. Problem focused coping- addressing the problem
a. Confronting
b. Seeking social support
2. Emotion-focused coping
a. Self-controlling
b. Distancing- try to not think about
c. Positive reappraisal – minimize negative/ emphasize positive
d. Accepting responsibility
e. Escape/avoidance- wishful thinking
f. Downward comparison—compare self to those less fortunate
3. Cultures
a. Individualistic cultures- favor problem-focused coping- not social support
b. Collectivistic cultures- favor emotion-focused coping- seek social support
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Abnormal Psychology
A. Introduction to Psychological Disorders
A. Defining Disorder
1. Psychopathology- the study of the patterns of thinking, feeling, behaving
that are maladaptive, disruptive, or uncomfortable for those who are affected
or for those with whom they come in contact.
a. Impaired functioning- difficulty in fulfilling appropriate and expected
family, social, and work-related roles
2. Psychological disorder- a “harmful dysfunction” in which behaviors are
maladaptive, unjustifiable, disturbing, and atypical
a. Neurotic disorder- a psychological disorder that is usually distressing
but that allows one to think rationally and function socially
b. Psychotic disorder- a psychological disorder in which a person loses
contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted
perceptions
B. Explaining Disorders
1. Philippe Pinel- French physician who worked to reform the treatment of
people with mental disorders
a. Syphilis- infects the brain and distorts the mind- made people
focus on physical causes for mental disorders and treatments that
would cure them- led to medical model:
b. Dorthea Dix- worked to improve mental health facilities in
America
2. Medical model- the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be
diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured- when applied to psychological
disorders, the medical model assumes that these “mental” illnesses can be
diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which
may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital
a. Neurobiological model- modern name for medical model
3. Psychological model- view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from
psychological processes- thoughts, learned behaviors
4. Sociocultural model- looking at mental disorders in relation to gender, age,
ethnicity, and other social/ cultural factors
5. Diathesis-stress model- viewing psychological disorders as arising when a
predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to
trigger symptoms
6. Bio-psycho-social perspective- a contemporary perspective which assumes
that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and
interact to produce psychological disorder
C. Classifying Disorders
1. DSM-V- the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders V a widely used system for classifying
psychological disorders and providing common language to identify,
classify, and treat psychological disorders
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D. Anxiety Disorder
1. Anxiety Disorders- a condition in which intense feelings of apprehension are long-
standing and disruptive
a. Anxiety- vague feeling of apprehension or nervousness- the basis of the
anxiety disorders
2. Types of Anxiety disorders
a. Generalized anxiety disorder- free-floating anxiety- characterized by
disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained feelings of apprehension and
tenseness
b. Panic disorder- characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic
attacks- intense breathing, high heart rate, trembling
c. Phobia- characterized by disruptive, irrational fears of objects or situations/
a. Social phobia- extreme fear in social situations
b. Agoraphobia- fear of leaving a place or being alone
c. Specific phobia- involving fear and avoidance of heights,
animals, and other specific stimuli and situations
E. Obsessive-compulsive disorder- characterized by unwanted, repetitive thoughts
(obsessions) and actions (compulsions)
a. Obsessions- repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or
mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress
b. Compulsions- repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to
prevent or reduce anxiety
i. Hoarding- involves compulsively collecting of many different
types of things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go
ii. Body dysmorphic disorder- obsessive preoccupation with flaws
in one’s body. Involves continuously observing one’s body and obsession
with comparison to other peoples’ bodies- often associated with anorexia
iii. Exoriation- referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of
causing damage
iv. Trichotillomania- when a person compulsively pull their hair to
the point of causing baldness
F. Posttraumatic stress disorder- characterized by reliving a severely upsetting event in
unwanted recurring memories and dreams
a. Reactive attachment disorder- involves people who experience a traumatic
event or neglect and become emotional withdrawn
b. Adjustment disorder- occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to
a change of life- which could disrupt routines
c. Acute stress disorder- when a person experiences distress and anxiety
following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury- onset of
symptoms occurs 2 days after the event whereas PTSD is not diagnosed until 4 weeks
after the event
1. Causes of anxiety disorders
a. Heredity- some inherit a predisposition or likelihood for developing
anxiety disorders.
b. Brain function- higher degree of activity in the frontal lobes of people
with obsessive-compulsive disorder
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c. Heightened autonomic nervous system
d. Neurotransmission- deficiency in serotonin and GABA contributes to
obsessive-compulsive disorder
A. Excessive activity in norepinephrine contributes to panic disorders
e. Emotion center- amygdala also shows different functioning for people
with phobia
f. Evolution- we are likely to fear situations that posed danger to the earlier
generations
g. Learning: Conditioning- associating fear with certain places or
situations/ Observational learning- children learn fears from their parents
or siblings/ Reinforcement- associate emotions with actions depending
on the results that follows those actions- obsessive-compulsive- hand
washing reducing anxiety
A. Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
1. Somatic disorders- psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical
disorder without a physical cause
1. Illness anxiety disorder - involving strong, unjustified fear of having
physical illness (anxiety disorders have anxiety about getting sick/
hypochondriac already believes is sick)
2. Somatic symptom disorder- there are numerous physical complaints without
verifiable physical illness
3. Conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)- a person
displays blindness, deafness, or other symptoms of sensory or motor failure
without a physical cause
B. Dissociative Disorders
1. Dissociative disorders- disorders in which the sense of self has become separated
(dissociated) from pervious memories, thoughts or feelings
1. Dissociative amnesia- a dissociative disorder characterized by loss of
memory in reaction to a traumatic event
2. Dissociative identity disorder- multiple personality theory- a rare and
controversial dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or
more distinct and alternating personalities
2. Causes
1. Very controversial- maybe linked to child abuse, or other traumatic
childhood events
a. Repression- defense mechanism that unconsciously banishes traumatic
memories
C. Depressive Disorders- conditions in which a person experiences extreme moods, such
as depression or mania
a. Major depressive disorder- a mood disorder in which a person for no
apparent reason experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods,
diminished interest in activities, and other symptoms such as feelings of
worthlessness
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h. Persistent depressive disorder- symptoms similar to major depressive
disorder but less severe and lasts for over 2 years
D. Bipolar and Related Disorders
i. Bipolar I disorder- a mood disorder (formerly called manic-depressive) in
which the person alternates between the hopelessness of depression and a
manic episode- the overexcited and unreasonably optimistic viewpoint
a. Mania- an elated, very active emotional state
ii. Bipolar II disorder- major depressive episodes alternate with episodes of
hypomania
a. Hypomania- less severe than the manic phases in bipolar I
iii. Cyclothymic disorder- less severe case of bipolar- equivalent to dysthymic
disorder for depression
E. Causes of Mood Disorders
a. Heredity- mood disorders run in families
b. Brain function- brain is less active during periods of depression especially in
frontal lobe
c. Neurotransmitters are important for depression- serotonin and
norepinephrine, and dopamine/ too little possibly depression/ too much
possibly mania
a. Social-Cognitive factors: learned helplessness- feel like they have little
control because of what they have learned in the past/ Attributions- depressed
people feel that the bad situation will last for a long time/ internal- events
happen because of my actions
A. Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder
1. Schizophrenia- a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and
delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
2. Symptoms
1. Neologisms- words that have meaning only to the person stating them
2. Word salad- chaotic thoughts that don’t have any rhyme or reason
3. Catatonia (movement disorder)- inability to move and to hold body limbs in
rigid positions for long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility
4. Delusions- false beliefs that are symptoms of schizophrenia and other
serious psychological disorders
a. Delusions of grandeur- false beliefs that you are more important than
you really are
b. Delusions of persecution- false beliefs that people are out to get you
c. Delusions of sin or guilt- false beliefs that you are responsible for
some misfortune
d. Delusions of influence- you are controlled by some outside force
5. Hallucinations- false perception that are symptoms of schizophrenia and
other serious psychological disorders
a. Auditory hallucination most common
6. Positive vs. Negative symptoms
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a. Positive symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as disorganized
thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions
i. Positive- “In addition, this is what makes them
schizophrenic”
b. Negative symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as absence of
pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no emotion at all
i. Negative- “what missing to be normal”
3. Causes of schizophrenia
a. Genetics- produces a predisposition to get this disorder/ runs in
families- twin studies reveal highest chance if one identical twin has it
b. Brain structure- smaller amounts of brain tissue and large fluid-filled
spaces around the tissue called ventricles/ thalamus is also smaller
c. Brain function- frontal lobe (thinking) shows slower activity
d. Neurotransmission- increased number of receptor sites for dopamine
which may explain delusions and hallucinations
e. Prenatal viruses- viral infection in the middle of pregnancy- like the
flu
f. Psychological factors: stress may set off schizophrenia/ disturbed
family relationships may make symptoms worse
g. Age of Father- older father’s conceiving children higher chance
A. Personality disorders are psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and
lasting behavior patterns that disrupt social functioning
1. Personality disorders: Odd- Eccentric Cluster A:
a. Paranoid personality disorder- show deep distrust of other people
b. Schizoid personality disorder- detached from social relationships/ limited range of
emotions- true hermits
c. Schizotypal personality disorder- detachment from, and great discomfort in social
relationships/ odd perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors
2. Personality disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B:
a. Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions, self-image- behavior and
relationships
b. Antisocial personality disorder- a person- usually male- shows a lack of
conscience for wrongdoing and a lack of respect for the rights of others
c. Narcissistic personality disorder- exaggerated ideas of self-importance and
achievements, preoccupations with fantasies of success
d. Histrionic personality disorder- excessive emotionality and preoccupation with
being the center of attention/ dramatic behavior/ emotional shallowness
3. Personality disorders related to anxiety: Anxious Fearful Cluster C:
a. Avoidant personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected that personal
relationships become difficult
b. Dependent personality disorder- behave in clingy, submissive ways and display a
strong need to have others take care of them
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c. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder- preoccupation with orderliness,
perfection, and control
B. Childhood Disorders
1. Externalizing or under controlled category
1. Conduct disorder- mostly boys- relatively stable pattern of aggression,
disobedience, destructiveness, and other problematic behaviors
a. May signal antisocial personality disorder
2. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder- (ADHD)- impulsive and unable to
concentrate on an activity
2. Internalizing or over controlled category
1. Separation anxiety disorder- constantly worry about being lost, kidnapped,
or harm caused to a parent
a. School phobia- fear of going to school
3. Pervasive developmental disorders- also known as autistic spectrum disorders-
neither externalizing or internalizing- show severe problems in communication and
impaired social relationships
1. Autistic disorder- most severe of this group- show early no attachments to
caregivers/ language development impaired/ trouble focusing and sharing
attention with others/ focus on nonsocial aspects of human interaction
2. Asperger’s disorder- less severe on autistic spectrum- high- functioning
autism/ have impaired social relationships/ engage in repetitive behaviors
and may memorize meaningless facts- like phone numbers
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Methods of Therapy
A. Psychotherapy- an emotionally charged, confiding, interaction between a trained therapist
and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties
a. Eclecticism approach- an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s
problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
b. Psychiatrists- medical doctors who have completed special training in the treatment
of psychological disorders
B. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality that therapeutic techniques attributes our
thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts
a. Psychoanalytical Methods
1. Free association- talking discussing whatever comes to the patient’s mind
2. Resistance- in psychoanalysis the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-
laden material- sensitive areas- client does not want to talk about
3. Interpretation- psychoanalysis- analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings,
resistance, and other significant behaviors in order to promote insight
4. Transference- in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of
emotions such as love or hate that are linked with other relationships-
transferring past relationship feelings onto the therapist
5. Freudian slips- slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives and conflicts
6. Dream interpretation
a. Manifest content- remembered storyline of the dream
b. Latent content- symbolized portion of the dream- therapist interest-
unconscious content
b. Types of Therapy
7. Psychoanalysis- long sessions and many visits focusing on dreams,
resistance and transference and events from childhood
8. Psychodynamic therapy- fewer sessions/ focus on current issues/ less money
9. Interpersonal therapy- (Interpersonal psychotherapy) would seek insight into
problems but focus on the patient finding solutions and dealing with
conflicts that are going on currently or after childhood
C. Humanistic therapies- aims to promote self-fulfillment by increasing self-acceptance and
self-awareness of the client’s feeling, actions, and thoughts.
a. Client-centered therapy- person centered therapy- a humanistic therapy developed
by Carl Rogers in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a
genuine, accepting, empathic, environment to facilitate the client’s growth
1. Reflection- active listening- therapist’s listening by echoing, restating, and
clarifying in an understanding way
2. Unconditioned positive regard- acceptance- a therapist attitude that conveys
a caring for, and acceptance of, the client as a valued person
3. Empathy- therapist’s attempt to appreciate and understand how the world
looks from the client’s point of view
4. Congruence- a consistency between the way therapists feel and they act
toward clients- not beating around the bush
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A. Gestalt therapy- developed by Fritz Perls and his wife- people create their own versions of
reality and people’s natural psychological growth continues only as long as what they
perceive is consistent with the actual environment
a. An active treatment deigned to help clients get in touch with genuine
feelings and disregard false ones- line up thoughts with factors in the
environment
B. Behavior therapies- applies learning principles to elimination of unwanted behaviors
1. Behavior therapy- treatments use classical conditioning principles to change
behavior
b. Mary Cover Jones- was interested in reversing “Little Albert’s” fear of a
white rate, which Watson established
a. Jones treated “Peter” who was fearful of furry objects- like a rabbit
b. Jones focused on counterconditioning- a technique that is based on
classical conditioning involves modifying behavior by
conditioning a new response that is incompatible with a previously
learned response
i. Rabbit was brought into room- far away from Peter/ Peter
sat in a high chair and ate favorite snack, which made him
feel good/ as days passed Peter observed others
(observational learning) playing with rabbits and rabbit was
brought closer as he continued to eat his favorite snack-
Peter began to associate site of rabbit with positive feelings
of eating his favorite snack- replaced original conditioned
response- fear/ with a new conditioned response- positive
c. Systematic desensitization- Joe Wolpe- a behavioral treatment for anxiety
in which clients visualize a graduated series of anxiety provoking stimuli
while remaining relaxed
a. Progressive relaxation- clients are taught relaxation exercises
b. Clients make a desensitization hierarchy-a sequence of
increasingly fear-provoking situations
c. Wolpe would have clients progress through the hierarchy- least
stressful to more using progressive relaxation techniques if anxiety
develops- then clients would face fear in reality
d. Exposure techniques- methods in which clients remain in the presence of
strong anxiety provoking stimuli until the intensity of their emotional
reactions decrease– making someone ride a roller coaster
a. Flooding- an exposure technique for reducing anxiety that involves
keeping a person in a feared, but harmless, situation
e. Aversive conditioning- type of counterconditioning that associates an
unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior such as
drinking (CS) alcohol + (UCS) drug (that automatically causes nausea) =
(UCR) nausea/ (CS) alcohol= (CR) nausea
f. Bell and Pad treatment- used to treat nighttime bedwetting by conditioning
arousal from sleep in response to bodily signals of a full bladder- child
learns to associate sound of bell with pea hitting bed- (CS) bell triggers
CR- getting out of bed
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2. Behavior modification- treatments that use operant conditioning principles
g. Token economy- an operant conditioning procedure that attempts to
modify behavior by giving rewards for desired behaviors- these tokens can
be exchanged for various privileges or treats
a. Positive reinforcement- a therapy method that uses rewards to
strengthen desirable behaviors
h. Modeling- demonstrating desirable behaviors as a way of teaching them to
clients
a. Assertive training and social skills training- methods for teaching
clients how to interact with others more comfortably and
effectively
i. Extinction- gradual disappearance of a conditioned response through
nonreinforcement- not reinforcing a child with attention- the expected
response- the child expects for doing something bad
j. Punishment- a therapy method that weakens undesirable behavior by
following it with an unpleasant stimulus
a. Positive punishment- applying punishment- like a hand, or being
grounded
b. Negative punishment- taking something away- like freedom
3. Cognitive-Behavior therapy- learning based treatment methods that help
clients change the way they think, as well as the way they behave
k. Rational-Emotive therapy- Albert Ellis- a treatment designed to identify
and change self-defeating thoughts that lead to anxiety and other
symptoms of disorder
a. ABC model- A-Activating event- can’t find a date/ B-belief- “No
one will ever ask me”/ C Consequence- depression
i. Ellis would teach client that it is the belief- not the
activating event- which causes depression- the consequence
1. Client would learn to change the beliefs to alleviate the
consequences, or characteristics of the disorder
A. Cognitive therapy- therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and
acting; based on the assumptions that thoughts intervene between events an our emotional
reactions/ failed test- thought- I’m worthless- feelings of depression
1. Cognitive Therapy (CT)- developed by Aaron Beck- sought to actively reverse
negative thoughts and irrational beliefs that surrounded events to improve feelings
and emotions through positive explanatory styles
a. Clients developed negative cognitive bias- consistently distorting
experiences in a negative way
1. Beck would have clients not only change beliefs but actually go out
and test them in situations reporting back outcomes- which Beck
would then analyze
B. Group Therapy- a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working
simultaneously with a small group of clients
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1. Family therapy- therapy that treats the family as a system- views an individual’s
unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other members of the family-
attempts to guide the family toward positive relationships and improved
communication
2. Couples therapy- couples learn better communication skills, solve problems, identify
weaknesses and strengths about relationship
3. Advantages:
a. Help more people in less time
b. Sessions cost less
c. Other people have similar problems
d. Group meetings foster a sense of community
C. Careers in Psychotherapy
1. Clinical psychologist- has a Ph.D./ expertise in research, assessment, and therapy/
supplemented by a supervised internship/ most have private practices
2. Clinical or psychiatric social worker- two-year Master of Social work graduate
program/ most deal with personal and family problems
3. Counselor- marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from
family situations/ abuse counselors work with people and addictions
4. Psychiatrist- physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders/
can prescribe medication/ deal with the more serious problems
D. Evaluating Psychotherapies
1. Meta-analysis- reading and analyzing a variety of sources, patients, doctors, family
members, research data- to come up with a conclusion
a. 75% of clients say they are satisfied with therapy
b. Cognitive, interpersonal, and behavior therapy work best for depression
c. Cognitive-behavior therapy works well for the eating disorders- bulimia
d. Behavior modification- works best for enuresis- bed wetting
E. Alternative therapies
1. Therapeutic touch therapy- therapists move hands above the person’s body to “push
energy fields into balance”- don’t actually touch the body- does not seem to work
2. Light exposure therapy- deals with Seasonal affective disorder- disorder characterized
by feelings of depression that coincide with winter months/ by exposing clients to
more light- does seem to work
F. Biomedical therapy- treatment of psychological disorders that involves changing the
brain’s functioning by using prescribed drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, or surgery
1. Types of Drugs
a. Antipsychotic drugs- Neuroleptics- a category of medications used primarily to
treat severe disorders like schizophrenia
1. Thorazine was one of the first drugs used- negative side effects include
dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation
2. Could also cause tardive dyskinesia- muscle tremors like Parkinson’s
disease, associated with low levels of dopamine
a. Haloperidol- like thorazine- but less sedation or feelings of tiredness
3. Newer generation neuroleptics
a. Clozaril- new drug with few side effects is the most effective/ treats
positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia- but is expensive
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because patients must get blood tested regularly for the chance of
damage to white blood cells
i. Could cause agranulocytosis- fatal blood disease
2. Antianxiety drugs- Anxiolytics- category of medication used to treat anxiety
a. These drugs boost the neurotransmitter GABA that helps our brain to reduce the
anxiety associated with stress
1. Valium, Librium, Xanax- all of which should not be taken with alcohol
3. Antidepressant drugs- a category of medications used to treat major depression
a. MAOIs- these drugs affect the levels of serotonin by boosting the effect and activity
b. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors-(SSRIs)- Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil - blocks the
reuptake of serotonin, which causes serotonin to remain active in the synapse longer
and therefore having more effect than it otherwise would
c. Depression is usually cyclical- which means that depression has its ups and downs
so in order to see if a drug works it must be taken for at least a month
4. Lithium and Anticonvulsants
a. Lithium is used to treat bipolar
1. Depakote- used to treat bipolar when lithium does not work/ has fewer side
effects and does not require a high dosage
5. Electroconvulsive therapy- a therapy for major depression in which a brief electric
current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
a. Used to treat depression/ works faster than drugs and is often used with suicidal
patients/ side effects include memory loss and therapists are not quite sure how
ECT works, which leads to controversy
6. Psychosurgery- surgical procedures that destroy tissue in small regions of the brain
a. Lobotomy- a now-rare form of psychosurgery once used to try to calm
uncontrollably emotional or violent patients- the procedure cut the nerves that
connect the frontal lobes of the brain to the deeper emotional centers
7. Community psychology- a movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders
through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs
a. Deinstitutionalization- release of patients from mental hospitals to community at
large- development of drug treatments led to an 80 percent decline in the number of
hospitalized mental patients in the second half the 20th century- led community
psychology
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Research Methods
A. Research Strategies
a. Scientific Method a set of assumption, attitudes, procedures that guide researchers in
creating questions to investigate, generating evidence, drawing conclusions
1. Theory- an integrated explanation that makes predictions and observations
2. Hypothesis- a testable prediction taken from a theory
3. Operational definitions- precise procedures used to define variables that others can
replicate- or repeat
4. Variable- factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured
B. Critical Thinking- Thinking that takes all factors into account
1. Researcher bias- researchers that avoid thinking that does not support their conclusion
2. Participant bias- participants respond in certain ways because they know they are being
observed
3. Hindsight bias- “I knew it all along” you foresee the answer
4. Overconfidence- over confident towards results/ less likely to list to others
C. Descriptive Studies- describing the way others act through observation
1. Case study- one person studied in-depth
a. Sigmund Freud
b. Tends to be atypical- not good representation of general public
2. Naturalistic observation- observing someone in their natural environment
a. Researcher can’t be seen or participant knows being observed
3. Surveys- self-reported attitudes or behaviors through random samples/ good for large
groups of people
a. False-consensus effect- overestimating how others share our beliefs and behaviors
b. Wording effect- how you word questions influence answers
c. Social desirability bias- participants feel obligated to answer questions with
socially favorable opinions
d. Population- all the cases in a group from which samples drawn
D. Sampling- process of selecting participants who are members of the population
1. Representative sample- group of research participants whose characteristics accurately
represent population
e. Random sample- research participants from population who had an equal chance
of being selected
f. Biased sample- research participants from population who did not have an equal
chance of being selected
E. Longitudinal Study
1. Follows the same group over a period of many years
2. Very expensive and time consuming
F. Cross-Sectional Study- compares diverse groups- gender, age, background at one time
G. Experiments
1. Researcher manipulates one or more factors to observe effect on another variable by
holding it constant
2. Independent variable- researcher actively manipulates/ researchers main interest
a. Variable whose effect is being studied
3. Dependent variable- variable that is influenced by the independent variable
a. Variable that shows the measurement
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a. Does smoking (independent variable) cause a runner to go slower
(dependent variable)
4. Null hypothesis- assertion independent variable manipulated by the experimenter will
have no effect on the dependent variable measured by the experimenter
5. Experimental group- those exposed to the independent variable- smoking
6. Control group- those not exposed to the independent variable/ held for comparison
7. Confounding variables- a variable other than independent variable that could affect the
dependent variable- variables the researcher does not count on- previous time in mile
1. Controlling confounding variables
a. Double-blind procedure- researcher and participants don’t know whose
getting the independent variable
b. Placebo- non-active substance or condition administered instead of
independent variable
A. Correlational Studies- does not provide explanation
1. Research project designed to see how two variables are related to each other
2. Correlation coefficient- statistical measurement of relationship that shows prediction; closer
to 1.00 the stronger the relationship
3. Scatter plot- represents values of variables and shows direction of relationship
a. Positive correlation- move in same direction
b. Inverse correlation- move in opposite direction
4. Illusory correlation- we believe there is a relationship because we are more likely to notice
things that confirm our beliefs
B. Reporting Data
1. Descriptive statistics- numbers that summarize a set of research data
a. Inferential statistics- mathematical procedures that help psychologists make
inferences about what data means
A. Measures of Central Tendency
a. Mode- most frequently occurring score
b. Mean- the average of total scores
c. Median- middle score
d. Skewed distribution- atypical scores that could distort central tendency scores
B. Measures of Variation
a. Range- difference between highest and lowest scores
b. Standard deviation- how much scores vary from the mean
c. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely result occurred by chance
d. Percentile score- a value that indicates the percentage of people or observations that
fall below a given point in a normal distribution
e. Standard score- a value that indicates the distance in standard deviations between a
given score and the mean of all the scores in a data set
C. Ethics
a. Informed consent- knowing what the experiment involves
b. Right to be protected from harm or discomfort- participants know ahead of time
c. Right to confidentiality- never release information
d. Right to debriefing- full explanation of what has been done/ given after the
experiment.
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